Environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement industry on communities living near cement plants in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) from 2010 to 2024: scoping reviews

Environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement industry on communities living near cement plants in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) from 2010 to 2024: scoping reviews | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement industry on communities living near cement plants in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) from 2010 to 2024: scoping reviews Zahid Ali Khan, Łukasz Afeltowicz, Jacek Gądecki This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8450765/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Cement production is known to contribute significantly to the growth of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs); its booming growth has cast significant concerns about the environmental and socio-economic effects, it has on the immediate inhabitants living around the projects. Method Using the JBI and PRISMA-ScR criteria, this scoping review was a compilation of peer-reviewed materials published between 2010 and 2024 on social socioeconomic impact. The number of studies in Asia and Africa was nineteen, and all of them demonstrated a certain pattern of negative impact on the local environment and human health. In all the researched papers, there was a significant amount of air pollution, and plants produced the dust and dangerous gases in large quantities. The quality of air often surpasses disadvantages to a point of causing health-related issues among the communities, such as coughing, wheezing, and eye irritation, among other respiratory symptoms, and this may decrease crop yields. Water pollution was also a critical issue because wastewater and runoff moved sediment, oil, and chemical toxins to rivers and groundwater, making the sources of water unhealthy. The blasting of mines to extract raw materials and heavy machinery in cement plants are the cause of loud noise pollution, which has been identified as the source of severe stress and sleep disorders in communities. Cement plants do not offer many jobs and fewer infrastructures, but these advantages were not enough. Plants primarily employ outsiders permanently and the native agriculturalists lost their land without being compensated. The dislocation, cultural interference, and clash between the plant operators were the order of the day. Findings: The findings highlighted the fact that more stringent rules and protection of the residents are needed. Conclusion The governments ought to adopt emission control pollution checking and involve the residents who will be affected in the decision-making process. More modern and current technologies should be employed in cement plants, and the economic gains genuinely shared with the natives. Environment Health Socio-Economic Problems LMICs Cement Plants Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Background The expanding nature of urbanization in the world has made cement an important element in the current infrastructure. This requirement is costly, which is why it is one of the characteristic discrepancies of world development. (Twagirayezu et al. 2024 ). Cement, as the most significant component of concrete, is the key to the construction of the required infrastructure, not only to the primary means of transport and city housing, but also to the industrial complexes that are strengthening economic development (Karagulian et al. 2015 ). This cement material is especially significant to low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Nawaz et al. 2020 ). Its rapid use serves as a direct measure of the level of urbanization and the level of economic growth of individual countries, influencing the work to bridge the acute infrastructure deficits and alleviate the physical aspects of modernization in the Global South (Azolibe & Okonkwo 2020 ). Access and supply of cement are therefore directly connected to the ability of LMICs to realize the Sustainable Development Goals associated with hard infrastructure and innovation (Opoku et al. 2024). This high-speed and unregulated development of the cement production has been drawing a stark dichotomy (Mishra et al. 2022 ). The timely evolution of cement production has resulted in greater environmental and socioeconomic issues, mainly in LMICs (Marlina 2023). Most of such cement factories are in close quarters to residential locations, which increases the exposure to fumes of production and leads to the erosion of environmental justice issues in the developing world. Due to the rapid urbanization process in LMICs, the cement consumption is bound to grow correspondingly, therefore making sure that the arising environmental and social conflicts will be more frequent and more intense (Huang et al. 2018 ). When trying to understand how huge an issue the cement industry becomes, one should consider its scope on an international scale (Alobaydy, 2024 ). As per a report, more than 70% of the global cement manufacturers were located in Asia, and in excess of 4.4 billion metric tons were produced there. This has been due to early urbanization, increased infrastructure, and population growth, which has generated an extraordinarily high demand for cement in the LMICs (Schneider et al. 2011 ). Although this is an engine of development in the world that is, at the same time, among the most highly carbon-intensive industries globally, the cement industry defines the sector as a significant cause of anthropogenic climate change (Alobaydy, 2024 ). The manufacturing process is a twofold source of greenhouse gases, which cause global climate change. The cement industry contributes directly to 7–8% of carbon dioxide emissions, so it is one of the most significant carbon-intensive sectors of the world (Andrew, 2018 ). The sources of these emissions are essentially two: (1) the energy-intensive process of heating the kiln, which is typically provided by combusting fossil fuels, and (2) basic chemical treatment of limestone, which does not produce any by-products (Mohamad et al., 2022 ). In addition to the burden that it imposes on the atmosphere, the cement industry exerts a huge burden on world energy and materials (Rodrigues & Joekes, 2011 ). The cement industry contributes 12–15% of the total energy required in industries worldwide. Such a successive process also results in the significant generation of industrial by-products and solid waste that require responsible monitoring (Farahdiba et al., 2025 ; Tun et al., 2020 ) even though the global footprint of this process is serious, the most insignificant effects are experienced at the local levels, where cement facilities act as an important source of highly potent causes of contamination that mainly harm the local environment (Ding et al., 2015 ). This is an instant and severe impairment of air quality that is caused by ongoing high levels of emissions of particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and other heavy metals (Karagulian et al., 2015 ). They are chronic pollution sources of air quality that are higher than they should be, which increases the risk of being exposed to contamination in the surrounding population (Mishra et al., 2022 ). In addition, water pollution is also caused by industrial activities, especially the extraction procedures of quarrying and mining. The sewage waste and surface runoff deposit sediment, oils, and leachates of chemicals in major area waterways that are utilized in drinking and irrigation e.g., rivers and groundwater aquifers (Denchak, 2023 ). Finally, the heavy crushing machines operating the sites cause severe noise pollution and prompt blasting of the limestone, which increases the level of environmental stress of the surrounding communities to chronic stress and severe sleep disorders (Lilic et al. 2018 ). The impact of pollution, noise, cultivated needs relates to the natural resources as a whole and puts additional pressure on immediate residents more than any other people (Lilic et al. 2018 ). Close interaction to cement factories has direct association with profound negative national health impacts and threats that are substantially increased to communities that have been predetermined by socioeconomic status. (Brunekreef, and Holgate, 2002 ). These contacts with sensitive particulate matter and gaseous pollution are often linked to respiratory disease, including cough, asthma, and wheezing; increased risk of cardiovascular disease; and decreased lifespan (Dominski et al. 2021 ). In the meantime, the degree of cement dust, as high as it is, not only harms human health, but it also has a serious effect on the sustenance of the local population. Cement plants also pollute agricultural land, settle on the surface of the crops, and affect crop growth, therefore contaminating the livestock grazing fields and disturbing what many people in the LMICs depend on to survive (Zainudeen & Jeyamathan, 2008). Ironically, socioeconomic advantages that the industry is commonly touted to the community, like employment and community improvement, often do not trickle down to the communities that are most impacted by the pollution (Ansori & Handoyo, 2018). Most noticeably, the generation area of cement is expansive and therefore land is made systematically to create land use tensions. The process of acquiring land to operate quarries and expand the plant usually involves forced purchases that do not take into account fair payments and result in considerable displacement, cultural displacement and ongoing legal and social conflicts with the plant management (Cézanne et al., 2020). The latter can be regarded as an irreversible loss of the conventional communal resources and displacement, which essentially disrupts the socioeconomic landscape of receiving communities (Charles, Kuku, and Sanda 2022 ). The current studies tend to vary in research methodologies, orientation, and geographical scope, thus leaving the policy-makers and scholars challenging to establish valid designs and make broad conclusions. Research on air quality and experiences on pollution are conducted, whilst on the other hand, other research focuses on the effects on their health, socioeconomic hardships, and challenges in livelihoods. These findings have not yet been incorporated into an inclusive synthesis between LMICs over the last 10 years. Considering the given prompt with the elaboration of the cement industry in the Global South, a need to update the systematic knowledge of the environment and socioeconomic issues related to the production of cement can be found as urgent and evident. Integrating evidence-based approaches is essential towards emerging schemes of targeted regulation, protection agenda by residents, and practical industrial policies, which decouple economic development with common well-being and the environment. Thus, the review is a synthesis of peer-reviewed articles on environmental and socioeconomic effects of cement factorials on the communities located around the facilities in LMICs (2010–2024). Such a review is significant since it allows recognizing cross-cutting themes and defines the consistency of reported harms, as well as points the gaps in the knowledge to consider future research and policy-related decisions. The systematic synthesis of the existing evidence in this scoping review helps to enlarge the overall picture on how cement plants influence the surrounding nature, inhabitants surrounding the cement plants, and their normal socioeconomic living, and reflect on the modification of the framework that will encourage safer and sustainable industrial activities. Methods This review is based on the main research works, which explored the environmental and socioeconomic effects of the plants in the cement industry on the communities near them in LMICs. Due to the complexity and multidimensional impact of the cement production on the environment, there were two principal criteria used to define the study exposures, and these included the immediate environment around the cement plants (direct effects) and the deliberate reference to the study authors of the impacts of the cement industry (indirect effects). The consequences of the concern were elements (air quality, water pollution, and soil contamination) and socio-economic consequences (health effects and economic transformation, job loss, and social disturbance). The scoping search included the studies that were published between 2010 and 2024 and pertained exclusively to the studies carried out in LMICs, as defined by the World Bank. Research Design This research employed a scoping review to systematically synthesise the available evidence on the environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement plants on surrounding communities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The study adopted the methodological framework of Arksey and O’Malley, (2005) and the guidance provided by the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis (2020). Reporting followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses extension for scoping review (PRISMA-ScR)(Joanna Briggs Institute, 2020). A detailed review protocol was established before the final draft of the review to ensure transparency and reproducibility. The protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF) before publication. Selection Criteria Eligibility standards are carried out using the Population-Concept-Context (PCC) basis: The review focused on the published papers that examined communities living near cement plants within LMICs. The study included both the overall community and specific subgroups, such as female plant workers and children. Researchers examined environmental problems such as air, water, soil, noise pollution and socio-economic effects like health, livelihood, employment, forced migration, and social change linked to cement plant processes. For residents living close to active cement plants within countries categorised by the World Bank, the timeframe of published studies was 2010–2024. The review included only English-language research due to practical reasons. Exclusion Criteria Research papers were excluded if: Conducted in high-income countries. Discussed only the technical and engineering elements of cement processes. Delivered insufficient and general evidence about resident-level impacts. Published in other languages and before 2010. Information Sources and Search Strategy A comprehensive strategy was developed in collaboration with the university librarian to identify both peer-reviewed papers and grey literature relevant to the scoping review. Searches were conducted from September to October 2024, in the following electronic databases for studies published from 2010 to 2024: APA PsycInfo via Ovid (psychological, social, behavioural, and health sciences) Global Health via Ovid (global health) Sociological Abstracts via ProQuest (sociology The search process included keywords and subject headings linked to cement plants AND environmental impacts (noise, soil, water pollution, dust, air pollution) OR socioeconomic impacts (e.g., health, disease, employment, livelihood, community) AND LMICs (with terms for developing countries and specific country names—no language filters beyond English were applied. To identify additional studies, grey literature and other sources, including Google Scholar for cement plant websites in LMICs and the ProQuest dissertation database, were searched. Reference list checks, backward snowballing of all included papers, reference searches, and forward snowballing in Google Scholar to find any papers that cited the included papers were also conducted. The first 100 papers from Google and other web searches were screened for relevance. All searches were imported into the reference management software, Zotero, and duplicates were removed. Screening A two-step screening process was conducted: First, (title/abstract screening followed by full-text screening to select studies. Two researchers independently screened the titles and abstracts of all retrieved records for initial relevance. At this stage, records unrelated to the review, such as those not about cement plants, published before 2010, and not about LMICs, were reviewed. Citations that seemed to meet the inclusion standards were retained. Next, full texts of potentially relevant research papers were retrieved. Two independent researchers reviewed the full text for eligibility in accordance with the predefined standards. Any discrepancies in study inclusion were resolved through discussion and mutual consensus. Throughout full-text screening, reasons for exclusion were noted. Common reasons for exclusion included duplicate researcher papers, non-LMIC settings, lack of community focus, and incorrect outcomes. By the end of the screening process, a final set of included studies was identified. The study selection steps are discussed in the information flow diagram in Fig. 1. Figure 1 PRISMA flow diagram of identified studies and selection for the review (2010–2024) Data Charting and Extraction After the inclusion of studies, data extraction was conducted in Microsoft Excel to retrieve key evidence from each study. One researcher initiated the primary extraction, and the second researcher independently cross-checked all entries to verify accuracy and precision. Both researchers independently reviewed discrepancies between the researcher-created dataset and the Elicit outputs to confirm consistency, completeness, and reliability. The following information from each research paper was extracted (author, year title, country study location, study design and methods population characteristics and sample size environmental impact, such as levels of air pollution, water or soil quality indicators, noise pollution, etc.), health outcomes and other socio-economic indicators, displacement information, and the main findings and conclusions of the research papers. One of the driving factors was placed on the identification of not just the quantitative (e.g. the concentration of the pollutants and the rates of health risks), but on the qualitative output (e.g. population perceptions or themes). A complicated procedure of the research extraction was mandatory due to the variety of approaches (between environmental surveys and social survey). To enhance the extent of validity, the data contained in various research articles were cross-examined and thus refined in areas that needed to be refined. Data obtained were tabulated in an excel sheet and converted in form of a narrative and summary (see Table 1 ). That gives a summary of the situation including construction and major findings of every research that will be involved to be related to the environmental and socioeconomic effects. Table 1 Authors (years) Country (Design) Environmental impacts & key findings Socioeconomic impacts& key finding (Achmad et al. 2024) Cross-sectional Indonesia Environmental health risk assessment of particulate matter (PM2.5) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) contact among employees in the manufacturing part of a cement plant in Indonesia(Achmad et al. 2024) Research on employees facing throat and nose illnesses indicates that exposure to PM and SO₂ is associated with an increased risk of respiratory and cardiovascular illness. No precise population SEC data focused on employee health (Achmad et al., 2024) (Ansori and Handoyo 2018) Qualitative case study (Indonesia) Air pollution and carbon emissions from the cement plant in Tipar Kidul village increased CO₂ from calcination and energy use. Some resource depletion (e.g., local materials, increased noise) Noted, but the environmental evidence was inadequate.(Ansori and Handoyo 2018) Greater community prominence in education and new forms of lifestyle emerged as villagers gained employment opportunities in the plant, and income levels rose for household workers at the plant. Meanwhile, some villagers quietly harvest crops and start jobs in plants, this indicating livelihood displacement (Ansori & Handoyo, 2018) Kamaruddin, ( 2013 ) Qualitative case study (Indonesia) Environmental changes observed by communities near PT Semen Tonasa include air pollution and dust emissions from the cement plant, which affect crop growth and impede tree growth. Coal and fuel use contributed to dust and emissions. Also noted erosion of riverbanks and contamination of river water by plant waste (Kamaruddin, 2013 ). Social impacts: Major social transformation; natives shifted from harvest to crop to cement-plant labour. Social inequality increased: local hires received mostly low-level positions, while outsiders held higher positions, fostering resentment. Inadequate land compensation led to feelings of exploitation. Mental health: Some jobless locals experienced depression when they failed to get cement jobs. Cultural shifts: Traditional collective values eroded as an individualistic, wage-based lifestyle took hold (Kamaruddin 2013 ). (Adebiyi et al. 2021 ) Observational study (Nigeria) Soil contamination: cement dust covers the surrounding area, depositing on forest soil and increasing to 6.03 near the plant. Moreover, damages soil properties. Noted raised alkalinity, reduced soil acidity, and changes in moisture, organic matter, and nutrient levels (N, P, K) in topsoil due to dust. Likely negative influence on native vegetation and forest environment (Adebiyi et al., 2021 ) Livelihood: Implied risk to arming/forestry – soil quality changes could decrease crop yields and plant growth, potentially affecting farmers and foragers. (The study did not directly survey socioeconomic outcomes, focusing on environmental measurements) (Adebiyi et al. 2021 ). (Chukwu et al. 2021 ) Observational study (Nigeria) Pollution summary: Research on Dangote Cement Obajana found widespread air pollution (PM, NOₓ, SO₂, CO, CO₂ emissions), land degradation from mining, water pollution, excess explosives, and mud runoff into water bodies. The local community noticed that stagnant quarry water became a mosquito breeding ground, and associated the plant with increased malaria infection. (Chukwu et al. 2021 ) A health survey indicated that the community reported that 20% of participants had asthma, 10% had heart disease, 15% had cancers and other health problems, and 5% experienced skin, eye, and respiratory irritations. The cement plant was deemed to be failing to comply with environmental standards, and 74% of residents felt that pollution controls were inadequate. The research paper recommended mutual collaboration between the community and the cement plant to improve environmental monitoring and healthcare.(Chukwu et al. 2021 ). (Ipeaiyeda and Obaje, 2017 ) Observational study (Nigeria) Water pollution: Evaluated the effect of cement plant effluent on the Onyi River. Downstream of the plant, the water had higher pH, turbidity, nitrate, phosphate, COD, and suspended solids levels than upstream. Dissolved oxygen was evidently summarised downstream. Heavy metals (e.g., Zn, Pb) were elevated in the water quality index, indicating that the river was somewhat polluted, and the metal pollution index indicated potential ecological risk (Ipeaiyeda & Obaje, 2017 ). Community impact: The river was a primary water source for local use. Post-pollution, it became unsafe for drinking and local routines, prompting the community to seek substitutes. This likely imposed a forced economic strain on purchasing water or travelling long distances for water. The research paper highlighted the need for wastewater treatment at the cement plant and the requirement for continuous monitoring to protect community water resources (Ipeaiyeda & Obaje, 2017 ). (Afolabi, Francis, and Adejompo 2012 ) Observational study (Nigeria) There are so many environmental impacts on Ewekoro Community Residents near the cement plant. The residents reported that, due to the plant, they lost their crops and that their farm harvests were converted into quarries, resulting in soil disruption and erosion. Air pollution was the most frequently reported problem; 81% of participants reported that it is the key problem facing society. They were also concerned about water pollution, quarry runoff, ammonium nitrate explosive residue, and sludge leaching into groundwater. Noise vibration from mining equipment is also unchecked, contributing to environmental stress (Afolabi et al., 2012 ). Native people of the community reported health problems, such as 19.8% had asthma, 11% had heart infection, 14% faced skin cancer, and 5% chronic diarrhoea. Employees reported a high prevalence of silicosis and chronic bronchitis attributable to silica-rich dust inhalation. The resident felt the plant violated environmental guidelines and exceeded standard population limits. Economics: Native agriculturalists lost land and could not easily harvest crops due to soil contamination and pollution, pushing them into financial uncertainty. The research concluded that, without an adequate system and resident health precautions, the cement plant did more harm than good to the Ewekoro community. (Afolabi et al. 2012 ). (Brown 2023) Qualitative Case study (Nigeria) A cement plant in Rumuolumeni causes water and air pollution in the local area and discharges hazardous waste oils, contaminating the community's drinking water source wells and local fish populations, which have declined due to wastewater discharges. Dust emissions impacted the air quality. The community observed numerous dust particles in the air (Brown, 2023). During the establishment of the cement plant, they provided, for the time being, employment, a road maintenance scholarship, and other measures that enhanced the local economy; however, all work was temporary. Meanwhile, after the plant closure, the residents faced mass unemployment, loss of service, deteriorated roads, and increased poverty and insecurity. The community also reported an increase in respiratory illnesses, including lung problems, and expressed concern about longer-term health impacts, such as cancer, from cement pollution (Brown, 2023). (Charles et al. 2022 ) Mix method (Nigeria) Emissions and noise from the Obajana cement plant resulted in high levels of dust PM from quarrying and crushing being discharged into the air. Blasting produced noise and vibrations in the nearby community. Some chemical released to the environment was noticed (Charles et al., 2022 ) The health survey found that 43% of the community reported diseases associated with cement plant production; malaria was the most common, with 37% of respondents reporting respiratory problems and other ailments. Infrastructure gains from the cement plant contributed to roads, schools, and hospitals, indicating positive progress. However, the high prevalence of illness burden proposes insufficient health protection research, recommending better health infrastructure and possible relocation measures (Charles et al., 2022 ) (Adebiyyi 2019) Systematic review (Nigeria) The systematic review showed that cement plants are key sources of PM, NOₓ, SO₂, and CO. It estimated that 5–7% of global CO₂ emissions come from cement. Heavy metals are also released in dust. A systematic review found that cement plants are responsible for 20–30% of local PM air pollution in some regions (Adebiyyi 2019). The systematic review summarised several health impacts of exposure to cement dust, including COPD, silicosis, asthma, bronchitis, skin and eye infections, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and cancer. Children near plants are at higher risk of respiratory disease—highlighted requirement for pollution control to protect community health (Adebiyyi, 2019). (Kusena et al. 2012 ) Cross-section (Zimbabwe) Sino Zimbabwe cement plant in Gweru released a lot of dust into the air that impacted the air quality and also spread on crops, pastures and the forests around. The dust was the only major environmental problem reported by the participants: no major water or soil-related problems were observed only dust fallout (Kusena et al., 2012 ). 20% of residents reported respiratory problems, including cough and chest pain, attributable to cement dust. Only 3% of the native community secured permanent employment at the plant, with most positions being short-term, contractual, or held by non-natives. 25% of residents had relocated due to the establishment of the cement plant, thereby disrupting social values. The cement plant brings some positive changes, including education bursaries, healthcare development, but also negatives such as increased illness and reports of truck drivers contributing to social ills, HIV spread (Kusena et al., 2012 ). Nkhama 2015 cross-section (Zimbabwe) The study compares communities within two groups: the control group and the exposed community near the cement plant in Chilanga. The exposed group was exposed to significant airborne pollutants, including cement dust containing CO, NOₓ, Oₓ, etc., from the plant. The exposed group had a much higher rate of mucous membrane irritation; eye, nose, and sinus irritations were 2.4, 4.8, and 2.4 times more common than in the control group. They also reported more chronic cough and other respiratory symptoms. Risk factors such as indoor use of charcoal exacerbated the problem, but living near the cement plant remained a strong independent risk factor for eye/nose irritation. Odds ratios up to 4.8. This research clearly demonstrated a link between cement pollution and acute health symptoms in a community context. (Nkhama et al. 2017 ) Panel study (Zimbabwe) Dust exposure was assessed by measuring PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations in an exposed group compared with a control group.PM2.5 and PM10 were significantly higher in the community, often exceeding the WHO guideline values, particularly during the dry season (Nkhama et al., 2017 ). Among individuals followed over time, the exposed group had a higher prevalence of acute respiratory infection, cough, phlegm, nasal irritation, and wheezing, and lower lung function (FEV₁, FVC) than the control group. Also, a greater proportion of exposed respondents showed airflow limitation on spirometry. This evidence strongly implicates cement dust in the reduction of respiratory health. It highlights the need for ongoing health monitoring and dust mitigation among such residents (Nkhama et al., 2017 ). (Ismail et al. 2023 ) Observational study (Pakistan) Soil pollution with PTEs, potentially toxic elements, was measured in topsoil near the Kallar Kahar cement plants. Significantly high concentrations of cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt, iron, and manganese in soils within 500 m of plant pollution indicated severe pollution, particularly for Fe and Cr, which exceeded normal levels in > 80% of samples. Soil pH was slightly alkaline (7.9–8.6) near the plant, and electrical conductivity reduced with distance (Ismail et al., 2023 ). Although the research did not directly measure health outcomes, it warned that soil pollution could lead to toxicity in food crops and, in turn, affect human health if natives consume those crops. Agriculturalists in the area risk reduced yield and harvest quality decline due to heavy metal uptake. The findings suggest a requirement for soil remediation and resident education on reducing exposure to washing vegetables (Ismail et al., 2023 ) (Zeb, Ali, and Khan 2019:20) cross-section (Pakistan) The most critical environmental stressor from cement plants, sulphur oxides, was the primary cause of air pollution. The crusher room and the rotary kiln were the primary sources of noise. Mercury and cadmium were the most serious soil pollutants. Cement dust containing calcium elements also degrades soil and crop quality (Zeb et al., 2019, p. 20) The study investigates the health risks to cement plant workers’ lungs and sinuses from dust exposure and the respiratory illnesses experienced by the nearby community, including children. Skin contamination among workers exposed to gases is also noted, and it is highlighted that NO₂, CO, and SO₂ emissions adversely affect both human health and the natural environment. The research findings support assured mitigation (sulphur emission control, noise dampening at crushers to reduce the most serious harms (Zeb et al., 2019, p. 20). (Mehraj et al. 2013 ) Cross-section (India) The research focused on community living near the cement plant with a 2–3 km cement plant in Khrew, Kashmir. Ambient monitoring displayed mean SO₂ = 115.8 µg/ m³, NO₂ = 117.1 µg/m³ at the site (vs ~ 28 and 19 µg/m³ at a control site). Suspended particulate matter is also considerably higher near the plant. High levels of oxidative stress markers (ROS, NO) were observed in the blood of exposed individuals, indicating effects of pollution exposure (Mehraj et al., 2013 ). 99% of the nearby community reported allergy-related respiratory issues, 96% reported chronic cough, 49% reported chest pain, and 51% reported an irregular heartbeat. The rate of chronic bronchitis, asthma, and even tuberculosis is 19% of residents. These were dramatically higher than in the control area. The cement dust was blamed for destroying a local cash crop, an economic loss for the residents. The research clearly linked cement plant emissions to these adverse health outcomes and to the need for urgent interventions to mitigate emissions and protect residents' health (Mehraj et al., 2013 ). (Mishra et al. 2022 ) Systematic review (India) The systematic review includes research papers on cement plants and environmental Impact. The studies confirmed that cement plants are a key source of NOₓ, SOₓ, CO, CO₂, VOCs, and PM. In India, 8% of greenhouse emissions come from cement plants. Cement kiln dust and heavy metals are responsible for the loss of soil, water, and biodiversity. Highlighted that incorporating the circular economy methods (recycling, waste decrease) and substitute fuels could expressively reduce emissions (projected 12% CO₂ reduction (Mishra et al., 2022 ) The review concludes that residents near the cement plant experience respiratory and lung function impairment attributable to dust and pollution. While precise employment figures were not provided, India’s growing cement sector likely generates employment, but at an environmental cost. Worried about the requirement for government policies and financial incentives to promote sustainable practice in the cement plant (Mishra et al. 2022 ). (Mohamad, Ibrahim, and Dogo 2018) Cross-section (Malaysia) In the Rawang community, 89% of people expressed that there has been an increase in air pollution caused by the cement plant. Dust was cited to affect visibility and ambient temperature and 60.7% of the interviewed cited a cement plant as the important source of air pollution referring to blasting of raw material quarries as well as 24-hour truck traffic. Most of the Community members acknowledged that dust fallout and polluted soil reduce the crop harvests (Mohamad et al., 2018) Cough, eye irritation and respiratory issues, especially in children and older adults, were the most widespread symptoms the vast majority of the participants reported being accommodating with closing down of the windows. 12% concentrated on cleaning the home and use of face masks. Reported increasing daily costs on the health and cleaning services were given by some respondents. The cement plant has brought about the local jobs and employment but 42% of inhabitants altered their everyday routines or life styles as a result of contamination wherein they were forced to spend more moments indoors. The study suggested strong regulations and community levels to reduce the effects (Mohamad et al., 2018). (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014) Mix Method (Ethiopia) The paper hypothesized dust, sound, smell, heat loss and stormwater dropouts as the primary environmental issues in the environs of the Messebo cement plant. Emission of the main dust and gases of the crushing, raw mill, and clinkers production lines impacted the air and the soil surrounding the area and also resulted in erosion, the formation of gullies in the area surrounding the plant (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014). The representatives of the indigenous population complained of disease complications, respiratory morbidity, skin contacts, farming land dusts after the settling of the pollution on the crop. The houses were also found to have structural damages (cracks) which they attributed to have taken place, as a result of the vibrations of the blasting nature. The attempts at mitigating pollution and waste and the involvement of community became more rigorous as recommended by the research article to counter these difficulties (Berhe & Alemayehu, 2014). Synthesis of Results Evidence obtained through descriptive content analysis suitable for scoping reviews was synthesised. Given the heterogeneity of the included studies, formal meta-analysis was not appropriate. In its place, findings were organised into thematic domains corresponding to the review question, including environmental impacts (air, water, soil, and noise) and socioeconomic health outcomes, as well as economic and social impacts. First, the general characteristics of the included studies, such as location and design, were considered. The results were synthesised according to major impact themes, supported by examples from individual studies. Quantitative data, such as levels of pollutants and the percentage of people affected were reported where they existed to determine the level of observed effects. The objective of the scoping review methodology was to map all the relevant material, although of any quality (Joanna Briggs Institute. 2020). The weaknesses of the evidence have been outlined in the limitations section- of particular findings are pointed out in the synthesis. There were foundations of massive disparities in regional research. Results Characteristics of induced research papers As indicated, 19 research papers were included in this study. The main aspects and results of this study were summarised in Table 1 . The analysis was mainly based on Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Most of the researches (7) were conducted in Nigeria and targeted the phenomenon of major processes at the cement plants. Three articles were written in Indonesia and Zimbabwe, and one in both Ethiopia and Malaysia. Moreover, two articles were released in Pakistan and India. The countries included have their research papers outlined in Fig. 2 . The researchers employed various study designs in the papers included in the review. Specifically, six studies utilised cross-sectional and health survey methodologies; five were observational; three employed qualitative approaches; two utilised mixed methods; two were Systematic reviews, including one panel study. Figure 3 provides further details regarding these study designs. The publication year was also highly diverse, ranging from 2012 to 2024, with most research papers published between 2015 and 2023, indicating a recent increase in attention to these issues. Figure 4 shows the details of the years of publication. In terms of the perspective of all studies explored, communities near cement plants. Sample sizes for community surveys vary widely: some health researchers surveyed hundreds of residents (Nkhama et al., 2015 ), while others surveyed 423 individuals in Zambia, and qualitative studies conducted a smaller number of interviews to obtain key information. The environmental assessment research project collected numerous samples, including 168 water and effluent samples over a year (Ipeaiyeda & Obaje, 2017 ). Although there were differences in perspectives, a common theme across all studies was the significant environmental pollution and the health and social effects associated with nearby cement plants. Several studies specifically assessed pollutant levels in air, water, or soil, comparing them to standards or control sites, while others focused on gathering community perceptions and health reports. Environmental impact on nearby communities All included research papers highlighted key environmental issues affecting nearby communities associated with cement plants. The major reported issues were linked to air quality degradation from cement dust and gaseous emissions, but water and soil pollution were also significant problems in the surrounding communities. Below are these environmental problems. Figure 5 presents the primary theme and its sub-themes from the content analysis. Figure 5 Themes & sub-themes Figure 5 summarises the dominant content categories of Environmental findings identified through content analysis of the included studies. All statements, findings, and descriptions with an environmental dimension were identified and systematically extracted during data extraction, and then categorised based on similarity. These categories include air pollution, water pollution, noise, and soil contamination, which characterise the main environmental paths by which cement plants in LMICs affect surrounding residents. In fact, these categories reflect patterns that emerged repeatedly across studies and provide a structured means of presenting environmental findings. The structure of the overall categories is illustrated in the figure below and will be explained in detail in the sections that follow. Air Pollution Cement production has frequently been recognised as a significant source of ambient air pollution for surrounding residents (Hahad et al. 2022 ). Dust or particulate matter (PM) is generated during many phases of production, including quarrying, crushing, clinker production, and bagging. The ambient particulate matter levels, PM₂. ₅ and PM₁₀, around the cement plant, consistently exceed the safe limits (World Health Organization, 2021 ). For instance, a study in Indonesia reported that PM₂.₅ concentrations around the packing site reached up to 0.1985 mg/m³, and 47 out of 95 workers were exposed to levels considered acceptable (Achmad et al. 2024). In the Kashmir region of India, Mehraj reported mean ambient SO₂ and NOₓ concentrations in a village 2–3 km away from a cement plant to be “115.8 and 117.1 µg/m³, respectively, with the former being more than four times higher” than a control site and greater than the applicable national (Mehraj et al. 2013 ). The burden of respiratory symptoms was consistently higher among those living in the vicinity. Many studies have reported emissions of PM, SO₂, NOₓ, CO, and trace pollutants, including heavy metals and dioxins, from cement operations. Greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO₂, are also substantial; a review estimated the cement industry's contribution to global anthropogenic CO₂ emissions at 5–7%. CO₂ is not a local toxicant; it is indicative of the energy-intensive and combustive nature of cement manufacturing. The calcination process, the “heating of limestone,” is an inherent source of CO₂ (Kumari et bal., 2017). Poor air quality has been associated with quantifiable health risks in several studies. High levels of dust exposure were associated with respiratory diseases among both workers and community members. For example, authors stated that workers exposed to the highest levels of dust faced increased throat and nose irritation and a high risk of chronic respiratory diseases (Achmad et al. 2024; Susetyo et al. 2024 ). In Zambia, community-level PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ exceeded the WHO standards by large margins near a cement facility, while residents reported substantially higher rates of cough, wheeze, and other respiratory symptoms than residents in control villages (Nkhama et al. 2015 ). The findings correspond with the evidence on chronic PM exposure on the world, which is linked to chronic bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease (Mehraj et al. 2013 ). Soil Contamination According to different types of research, cement plants, the majority of which are composed of alkaline dust that includes metals, cover a topsoil of the nearby territory, altering soil chemistry. The authors discovered that in Nigeria, the topsoil of the forest near a cement plant had much higher pH levels (up to 6.03, which is above the typical acidic levels), lower organic matter, and higher nutrient and heavy metal concentrations because of the deposition of cement plant dust (Adebiyi et al. 2021 ). The dust effectively neutralised soil acidity and elevated soil alkalinity, a change that can alter local plant ecosystems. Likewise, in Pakistan, elevated concentrations of PTEs, mainly cadmium, lead, chromium, and nickel, in soils up to 500 meters around the perimeter of two cement plants (Agbede et al. 2024 ; Ismail et al. 2023 ). Contamination indicated severe pollution and increased concerns about the uptake of these metals by crops. Biodiversity loss was reported as a consequence of these soil changes. Vegetation around cement industries is often subject to decline or compositional changes due to dust and metal exposure, yet very few studies quantitatively assess ecosystem biodiversity. In general, cement dust was found to alter the physical and chemical properties of soil, such as water content, nutrient availability, and cation exchange capacity, which often contribute to reduced agricultural productivity in nearby farmlands (Oyinloye 2015 ; Samdariya et al. 2021 ). Water Pollution A Cement plant can also affect water resources both through intake and pollution. Several included papers, particularly from Africa, focused on water contamination. In Nigeria, a study found that waste from cement plants led to higher turbidity, suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals downstream of the discharge point than upstream (Ipeaiyeda & Obaje, 2017 ). The water quality index was categorised as highly contaminated and unsafe for drinking due to the effluent (Ipeaiyeda & Obaje, 2017 ). Heavy metals, including lead and zinc, exceed standard limits, posing a higher risk to public health. Waste oil and other hazardous effluents from cement plants, reported by residents of Rumuolmeni, Nigeria, to have migrated into groundwater and local rivers, have contaminated the primary source of drinking water and killed fish in streams (Brown, 2023). Moreover, water use by cement plants can reduce community access to water. Cement production requires water for cooling and dust suppression conducted a water footprint analysis showing that significant water volumes are embedded in cement production (Hosseinian & Nezamoleslami 2018 ). One study from Ethiopia reported that villagers were concerned that plant operations lowered the water table and that the surrounding area was polluted by runoff and quarry sediments (Berhe & Alemayehu, 2014). Moreover, standing water in areas adjacent to the cement plant can create breeding grounds for mosquitoes; therefore, these conditions indirectly affect public health. Research from Nigeria highlighted a rise in malaria cases in the vicinity of a cement plant quarry pond (Adebiyyi, 2019; Afolabi et al., 2012 ). Thus, water dilapidation and water insecurity are part of the cement plant’s environmental footprint on the community. Noise Pollution Noise pollution is less investigated than air and water pollution; nevertheless, some studies consider it a serious environmental issue. Cement plants usually generate noise from the heavy machinery, grinders, crushers, rotary kilns, and irregular blasts from mining operations (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014). In Ethiopia, community members surrounding the Messebo cement plant reported that noise often disturbed daily activities and even caused structural damage to houses, such as cracks in walls (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014). Industrial noise has been associated with a wide variety of health effects, including hearing loss and psychosomatic disorders (Oyinloye 2015 ). Long-term exposure is also associated with headaches, fatigue, sleep problems, and hypertension (Nkhama et al. 2017 ). Overall, most studies did not report quantitative noise measurements. Some qualitative studies frequently reported that noise pollution is an extra environmental burden for nearby residents (Nkhama et al. 2017 ). Generally, cement plants in LMICs also cause environmental problems through air pollution from dust and emissions, contamination of soil and water sources, and severe noise pollution. Socioeconomic Impact on Communities Figure 6: Theme & sub-themes The environmental problems described above pose a range of health risks and socioeconomic impacts on communities living near cement plants. Key impacts are outlined below. Figure 6 presents the primary theme and its sub-themes from the content analysis. Health Impacts Almost all included studies investigating community health reported elevated rates of respiratory conditions and other illnesses among individuals working near cement plants. Commonly reported symptoms were chronic cough, phlegm, wheezing, shortness of breath, irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat (Mehraj et al., 2013 ; Oyinloye, 2015 ). In Khrew, India, a surprising 96% of nearby community members of the cement plant had chronic cough, and 99% reported some form of allergic respiratory irritation, compared with much lower percentages in the control villages (Mehraj et al., 2013 ). Asthma, bronchitis, and even tuberculosis were more prevalent in the exposed group (Ismail et al., 2023 ; Mehraj et al., 2013 ). In the Ewekoro community of Nigeria, studies claimed that about 20% of the local community had asthma, and 14% reported skin cancer, which the authors associated with prolonged dust exposure and possibly toxic compounds from the factory (Afolabi et al., 2012 ; Mohamad et al., 2018). Employees in cement plants who often live in the local communities are particularly vulnerable subgroups. Researchers have reported conditions such as silicosis from inhaling silica in cement dust, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other work-related lung diseases among cement employees that can later affect their families (Adebiyyi, 2019; Charles et al., 2022 ). Beyond respiratory problems, cardiovascular effects were also observed. Air pollution (especially PM and NOx) can increase the incidence of cardiovascular disease (Adebiyyi, 2019). In a mixed-methods survey conducted at the Obajana plant in Nigeria, approximately 10% of participants reported cardiovascular conditions and hypertension, which the study linked to pollution stressors, including noise and vibration from the plant (Abdul-Wahab, 2006 ; Charles et al., 2022 ). Cement dust and chemical exposure also led to skin and eye irritation. Residents in Zambia had substantially higher odds of eye irritation and sinus problems near the cement plant, with odds ratios for mucous membrane irritation 2.4–4.8 times higher than in the control area (Nkhama et al., 2015 ). It should be mentioned that these health effects are almost always a matter of correlation; however, the repetition of these effects in country after country increases the likelihood of a causal relationship. Many studies have clearly associated measured pollutant levels with observed health outcomes (Brunekreef & Holgate, 2002 ). Nkhama et al. ( 2017 ) reported that during periods of high ambient PM2.5 concentrations in the exposed Zambian community, natives' lung function (FEV₁ and FVC) decreased significantly, indicating an acute effect of cement dust on respiratory function. The World Health Organisation has highlighted that long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution contributes to strokes, cardiovascular problems, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases (World Health Organisation, 2024). The present review shows that communities surrounding cement plants in LMICs are severely suffering from these health problems, without a satisfactory healthcare structure to address them. Economic Impacts Cement plants have positive effects in terms of economic opportunities, which include job opportunities and the development of local businesses. However, these benefits might not be equally spread in terms of benefits and livelihood impacts. There are several case studies of this separation: Ansori and Handoyo (2018) conducted a study and discovered in Indonesia that the establishment of a cement plant in a rural area resulted in the situation that many villagers could no longer conduct their agriculture and construction activities due to increased plant positions that paid better. This had the effect of increased household earnings in households that employed people and also increased living standard; others had the ability of owning their own transport and other homes. The plant was involved in the activities of the community welfare, such as it gave educative activities and sensitized people about the issues of great concern. Investment was however unequally distributed. It is worth mentioning that the use of land by the plant led to the displacement of 29% of farmers, and those who the plant did not hire believed their livelihoods and traditional practices were adversely affected by the plant(Ansori & Handoyo, 2018). In Zimbabwe, the author wrote that the community development projects provided by plants included road and school building, and a small hospital, and provided scholarship opportunities to the students, but only 3% of the people living there were employed permanently at the cement plant. Majority of the other jobs were made on short-term basis or taken up by external contractors having given skills (Kusena et al. 2012 ). Furthermore, 25% of nearby natives had to move, disrupting community linkages (Kusena et al. 2012 ). Part of the participants in the study hypothesized that the existence of truck drivers and external workers led to the rise in the occurrence of social problems including rise in the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the community. In Nigeria, there was an explanation of the boom and bust situation in a community by Brown (2023) Whenever the cement plant operated, the locals saw jobs, better roads and successful small businesses and the cement plant provided scholarships to the young people. The economic growth in the community plummeted, employment rates decreased, roads fell into disrepair, small businesses collapsed, and poverty and insecurity levels increased after the plant was shut down (Brown, 2023). In many instances (Ethiopia, Indonesia, Nigeria), agricultural area was taken under the development of cement plants or limestone mines quarries, which was not adequately compensated to the locals (Ansori & Handoyo (2018); Berhe & Alemayehu, (2014); Brown, (2023). This not only affected domestic income but also affected cultural livelihoods, forcing people to do daily wage labour and struggle with unemployment. An example is in Pakistan, where the inhabitants of a village lost their farm to a cement factory, which led to a lack of independence and instead of having jobs, community members relied on the cement factory. (Ismail et al., 2023 ). Social Impacts Social cohesion can also be affected. The entry of external workers, primarily male, working in cement plants was pointed out in Indonesia and associated with a possibility of gender-related social issues (Achmad et al. 2024). A study in India examined shifts from traditional mud houses to cement houses, attributing these changes to the cement plant's effects on class and caste dynamics and social divisions (Mishra et al., 2022 ). A study also pointed out that women living near cement plants may bear unequal burdens, for example, when crop livelihoods are lost, women who often farm lose economic independence (Glazebrook et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, a rise in male outsider workers can increase the risk of gender-based violence and harassment in native communities (Cézanne et al., 2020). However, this problem was not extensively investigated in the included studies. Numerous studies also highlighted unsatisfactory community engagement and environmental mitigation by the cement plants. For example, 74% of the community living near a cement plant in Obajana, Nigeria, felt that pollution control equipment was not enough (Ipeaiyeda & Obaje, 2017 ). In Ethiopia, they indicated that the plant additionally put in place certain new technology like dust filters, but failed to involve the community in decision-making processes, which made the locals feel that they are not heard (Berhe & Alemayehu, 2014). Community complaints can be caused by the absence of effective communication. Certainly, some of the studies mentioned cases of disapproval and discord towards the cement plants management among communities on matters of land payments and environmental harm (Ansori & Handoyo, 2018). To sum up, despite its potential of supporting economic development, the benefits of cement plants to the local communities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) seem to be partial and unequally spread. On the other hand, pollution and disruption of societies impose significantly health costs on these communities which are disproportionate. The effectiveness of local the institutions and the policymaking is critical in mediating such consequences, especially in the implementation of environmental policies and the requirement of the companies to invest in regional development or control pollution. The results of the current review suggest that regulatory control has been weak in most LMIC settings and that there is a necessity to give more vocal voice to the community in industrial projects. Discussion This scoping review presents an extensive discussion of the environmental, health, and socioeconomic impacts of cement plants on the populations of the neighbourhoods in LMICs. An over-view of 19 articles in two countries, Asia and Africa, demonstrates quite a continuous style, which is that cement plants are helpful in growing economies and offering jobs in different nations, however, in the same breath they cause harmful environmental pollution and serious health issues at population level. The most commonly investigated issue of the environment is air pollution. The discharges at cement plants are particulate matter, cement dust, nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), and carbon monoxide that lower the quality of ambient air (Bărbulescu and Hosen 2025 ). According to some of the studies, the levels of pollution are high thought they surpass national and international levels. As an illustration, SO₂ and NOₓ levels in one of the Indian regions (Khrew) were reported to be around four times as high as in other areas (Mishra et al. 2022 ). This is in line with estimates given by WHO claiming that millions of premature deaths in the world are correlated to air pollution in the air (World Health Organization: 2024). The researches found in this scoping review suggested the common presence of respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms among the residents who were exposed. One study revealed that 96% of people were having respiratory problems and more than half of them had cardiovascular problems related to the emissions of the cement plants (Mehraj et al. 2013 ). These results pointed at the imbalanced risk of people who have to reside close to cement factories in LMICs but do not receive adequate health services. A special attention deserves the chemical composition of cement dust. Besides causing respiratory irritation, the dust can exist in the form of silica, alkaline particles, and heavy metals, and long-term effects include COPD and silicosis. Community members who are older and children make the most susceptible age groups. This review highlights the necessity to prepare and institute suitable dust-control equipment. The water systems and the soil were also significantly impacted. Untreated or poorly treated wastewater discharged by cement facilities elevates the amount of pH, heavy metals and solids suspended in adjacent water bodies (Ding et al. 2015 ; Ipeaiyeda and Obaje, 2017 ). Water insecurity is enhanced in many LMIC environments that have a poor water infrastructure. Not many studies reported to have contaminated rivers with risky elements of drinking and deterioration in aquatic biodiversity, such as fish death downstream of the waste discharge sites (Ipeaiyeda and Obaje, 2017 ). The impact on agriculture was widely touched upon, such as the covered surface of the crops with dust, reduced harvests, poor soil activity, like in Nigeria and Zambia, where agricultural inhabitants are more troubled by water diversion and pollution (Brown, 2023; Hosseinian & Nezamoleslami, 2018 ). There were also reports of soil alkalinity and accumulation of heavy metal, which reduced the health of plants; hence, biodiversity was lost (Wojtacha-Rychter & Smoliński, 2022 ). The socioeconomic implications were a contrasting case of land acquisition based on cement kilns or mining sites that led to the permanent loss of arable land accompanied by dissatisfaction of the community because of ineffective compensation practices, as it is observed in Malaysia and Zimbabwe (Mohamad et al. 2022 ; Nkhama et al. 2015 ).Cement plants also employ people, yet majority of those falling in the community claimed that they only get low paying or short term contractual employment, with the better skilled jobs being offered to outsiders. This system made the system to be seen as unfair and a source of social tension. In Indonesia, the locals noted that foreigners ended up securing better skilled jobs than Indonesians which created a vicious cycle of being rejected (Kamaruddin, 2013 ). The presence of economic dependency on an individual industrial employer was also dangerous: temporary shutdowns in Rumuolumeni led to unemployment and economic uncertainty (Brown, 2023). There were also social effects even though they were less documented. The growth of plants led to the displacement of the community, thus undermining the cultural practices, traditional land-based identities, and social ties that have been existing over time and among the members of the community (Silva et al. 2021 ). Families that had been resettled in Nigeria and Zambia had problems adjusting to new locations, resources and marginalization. There have been cases when unaddressed issues of pollution, poor compensation, or the absence of involvement in the decisions-making process in the community resulted in protests and mistrust between the communities and those who operated the plants (Brown, 2023; Nkhama et al., 2015 ). Long terms or intervention research is one of the gaps identified in the literature. Several studies were of cross-sectional design; thus, cumulative exposure could not be estimated, nor could the mitigation strategies be evaluated. Such complex environmental modeling as dust dispersion simulations was in short supply. The identification of only one systematic method of analysis allowed for estimating one of the key sources of pollution: DEMATEL, which was applied by Zeb et al. (2019) in Pakistan, and which ranged in machine movements like crushers or kilns as the main ones. Policy and mitigation implications Observations in LMICs reveal that there are massive English in pollution-control monitoring frameworks and regulation enforcement procedures. As an illustration, 74% of communities close to a cement plant in Nigeria indicated inadequate mitigation procedures (Oyinloye, 2015 ). The installation of advanced control technologies had been made without transparency and the involvement of the residents in Ethiopia (Berhe & Alemayehu, 2014). LMICs require the setting up of regulatory systems in line with the air quality standards set by the World Health Organisation’s (2021). It involves the introduction of PM, SO₂, and NOₓ restrictions of emissions that demand dust detention technology and real-time and community-level reporting of data on air and water quality to the community. Impacts could be minimized by making improvements at the technical level. Substitute fuels, reprocessing, and clinker replacement because they are cleaner manufacturing approaches have demonstrated the ability to achieve a 12% cost of CO 2 reduction by 2025 (Mishra et al., 2022 ). Co-processing waste and integrating renewable energy, as already practised in some high-income countries, could be adapted for LMIC contexts with suitable technical and financial support. Equitable economic benefit-sharing is also important. Residents exposed to pollution should receive tangible benefits such as employment assurances, health programs, medical screening, and community growth funds. Meaningful resident engagement in environmental monitoring and decision-making can support the rebuilding of trust and ensure accountability. Future Directions In future research, the following should be emphasized: Future studies are encouraged adopting longitudinal research designs, following the cohorts of a given population such as children, pregnant women, and older adults who live around cement plants, during a long period. The fact that data is gathered on varying scales of time helps the studies to capture the varying development of the health outcomes, which include, premature birth, miscarriage, subsequent lungs infection, respiratory infections prevalence declines, and cancer, over periods associated with the metrics of exposure. Notably, a process developed by the community of establishing a connection between the native respondents to the research process method and data collection will add to the relevance and trust. Some of the research that should be pursued in the future are composite monitoring frameworks that can effectively monitor the amount of pollutants in the atmosphere, water, and the soil. The techniques that would be involved in this framework include the use of low-cost networks of sensors to measure PMs; real time measurements of NOₓ and SO₂ and periodical sample of heavy metals. The supply of supplemental information could be offered by the use of sophisticated methods such as remote detection of dust plumes, biomonitoring with the help of the plants or lichens. Future research needs to explore the allocation of costs and benefits which may come as a result of cement production in specific parts of community. This will entail the measurement of the economic trade offs between employment gains and losses as a result of environmental degradation, expenditure of health, loss of crops, and damage to properties. Moreover, qualitative research describing experiences and perceptions of members of the community would contribute to the knowledge about realities being lived and would mean a lot when it comes to designing inclusive policies. Conclusion The inhabitants residing close to cement plants in LMICs have to encounter a lot of difficulties such as environmental loss, pollution that causes severe health issues, and multi-tangled socioeconomic effects. The papers cited in this review are those published after 2010, and they offer credible evidence of air, water, and soil pollution by the cement plants, which have led to a high level of respiratory and other diseases among the communities living around the cement plants. There was an uneven distribution of benefits of cement plants with many missing out on economic gains, and those who benefited favored a few members of local communities, causing them to be unable to earn a living, undermined their economies, and social instability. These results highlight the importance of taking some action. Cement plant leaders and policymakers in LMICs need to put more stringent measures to protect the communities. He or she should enforce stringent emission laws as enforced by international laws, install new state-of-the-art pollution controlling devices and make sure that the local population of the country is not left behind in the positive economic gain of the cement plant initiatives. To restore trust, the community and environmental monitoring should be involved and transparent. Finally, there should be more ecologically friendly method in cement production. Through this scoping review, the researcher will inform multi-sectoral, government cement plants, and the civil society in developing policy regulations and intervention programs that will promote economic growth through the use of cement plants and other industries without inflicting issues of health and livelihood on the vulnerable groups. With the ever-shaunching urbanisation and industrialisation of LMICs, the challenge would be to keep pace to economic growth with environmental health and social justice. The given recommendations can lead to specific changes in the cement industry, so these issues can be solved in a way so that the process of change is sustainable and holistic. Strengths and limitations The comparative evidence of the effects of cement plants on LMIC communities is the first scoping conducted to the knowledge of the author that connects both the environmental and social studies. A comprehensive search in several databases, including the grey literature, improved the reporting of the non-indexed local research. Quantitative and qualitative data, along with a review of perspectives on the covered works, are provided in order to have a comprehensive picture. Nevertheless, this review has some limitations. No research in other languages was considered; they could have missed related studies conducted in other languages. This was restricted to the period 2010–2024: previous studies dating back to 1980–2009 when some of the plants were also initiated may not have been considered thus establishing a gap in time. It also emerged that the evidence levels were mixed with some studies having limited sample sizes and lack of strict exposure evaluation, therefore the findings must be taken wary to causality. Being a scoping review, we have not aimed to critically appraise or sift out research studies due to quality considerations; rather, we aimed to map out all available evidence. Last, it was impossible to measure the impacts using meta-analysis due to heterogeneity in its outcomes and methods. Publication bias might also occur: those that have reported the dramatic impacts might be more likely to be published and thus community with no impacts (or minimal impacts) might not have been reported at all. Abbreviations LMICS Lower Middle-Income Countries PM Particulate matter SO2 sulphur dioxide NOₓ Nitrogen Oxides CO carbon monoxide Declarations Acknowledgement Not Applicable Author’s contributions Zahid Ali Khan: Conceptualization; Methodology; Data Curation; Formal Analysis; Investigation; Original Draft Preparation; Visualization Łukasz Afeltowicz: Supervision; Methodology; Validation; Writing Review and Editing; Conceptual Guidance Jacek Gądecki: Supervision; Writing Review and Editing; Validation; Theoretical Guidance Funding NA Availability of data and materials The datasets of included studies during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. This study is a scoping review of previously published literature and did not involve human participants or primary data collection. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. AI Declaration This scoping review was conducted by the authors, and no AI was involved in generating ideas, arguments, or substantive content. Clinical trial number Not Applicable References Abdul-Wahab SA. Impact of fugitive dust emissions from cement plants on nearby communities. Ecological modelling. 2006 Jun 15;195(3-4):338-48. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380005006125 Wahyu A, Irwandy SP, Yasin M. Environmental health risk assessment of particulate matter (PM2, 5) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) exposure at workers in production unit of a cement plant in Indonesia. Int. J. Chem. Biochem. 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Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal. 2018 Nov 13;30(4):751-67. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/MEQ-06-2018-0112/full/html?journalCode=meq&utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Management_of_Environmental_Quality_TrendMD_1&WT.mc_id=Emerald_TrendMD_1 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":83849,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePRISMA flow diagram of identified studies and selection for the review (2010-2024)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/8fd5280ca9457a8c1f22fccd.png"},{"id":99702512,"identity":"bb8492cb-40f4-46a1-86d0-d3008495e44b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 12:00:48","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":204243,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy map: Number of papers published by countries.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/e8d247589a586ecd400d7505.png"},{"id":99796778,"identity":"b4be6635-98fa-4de7-816a-419300878e12","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:43:33","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16140,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNumbers of papers by designs\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/41141fd55e0e0e1b5b32dc3c.png"},{"id":99702514,"identity":"51366cb9-4179-47a3-bdd3-dd460b169ca8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 12:00:48","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49821,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNumber of papers by years\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/62004d4ae5cc977e0e7c42eb.png"},{"id":99702515,"identity":"38e27c07-a0ca-4139-bb56-0d3ec1383f8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 12:00:48","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":102530,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThemes \u0026amp; sub-themes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/7dc25086900a03c667f95759.png"},{"id":99702518,"identity":"f7e8afdb-cc72-451b-87ce-cff71c15e05e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 12:00:48","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":123580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTheme \u0026amp; sub-themes\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/1a87fa1600a5db60a3647a2a.png"},{"id":100356337,"identity":"6204d3e1-5653-4f16-8f30-2aeeb8a6a16b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:03:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1499289,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8450765/v1/ae6f012b-2587-424e-b2f6-38deed52c540.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement industry on communities living near cement plants in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) from 2010 to 2024: scoping reviews","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe expanding nature of urbanization in the world has made cement an important element in the current infrastructure. This requirement is costly, which is why it is one of the characteristic discrepancies of world development. (Twagirayezu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Cement, as the most significant component of concrete, is the key to the construction of the required infrastructure, not only to the primary means of transport and city housing, but also to the industrial complexes that are strengthening economic development (Karagulian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This cement material is especially significant to low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Nawaz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Its rapid use serves as a direct measure of the level of urbanization and the level of economic growth of individual countries, influencing the work to bridge the acute infrastructure deficits and alleviate the physical aspects of modernization in the Global South (Azolibe \u0026amp; Okonkwo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Access and supply of cement are therefore directly connected to the ability of LMICs to realize the Sustainable Development Goals associated with hard infrastructure and innovation (Opoku et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis high-speed and unregulated development of the cement production has been drawing a stark dichotomy (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The timely evolution of cement production has resulted in greater environmental and socioeconomic issues, mainly in LMICs (Marlina 2023). Most of such cement factories are in close quarters to residential locations, which increases the exposure to fumes of production and leads to the erosion of environmental justice issues in the developing world. Due to the rapid urbanization process in LMICs, the cement consumption is bound to grow correspondingly, therefore making sure that the arising environmental and social conflicts will be more frequent and more intense (Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen trying to understand how huge an issue the cement industry becomes, one should consider its scope on an international scale (Alobaydy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). As per a report, more than 70% of the global cement manufacturers were located in Asia, and in excess of 4.4\u0026nbsp;billion metric tons were produced there. This has been due to early urbanization, increased infrastructure, and population growth, which has generated an extraordinarily high demand for cement in the LMICs (Schneider et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Although this is an engine of development in the world that is, at the same time, among the most highly carbon-intensive industries globally, the cement industry defines the sector as a significant cause of anthropogenic climate change (Alobaydy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe manufacturing process is a twofold source of greenhouse gases, which cause global climate change. The cement industry contributes directly to 7\u0026ndash;8% of carbon dioxide emissions, so it is one of the most significant carbon-intensive sectors of the world (Andrew, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The sources of these emissions are essentially two: (1) the energy-intensive process of heating the kiln, which is typically provided by combusting fossil fuels, and (2) basic chemical treatment of limestone, which does not produce any by-products (Mohamad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to the burden that it imposes on the atmosphere, the cement industry exerts a huge burden on world energy and materials (Rodrigues \u0026amp; Joekes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The cement industry contributes 12\u0026ndash;15% of the total energy required in industries worldwide. Such a successive process also results in the significant generation of industrial by-products and solid waste that require responsible monitoring (Farahdiba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Tun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) even though the global footprint of this process is serious, the most insignificant effects are experienced at the local levels, where cement facilities act as an important source of highly potent causes of contamination that mainly harm the local environment (Ding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This is an instant and severe impairment of air quality that is caused by ongoing high levels of emissions of particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and other heavy metals (Karagulian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). They are chronic pollution sources of air quality that are higher than they should be, which increases the risk of being exposed to contamination in the surrounding population (Mishra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, water pollution is also caused by industrial activities, especially the extraction procedures of quarrying and mining. The sewage waste and surface runoff deposit sediment, oils, and leachates of chemicals in major area waterways that are utilized in drinking and irrigation e.g., rivers and groundwater aquifers (Denchak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, the heavy crushing machines operating the sites cause severe noise pollution and prompt blasting of the limestone, which increases the level of environmental stress of the surrounding communities to chronic stress and severe sleep disorders (Lilic et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The impact of pollution, noise, cultivated needs relates to the natural resources as a whole and puts additional pressure on immediate residents more than any other people (Lilic et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Close interaction to cement factories has direct association with profound negative national health impacts and threats that are substantially increased to communities that have been predetermined by socioeconomic status. (Brunekreef, and Holgate, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These contacts with sensitive particulate matter and gaseous pollution are often linked to respiratory disease, including cough, asthma, and wheezing; increased risk of cardiovascular disease; and decreased lifespan (Dominski et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the meantime, the degree of cement dust, as high as it is, not only harms human health, but it also has a serious effect on the sustenance of the local population. Cement plants also pollute agricultural land, settle on the surface of the crops, and affect crop growth, therefore contaminating the livestock grazing fields and disturbing what many people in the LMICs depend on to survive (Zainudeen \u0026amp; Jeyamathan, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIronically, socioeconomic advantages that the industry is commonly touted to the community, like employment and community improvement, often do not trickle down to the communities that are most impacted by the pollution (Ansori \u0026amp; Handoyo, 2018). Most noticeably, the generation area of cement is expansive and therefore land is made systematically to create land use tensions. The process of acquiring land to operate quarries and expand the plant usually involves forced purchases that do not take into account fair payments and result in considerable displacement, cultural displacement and ongoing legal and social conflicts with the plant management (C\u0026eacute;zanne et al., 2020). The latter can be regarded as an irreversible loss of the conventional communal resources and displacement, which essentially disrupts the socioeconomic landscape of receiving communities (Charles, Kuku, and Sanda \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current studies tend to vary in research methodologies, orientation, and geographical scope, thus leaving the policy-makers and scholars challenging to establish valid designs and make broad conclusions. Research on air quality and experiences on pollution are conducted, whilst on the other hand, other research focuses on the effects on their health, socioeconomic hardships, and challenges in livelihoods. These findings have not yet been incorporated into an inclusive synthesis between LMICs over the last 10 years. Considering the given prompt with the elaboration of the cement industry in the Global South, a need to update the systematic knowledge of the environment and socioeconomic issues related to the production of cement can be found as urgent and evident. Integrating evidence-based approaches is essential towards emerging schemes of targeted regulation, protection agenda by residents, and practical industrial policies, which decouple economic development with common well-being and the environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, the review is a synthesis of peer-reviewed articles on environmental and socioeconomic effects of cement factorials on the communities located around the facilities in LMICs (2010\u0026ndash;2024). Such a review is significant since it allows recognizing cross-cutting themes and defines the consistency of reported harms, as well as points the gaps in the knowledge to consider future research and policy-related decisions. The systematic synthesis of the existing evidence in this scoping review helps to enlarge the overall picture on how cement plants influence the surrounding nature, inhabitants surrounding the cement plants, and their normal socioeconomic living, and reflect on the modification of the framework that will encourage safer and sustainable industrial activities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis review is based on the main research works, which explored the environmental and socioeconomic effects of the plants in the cement industry on the communities near them in LMICs. Due to the complexity and multidimensional impact of the cement production on the environment, there were two principal criteria used to define the study exposures, and these included the immediate environment around the cement plants (direct effects) and the deliberate reference to the study authors of the impacts of the cement industry (indirect effects). The consequences of the concern were elements (air quality, water pollution, and soil contamination) and socio-economic consequences (health effects and economic transformation, job loss, and social disturbance). The scoping search included the studies that were published between 2010 and 2024 and pertained exclusively to the studies carried out in LMICs, as defined by the World Bank.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research employed a scoping review to systematically synthesise the available evidence on the environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement plants on surrounding communities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The study adopted the methodological framework of Arksey and O\u0026rsquo;Malley, (2005) and the guidance provided by the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis (2020). Reporting followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses extension for scoping review (PRISMA-ScR)(Joanna Briggs Institute, 2020). A detailed review protocol was established before the final draft of the review to ensure transparency and reproducibility. The protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF) before publication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelection Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEligibility standards are carried out using the Population-Concept-Context (PCC) basis:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review focused on the published papers that examined communities living near cement plants within LMICs. The study included both the overall community and specific subgroups, such as female plant workers and children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearchers examined environmental problems such as air, water, soil, noise pollution and socio-economic effects like health, livelihood, employment, forced migration, and social change linked to cement plant processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor residents living close to active cement plants within countries categorised by the World Bank, the timeframe of published studies was 2010\u0026ndash;2024. The review included only English-language research due to practical reasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExclusion Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch papers were excluded if:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eConducted in high-income countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscussed only the technical and engineering elements of cement processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelivered insufficient and general evidence about resident-level impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublished in other languages and before 2010.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInformation Sources and Search Strategy\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive strategy was developed in collaboration with the university librarian to identify both peer-reviewed papers and grey literature relevant to the scoping review. Searches were conducted from September to October 2024, in the following electronic databases for studies published from 2010 to 2024:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAPA PsycInfo via Ovid (psychological, social, behavioural, and health sciences)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal Health via Ovid (global health)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociological Abstracts via ProQuest (sociology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe search process included keywords and subject headings linked to cement plants AND environmental impacts (noise, soil, water pollution, dust, air pollution) OR socioeconomic impacts (e.g., health, disease, employment, livelihood, community) AND LMICs (with terms for developing countries and specific country names\u0026mdash;no language filters beyond English were applied. To identify additional studies, grey literature and other sources, including Google Scholar for cement plant websites in LMICs and the ProQuest dissertation database, were searched. Reference list checks, backward snowballing of all included papers, reference searches, and forward snowballing in Google Scholar to find any papers that cited the included papers were also conducted. The first 100 papers from Google and other web searches were screened for relevance. All searches were imported into the reference management software, Zotero, and duplicates were removed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eScreening\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA two-step screening process was conducted: First, (title/abstract screening followed by full-text screening to select studies. Two researchers independently screened the titles and abstracts of all retrieved records for initial relevance. At this stage, records unrelated to the review, such as those not about cement plants, published before 2010, and not about LMICs, were reviewed. Citations that seemed to meet the inclusion standards were retained. Next, full texts of potentially relevant research papers were retrieved. Two independent researchers reviewed the full text for eligibility in accordance with the predefined standards. Any discrepancies in study inclusion were resolved through discussion and mutual consensus. Throughout full-text screening, reasons for exclusion were noted. Common reasons for exclusion included duplicate researcher papers, non-LMIC settings, lack of community focus, and incorrect outcomes. By the end of the screening process, a final set of included studies was identified. The study selection steps are discussed in the information flow diagram in \u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eFigure 1 PRISMA flow diagram of identified studies and selection for the review (2010\u0026ndash;2024)\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Charting and Extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the inclusion of studies, data extraction was conducted in Microsoft Excel to retrieve key evidence from each study. One researcher initiated the primary extraction, and the second researcher independently cross-checked all entries to verify accuracy and precision. Both researchers independently reviewed discrepancies between the researcher-created dataset and the Elicit outputs to confirm consistency, completeness, and reliability. The following information from each research paper was extracted (author, year title, country study location, study design and methods population characteristics and sample size environmental impact, such as levels of air pollution, water or soil quality indicators, noise pollution, etc.), health outcomes and other socio-economic indicators, displacement information, and the main findings and conclusions of the research papers. One of the driving factors was placed on the identification of not just the quantitative (e.g. the concentration of the pollutants and the rates of health risks), but on the qualitative output (e.g. population perceptions or themes). A complicated procedure of the research extraction was mandatory due to the variety of approaches (between environmental surveys and social survey). To enhance the extent of validity, the data contained in various research articles were cross-examined and thus refined in areas that needed to be refined. Data obtained were tabulated in an excel sheet and converted in form of a narrative and summary (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). That gives a summary of the situation including construction and major findings of every research that will be involved to be related to the environmental and socioeconomic effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthors (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry (Design)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental impacts \u0026amp; key findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocioeconomic impacts\u0026amp; key finding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Achmad et al. 2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCross-sectional Indonesia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental health risk assessment of particulate matter (PM2.5) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) contact among employees in the manufacturing part of a cement plant in Indonesia(Achmad et al. 2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on employees facing throat and nose illnesses indicates that exposure to PM and SO₂ is associated with an increased risk of respiratory and cardiovascular illness. No precise population SEC data focused on employee health (Achmad et al., 2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ansori and Handoyo 2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative case study (Indonesia)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAir pollution and carbon emissions from the cement plant in Tipar Kidul village increased CO₂ from calcination and energy use. Some resource depletion (e.g., local materials, increased noise)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoted, but the environmental evidence was inadequate.(Ansori and Handoyo 2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreater community prominence in education and new forms of lifestyle emerged as villagers gained employment opportunities in the plant, and income levels rose for household workers at the plant. Meanwhile, some villagers quietly harvest crops and start jobs in plants, this indicating livelihood displacement (Ansori \u0026amp; Handoyo, 2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKamaruddin, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative case study (Indonesia)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental changes observed by communities near PT Semen Tonasa include air pollution and dust emissions from the cement plant, which affect crop growth and impede tree growth. Coal and fuel use contributed to dust and emissions. Also noted erosion of riverbanks and contamination of river water by plant waste (Kamaruddin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial impacts: Major social transformation; natives shifted from harvest to crop to cement-plant labour. Social inequality increased: local hires received mostly low-level positions, while outsiders held higher positions, fostering resentment. Inadequate land compensation led to feelings of exploitation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMental health: Some jobless locals experienced depression when they failed to get cement jobs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural shifts: Traditional collective values eroded as an individualistic, wage-based lifestyle took hold (Kamaruddin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adebiyi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservational study (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil contamination: cement dust covers the surrounding area, depositing on forest soil and increasing to 6.03 near the plant. Moreover, damages soil properties. Noted raised alkalinity, reduced soil acidity, and changes in moisture, organic matter, and nutrient levels (N, P, K) in topsoil due to dust. Likely negative influence on native vegetation and forest environment (Adebiyi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivelihood: Implied risk to arming/forestry \u0026ndash; soil quality changes could decrease crop yields and plant growth, potentially affecting farmers and foragers. (The study did not directly survey socioeconomic outcomes, focusing on environmental measurements) (Adebiyi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Chukwu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservational study (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution summary: Research on Dangote Cement Obajana found widespread air pollution (PM, NOₓ, SO₂, CO, CO₂ emissions), land degradation from mining, water pollution, excess explosives, and mud runoff into water bodies. The local community noticed that stagnant quarry water became a mosquito breeding ground, and associated the plant with increased malaria infection. (Chukwu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA health survey indicated that the community reported that 20% of participants had asthma, 10% had heart disease, 15% had cancers and other health problems, and 5% experienced skin, eye, and respiratory irritations. The cement plant was deemed to be failing to comply with environmental standards, and 74% of residents felt that pollution controls were inadequate. The research paper recommended mutual collaboration between the community and the cement plant to improve environmental monitoring and healthcare.(Chukwu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ipeaiyeda and Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservational study (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater pollution: Evaluated the effect of cement plant effluent on the Onyi River. Downstream of the plant, the water had higher pH, turbidity, nitrate, phosphate, COD, and suspended solids levels than upstream. Dissolved oxygen was evidently summarised downstream. Heavy metals (e.g., Zn, Pb) were elevated in the water quality index, indicating that the river was somewhat polluted, and the metal pollution index indicated potential ecological risk (Ipeaiyeda \u0026amp; Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity impact: The river was a primary water source for local use. Post-pollution, it became unsafe for drinking and local routines, prompting the community to seek substitutes. This likely imposed a forced economic strain on purchasing water or travelling long distances for water. The research paper highlighted the need for wastewater treatment at the cement plant and the requirement for continuous monitoring to protect community water resources (Ipeaiyeda \u0026amp; Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Afolabi, Francis, and Adejompo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservational study (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are so many environmental impacts on Ewekoro Community Residents near the cement plant. The residents reported that, due to the plant, they lost their crops and that their farm harvests were converted into quarries, resulting in soil disruption and erosion. Air pollution was the most frequently reported problem; 81% of participants reported that it is the key problem facing society. They were also concerned about water pollution, quarry runoff, ammonium nitrate explosive residue, and sludge leaching into groundwater. Noise vibration from mining equipment is also unchecked, contributing to environmental stress (Afolabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNative people of the community reported health problems, such as 19.8% had asthma, 11% had heart infection, 14% faced skin cancer, and 5% chronic diarrhoea. Employees reported a high prevalence of silicosis and chronic bronchitis attributable to silica-rich dust inhalation. The resident felt the plant violated environmental guidelines and exceeded standard population limits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomics: Native agriculturalists lost land and could not easily harvest crops due to soil contamination and pollution, pushing them into financial uncertainty. The research concluded that, without an adequate system and resident health precautions, the cement plant did more harm than good to the Ewekoro community. (Afolabi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Brown 2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative Case study (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cement plant in Rumuolumeni causes water and air pollution in the local area and discharges hazardous waste oils, contaminating the community's drinking water source wells and local fish populations, which have declined due to wastewater discharges. Dust emissions impacted the air quality. The community observed numerous dust particles in the air (Brown, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the establishment of the cement plant, they provided, for the time being, employment, a road maintenance scholarship, and other measures that enhanced the local economy; however, all work was temporary. Meanwhile, after the plant closure, the residents faced mass unemployment, loss of service, deteriorated roads, and increased poverty and insecurity. The community also reported an increase in respiratory illnesses, including lung problems, and expressed concern about longer-term health impacts, such as cancer, from cement pollution (Brown, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Charles et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMix method (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmissions and noise from the Obajana cement plant resulted in high levels of dust PM from quarrying and crushing being discharged into the air. Blasting produced noise and vibrations in the nearby community. Some chemical released to the environment was noticed (Charles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe health survey found that 43% of the community reported diseases associated with cement plant production; malaria was the most common, with 37% of respondents reporting respiratory problems and other ailments. Infrastructure gains from the cement plant contributed to roads, schools, and hospitals, indicating positive progress. However, the high prevalence of illness burden proposes insufficient health protection research, recommending better health infrastructure and possible relocation measures (Charles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adebiyyi 2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe systematic review showed that cement plants are key sources of PM, NOₓ, SO₂, and CO. It estimated that 5\u0026ndash;7% of global CO₂ emissions come from cement. Heavy metals are also released in dust. A systematic review found that cement plants are responsible for 20\u0026ndash;30% of local PM air pollution in some regions (Adebiyyi 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe systematic review summarised several health impacts of exposure to cement dust, including COPD, silicosis, asthma, bronchitis, skin and eye infections, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and cancer. Children near plants are at higher risk of respiratory disease\u0026mdash;highlighted requirement for pollution control to protect community health (Adebiyyi, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Kusena et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCross-section (Zimbabwe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSino Zimbabwe cement plant in Gweru released a lot of dust into the air that impacted the air quality and also spread on crops, pastures and the forests around. The dust was the only major environmental problem reported by the participants: no major water or soil-related problems were observed only dust fallout (Kusena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20% of residents reported respiratory problems, including cough and chest pain, attributable to cement dust. Only 3% of the native community secured permanent employment at the plant, with most positions being short-term, contractual, or held by non-natives. 25% of residents had relocated due to the establishment of the cement plant, thereby disrupting social values. The cement plant brings some positive changes, including education bursaries, healthcare development, but also negatives such as increased illness and reports of truck drivers contributing to social ills, HIV spread (Kusena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNkhama 2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecross-section (Zimbabwe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study compares communities within two groups: the control group and the exposed community near the cement plant in Chilanga. The exposed group was exposed to significant airborne pollutants, including cement dust containing CO, NOₓ, Oₓ, etc., from the plant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe exposed group had a much higher rate of mucous membrane irritation; eye, nose, and sinus irritations were 2.4, 4.8, and 2.4 times more common than in the control group. They also reported more chronic cough and other respiratory symptoms. Risk factors such as indoor use of charcoal exacerbated the problem, but living near the cement plant remained a strong independent risk factor for eye/nose irritation. Odds ratios up to 4.8. This research clearly demonstrated a link between cement pollution and acute health symptoms in a community context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Nkhama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePanel study (Zimbabwe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDust exposure was assessed by measuring PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations in an exposed group compared with a control group.PM2.5 and PM10 were significantly higher in the community, often exceeding the WHO guideline values, particularly during the dry season (Nkhama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong individuals followed over time, the exposed group had a higher prevalence of acute respiratory infection, cough, phlegm, nasal irritation, and wheezing, and lower lung function (FEV₁, FVC) than the control group. Also, a greater proportion of exposed respondents showed airflow limitation on spirometry. This evidence strongly implicates cement dust in the reduction of respiratory health. It highlights the need for ongoing health monitoring and dust mitigation among such residents (Nkhama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ismail et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservational study (Pakistan)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pollution with PTEs, potentially toxic elements, was measured in topsoil near the Kallar Kahar cement plants. Significantly high concentrations of cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt, iron, and manganese in soils within 500 m of plant pollution indicated severe pollution, particularly for Fe and Cr, which exceeded normal levels in \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;80% of samples. Soil pH was slightly alkaline (7.9\u0026ndash;8.6) near the plant, and electrical conductivity reduced with distance (Ismail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the research did not directly measure health outcomes, it warned that soil pollution could lead to toxicity in food crops and, in turn, affect human health if natives consume those crops. Agriculturalists in the area risk reduced yield and harvest quality decline due to heavy metal uptake. The findings suggest a requirement for soil remediation and resident education on reducing exposure to washing vegetables (Ismail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Zeb, Ali, and Khan 2019:20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecross-section (Pakistan)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most critical environmental stressor from cement plants, sulphur oxides, was the primary cause of air pollution. The crusher room and the rotary kiln were the primary sources of noise. Mercury and cadmium were the most serious soil pollutants. Cement dust containing calcium elements also degrades soil and crop quality (Zeb et al., 2019, p. 20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study investigates the health risks to cement plant workers\u0026rsquo; lungs and sinuses from dust exposure and the respiratory illnesses experienced by the nearby community, including children. Skin contamination among workers exposed to gases is also noted, and it is highlighted that NO₂, CO, and SO₂ emissions adversely affect both human health and the natural environment. The research findings support assured mitigation (sulphur emission control, noise dampening at crushers to reduce the most serious harms (Zeb et al., 2019, p. 20).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mehraj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCross-section (India)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research focused on community living near the cement plant with a 2\u0026ndash;3 km cement plant in Khrew, Kashmir. Ambient monitoring displayed mean SO₂ = 115.8 \u0026micro;g/ m\u0026sup3;, NO₂ = 117.1 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3; at the site (vs\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;28 and 19 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3; at a control site). Suspended particulate matter is also considerably higher near the plant. High levels of oxidative stress markers (ROS, NO) were observed in the blood of exposed individuals, indicating effects of pollution exposure (Mehraj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99% of the nearby community reported allergy-related respiratory issues, 96% reported chronic cough, 49% reported chest pain, and 51% reported an irregular heartbeat. The rate of chronic bronchitis, asthma, and even tuberculosis is 19% of residents. These were dramatically higher than in the control area. The cement dust was blamed for destroying a local cash crop, an economic loss for the residents. The research clearly linked cement plant emissions to these adverse health outcomes and to the need for urgent interventions to mitigate emissions and protect residents' health (Mehraj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review (India)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe systematic review includes research papers on cement plants and environmental Impact. The studies confirmed that cement plants are a key source of NOₓ, SOₓ, CO, CO₂, VOCs, and PM. In India, 8% of greenhouse emissions come from cement plants. Cement kiln dust and heavy metals are responsible for the loss of soil, water, and biodiversity. Highlighted that incorporating the circular economy methods (recycling, waste decrease) and substitute fuels could expressively reduce emissions (projected 12% CO₂ reduction (Mishra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review concludes that residents near the cement plant experience respiratory and lung function impairment attributable to dust and pollution. While precise employment figures were not provided, India\u0026rsquo;s growing cement sector likely generates employment, but at an environmental cost. Worried about the requirement for government policies and financial incentives to promote sustainable practice in the cement plant (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mohamad, Ibrahim, and Dogo 2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCross-section (Malaysia)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Rawang community, 89% of people expressed that there has been an increase in air pollution caused by the cement plant. Dust was cited to affect visibility and ambient temperature and 60.7% of the interviewed cited a cement plant as the important source of air pollution referring to blasting of raw material quarries as well as 24-hour truck traffic. Most of the Community members acknowledged that dust fallout and polluted soil reduce the crop harvests (Mohamad et al., 2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCough, eye irritation and respiratory issues, especially in children and older adults, were the most widespread symptoms the vast majority of the participants reported being accommodating with closing down of the windows. 12% concentrated on cleaning the home and use of face masks. Reported increasing daily costs on the health and cleaning services were given by some respondents. The cement plant has brought about the local jobs and employment but 42% of inhabitants altered their everyday routines or life styles as a result of contamination wherein they were forced to spend more moments indoors. The study suggested strong regulations and community levels to reduce the effects (Mohamad et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Berhe and Alemayehu 2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMix Method (Ethiopia)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe paper hypothesized dust, sound, smell, heat loss and stormwater dropouts as the primary environmental issues in the environs of the Messebo cement plant. Emission of the main dust and gases of the crushing, raw mill, and clinkers production lines impacted the air and the soil surrounding the area and also resulted in erosion, the formation of gullies in the area surrounding the plant (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe representatives of the indigenous population complained of disease complications, respiratory morbidity, skin contacts, farming land dusts after the settling of the pollution on the crop. The houses were also found to have structural damages (cracks) which they attributed to have taken place, as a result of the vibrations of the blasting nature. The attempts at mitigating pollution and waste and the involvement of community became more rigorous as recommended by the research article to counter these difficulties (Berhe \u0026amp; Alemayehu, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSynthesis of Results\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEvidence obtained through descriptive content analysis suitable for scoping reviews was synthesised. Given the heterogeneity of the included studies, formal meta-analysis was not appropriate. In its place, findings were organised into thematic domains corresponding to the review question, including environmental impacts (air, water, soil, and noise) and socioeconomic health outcomes, as well as economic and social impacts. First, the general characteristics of the included studies, such as location and design, were considered. The results were synthesised according to major impact themes, supported by examples from individual studies. Quantitative data, such as levels of pollutants and the percentage of people affected were reported where they existed to determine the level of observed effects. The objective of the scoping review methodology was to map all the relevant material, although of any quality (Joanna Briggs Institute. 2020). The weaknesses of the evidence have been outlined in the limitations section- of particular findings are pointed out in the synthesis. There were foundations of massive disparities in regional research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCharacteristics of induced research papers\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs indicated, 19 research papers were included in this study. The main aspects and results of this study were summarised in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The analysis was mainly based on Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Most of the researches (7) were conducted in Nigeria and targeted the phenomenon of major processes at the cement plants. Three articles were written in Indonesia and Zimbabwe, and one in both Ethiopia and Malaysia. Moreover, two articles were released in Pakistan and India. The countries included have their research papers outlined in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe researchers employed various study designs in the papers included in the review. Specifically, six studies utilised cross-sectional and health survey methodologies; five were observational; three employed qualitative approaches; two utilised mixed methods; two were Systematic reviews, including one panel study. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e provides further details regarding these study designs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe publication year was also highly diverse, ranging from 2012 to 2024, with most research papers published between 2015 and 2023, indicating a recent increase in attention to these issues. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the details of the years of publication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e In terms of the perspective of all studies explored, communities near cement plants. Sample sizes for community surveys vary widely: some health researchers surveyed hundreds of residents (Nkhama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), while others surveyed 423 individuals in Zambia, and qualitative studies conducted a smaller number of interviews to obtain key information. The environmental assessment research project collected numerous samples, including 168 water and effluent samples over a year (Ipeaiyeda \u0026amp; Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Although there were differences in perspectives, a common theme across all studies was the significant environmental pollution and the health and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esocial effects associated with nearby cement plants. Several studies specifically assessed pollutant levels in air, water, or soil, comparing them to standards or control sites, while others focused on gathering community perceptions and health reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEnvironmental impact on nearby communities\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll included research papers highlighted key environmental issues affecting nearby communities associated with cement plants. The major reported issues were linked to air quality degradation from cement dust and gaseous emissions, but water and soil pollution were also significant problems in the surrounding communities. Below are these environmental problems. Figure\u0026nbsp;5 presents the primary theme and its sub-themes from the content analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure 5 Themes \u0026amp; sub-themes\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 5 summarises the dominant content categories of Environmental findings identified through content analysis of the included studies. All statements, findings, and descriptions with an environmental dimension were identified and systematically extracted during data extraction, and then categorised based on similarity. These categories include air pollution, water pollution, noise, and soil contamination, which characterise the main environmental paths by which cement plants in LMICs affect surrounding residents. In fact, these categories reflect patterns that emerged repeatedly across studies and provide a structured means of presenting environmental findings. The structure of the overall categories is illustrated in the figure below and will be explained in detail in the sections that follow.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAir Pollution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement production has frequently been recognised as a significant source of ambient air pollution for surrounding residents (Hahad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Dust or particulate matter (PM) is generated during many phases of production, including quarrying, crushing, clinker production, and bagging. The ambient particulate matter levels, PM₂. ₅ and PM₁₀, around the cement plant, consistently exceed the safe limits (World Health Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, a study in Indonesia reported that PM₂.₅ concentrations around the packing site reached up to 0.1985 mg/m\u0026sup3;, and 47 out of 95 workers were exposed to levels considered acceptable (Achmad et al. 2024). In the Kashmir region of India, Mehraj reported mean ambient SO₂ and NOₓ concentrations in a village 2\u0026ndash;3 km away from a cement plant to be \u0026ldquo;115.8 and 117.1 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3;, respectively, with the former being more than four times higher\u0026rdquo; than a control site and greater than the applicable national (Mehraj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The burden of respiratory symptoms was consistently higher among those living in the vicinity. Many studies have reported emissions of PM, SO₂, NOₓ, CO, and trace pollutants, including heavy metals and dioxins, from cement operations. Greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO₂, are also substantial; a review estimated the cement industry's contribution to global anthropogenic CO₂ emissions at 5\u0026ndash;7%. CO₂ is not a local toxicant; it is indicative of the energy-intensive and combustive nature of cement manufacturing. The calcination process, the \u0026ldquo;heating of limestone,\u0026rdquo; is an inherent source of CO₂ (Kumari et bal., 2017). Poor air quality has been associated with quantifiable health risks in several studies. High levels of dust exposure were associated with respiratory diseases among both workers and community members. For example, authors stated that workers exposed to the highest levels of dust faced increased throat and nose irritation and a high risk of chronic respiratory diseases (Achmad et al. 2024; Susetyo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In Zambia, community-level PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ exceeded the WHO standards by large margins near a cement facility, while residents reported substantially higher rates of cough, wheeze, and other respiratory symptoms than residents in control villages (Nkhama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The findings correspond with the evidence on chronic PM exposure on the world, which is linked to chronic bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease (Mehraj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Contamination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e According to different types of research, cement plants, the majority of which are composed of alkaline dust that includes metals, cover a topsoil of the nearby territory, altering soil chemistry. The authors discovered that in Nigeria, the topsoil of the forest near a cement plant had much higher pH levels (up to 6.03, which is above the typical acidic levels), lower organic matter, and higher nutrient and heavy metal concentrations because of the deposition of cement plant dust (Adebiyi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The dust effectively neutralised soil acidity and elevated soil alkalinity, a change that can alter local plant ecosystems. Likewise, in Pakistan, elevated concentrations of PTEs, mainly cadmium, lead, chromium, and nickel, in soils up to 500 meters around the perimeter of two cement plants (Agbede et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ismail et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Contamination indicated severe pollution and increased concerns about the uptake of these metals by crops. Biodiversity loss was reported as a consequence of these soil changes. Vegetation around cement industries is often subject to decline or compositional changes due to dust and metal exposure, yet very few studies quantitatively assess ecosystem biodiversity. In general, cement dust was found to alter the physical and chemical properties of soil, such as water content, nutrient availability, and cation exchange capacity, which often contribute to reduced agricultural productivity in nearby farmlands (Oyinloye \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Samdariya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWater Pollution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Cement plant can also affect water resources both through intake and pollution. Several included papers, particularly from Africa, focused on water contamination. In Nigeria, a study found that waste from cement plants led to higher turbidity, suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals downstream of the discharge point than upstream (Ipeaiyeda \u0026amp; Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The water quality index was categorised as highly contaminated and unsafe for drinking due to the effluent (Ipeaiyeda \u0026amp; Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Heavy metals, including lead and zinc, exceed standard limits, posing a higher risk to public health. Waste oil and other hazardous effluents from cement plants, reported by residents of Rumuolmeni, Nigeria, to have migrated into groundwater and local rivers, have contaminated the primary source of drinking water and killed fish in streams (Brown, 2023). Moreover, water use by cement plants can reduce community access to water. Cement production requires water for cooling and dust suppression conducted a water footprint analysis showing that significant water volumes are embedded in cement production (Hosseinian \u0026amp; Nezamoleslami \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). One study from Ethiopia reported that villagers were concerned that plant operations lowered the water table and that the surrounding area was polluted by runoff and quarry sediments (Berhe \u0026amp; Alemayehu, 2014). Moreover, standing water in areas adjacent to the cement plant can create breeding grounds for mosquitoes; therefore, these conditions indirectly affect public health. Research from Nigeria highlighted a rise in malaria cases in the vicinity of a cement plant quarry pond (Adebiyyi, 2019; Afolabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, water dilapidation and water insecurity are part of the cement plant\u0026rsquo;s environmental footprint on the community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNoise Pollution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoise pollution is less investigated than air and water pollution; nevertheless, some studies consider it a serious environmental issue. Cement plants usually generate noise from the heavy machinery, grinders, crushers, rotary kilns, and irregular blasts from mining operations (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014). In Ethiopia, community members surrounding the Messebo cement plant reported that noise often disturbed daily activities and even caused structural damage to houses, such as cracks in walls (Berhe and Alemayehu 2014). Industrial noise has been associated with a wide variety of health effects, including hearing loss and psychosomatic disorders (Oyinloye \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Long-term exposure is also associated with headaches, fatigue, sleep problems, and hypertension (Nkhama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, most studies did not report quantitative noise measurements. Some qualitative studies frequently reported that noise pollution is an extra environmental burden for nearby residents (Nkhama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Generally, cement plants in LMICs also cause environmental problems through air pollution from dust and emissions, contamination of soil and water sources, and severe noise pollution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocioeconomic Impact on Communities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eFigure 6: Theme \u0026amp; sub-themes\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe environmental problems described above pose a range of health risks and socioeconomic impacts on communities living near cement plants. Key impacts are outlined below. Figure\u0026nbsp;6 presents the primary theme and its sub-themes from the content analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth Impacts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlmost all included studies investigating community health reported elevated rates of respiratory conditions and other illnesses among individuals working near cement plants. Commonly reported symptoms were chronic cough, phlegm, wheezing, shortness of breath, irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat (Mehraj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Oyinloye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In Khrew, India, a surprising 96% of nearby community members of the cement plant had chronic cough, and 99% reported some form of allergic respiratory irritation, compared with much lower percentages in the control villages (Mehraj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Asthma, bronchitis, and even tuberculosis were more prevalent in the exposed group (Ismail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Mehraj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In the Ewekoro community of Nigeria, studies claimed that about 20% of the local community had asthma, and 14% reported skin cancer, which the authors associated with prolonged dust exposure and possibly toxic compounds from the factory (Afolabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Mohamad et al., 2018). Employees in cement plants who often live in the local communities are particularly vulnerable subgroups. Researchers have reported conditions such as silicosis from inhaling silica in cement dust, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other work-related lung diseases among cement employees that can later affect their families (Adebiyyi, 2019; Charles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond respiratory problems, cardiovascular effects were also observed. Air pollution (especially PM and NOx) can increase the incidence of cardiovascular disease (Adebiyyi, 2019). In a mixed-methods survey conducted at the Obajana plant in Nigeria, approximately 10% of participants reported cardiovascular conditions and hypertension, which the study linked to pollution stressors, including noise and vibration from the plant (Abdul-Wahab, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Charles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Cement dust and chemical exposure also led to skin and eye irritation. Residents in Zambia had substantially higher odds of eye irritation and sinus problems near the cement plant, with odds ratios for mucous membrane irritation 2.4\u0026ndash;4.8 times higher than in the control area (Nkhama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). It should be mentioned that these health effects are almost always a matter of correlation; however, the repetition of these effects in country after country increases the likelihood of a causal relationship. Many studies have clearly associated measured pollutant levels with observed health outcomes (Brunekreef \u0026amp; Holgate, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Nkhama et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) reported that during periods of high ambient PM2.5 concentrations in the exposed Zambian community, natives' lung function (FEV₁ and FVC) decreased significantly, indicating an acute effect of cement dust on respiratory function. The World Health Organisation has highlighted that long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution contributes to strokes, cardiovascular problems, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases (World Health Organisation, 2024). The present review shows that communities surrounding cement plants in LMICs are severely suffering from these health problems, without a satisfactory healthcare structure to address them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEconomic Impacts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement plants have positive effects in terms of economic opportunities, which include job opportunities and the development of local businesses. However, these benefits might not be equally spread in terms of benefits and livelihood impacts. There are several case studies of this separation: Ansori and Handoyo (2018) conducted a study and discovered in Indonesia that the establishment of a cement plant in a rural area resulted in the situation that many villagers could no longer conduct their agriculture and construction activities due to increased plant positions that paid better. This had the effect of increased household earnings in households that employed people and also increased living standard; others had the ability of owning their own transport and other homes. The plant was involved in the activities of the community welfare, such as it gave educative activities and sensitized people about the issues of great concern. Investment was however unequally distributed. It is worth mentioning that the use of land by the plant led to the displacement of 29% of farmers, and those who the plant did not hire believed their livelihoods and traditional practices were adversely affected by the plant(Ansori \u0026amp; Handoyo, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Zimbabwe, the author wrote that the community development projects provided by plants included road and school building, and a small hospital, and provided scholarship opportunities to the students, but only 3% of the people living there were employed permanently at the cement plant. Majority of the other jobs were made on short-term basis or taken up by external contractors having given skills (Kusena et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, 25% of nearby natives had to move, disrupting community linkages (Kusena et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Part of the participants in the study hypothesized that the existence of truck drivers and external workers led to the rise in the occurrence of social problems including rise in the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the community. In Nigeria, there was an explanation of the boom and bust situation in a community by Brown (2023) Whenever the cement plant operated, the locals saw jobs, better roads and successful small businesses and the cement plant provided scholarships to the young people. The economic growth in the community plummeted, employment rates decreased, roads fell into disrepair, small businesses collapsed, and poverty and insecurity levels increased after the plant was shut down (Brown, 2023). In many instances (Ethiopia, Indonesia, Nigeria), agricultural area was taken under the development of cement plants or limestone mines quarries, which was not adequately compensated to the locals (Ansori \u0026amp; Handoyo (2018); Berhe \u0026amp; Alemayehu, (2014); Brown, (2023). This not only affected domestic income but also affected cultural livelihoods, forcing people to do daily wage labour and struggle with unemployment. An example is in Pakistan, where the inhabitants of a village lost their farm to a cement factory, which led to a lack of independence and instead of having jobs, community members relied on the cement factory. (Ismail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocial Impacts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial cohesion can also be affected. The entry of external workers, primarily male, working in cement plants was pointed out in Indonesia and associated with a possibility of gender-related social issues (Achmad et al. 2024). A study in India examined shifts from traditional mud houses to cement houses, attributing these changes to the cement plant's effects on class and caste dynamics and social divisions (Mishra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A study also pointed out that women living near cement plants may bear unequal burdens, for example, when crop livelihoods are lost, women who often farm lose economic independence (Glazebrook et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, a rise in male outsider workers can increase the risk of gender-based violence and harassment in native communities (C\u0026eacute;zanne et al., 2020). However, this problem was not extensively investigated in the included studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies also highlighted unsatisfactory community engagement and environmental mitigation by the cement plants. For example, 74% of the community living near a cement plant in Obajana, Nigeria, felt that pollution control equipment was not enough (Ipeaiyeda \u0026amp; Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In Ethiopia, they indicated that the plant additionally put in place certain new technology like dust filters, but failed to involve the community in decision-making processes, which made the locals feel that they are not heard (Berhe \u0026amp; Alemayehu, 2014). Community complaints can be caused by the absence of effective communication. Certainly, some of the studies mentioned cases of disapproval and discord towards the cement plants management among communities on matters of land payments and environmental harm (Ansori \u0026amp; Handoyo, 2018). To sum up, despite its potential of supporting economic development, the benefits of cement plants to the local communities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) seem to be partial and unequally spread. On the other hand, pollution and disruption of societies impose significantly health costs on these communities which are disproportionate. The effectiveness of local the institutions and the policymaking is critical in mediating such consequences, especially in the implementation of environmental policies and the requirement of the companies to invest in regional development or control pollution. The results of the current review suggest that regulatory control has been weak in most LMIC settings and that there is a necessity to give more vocal voice to the community in industrial projects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis scoping review presents an extensive discussion of the environmental, health, and socioeconomic impacts of cement plants on the populations of the neighbourhoods in LMICs. An over-view of 19 articles in two countries, Asia and Africa, demonstrates quite a continuous style, which is that cement plants are helpful in growing economies and offering jobs in different nations, however, in the same breath they cause harmful environmental pollution and serious health issues at population level. The most commonly investigated issue of the environment is air pollution. The discharges at cement plants are particulate matter, cement dust, nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), and carbon monoxide that lower the quality of ambient air (Bărbulescu and Hosen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). According to some of the studies, the levels of pollution are high thought they surpass national and international levels. As an illustration, SO₂ and NOₓ levels in one of the Indian regions (Khrew) were reported to be around four times as high as in other areas (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This is in line with estimates given by WHO claiming that millions of premature deaths in the world are correlated to air pollution in the air (World Health Organization: 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe researches found in this scoping review suggested the common presence of respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms among the residents who were exposed. One study revealed that 96% of people were having respiratory problems and more than half of them had cardiovascular problems related to the emissions of the cement plants (Mehraj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These results pointed at the imbalanced risk of people who have to reside close to cement factories in LMICs but do not receive adequate health services. A special attention deserves the chemical composition of cement dust. Besides causing respiratory irritation, the dust can exist in the form of silica, alkaline particles, and heavy metals, and long-term effects include COPD and silicosis. Community members who are older and children make the most susceptible age groups. This review highlights the necessity to prepare and institute suitable dust-control equipment. The water systems and the soil were also significantly impacted. Untreated or poorly treated wastewater discharged by cement facilities elevates the amount of pH, heavy metals and solids suspended in adjacent water bodies (Ding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ipeaiyeda and Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Water insecurity is enhanced in many LMIC environments that have a poor water infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot many studies reported to have contaminated rivers with risky elements of drinking and deterioration in aquatic biodiversity, such as fish death downstream of the waste discharge sites (Ipeaiyeda and Obaje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The impact on agriculture was widely touched upon, such as the covered surface of the crops with dust, reduced harvests, poor soil activity, like in Nigeria and Zambia, where agricultural inhabitants are more troubled by water diversion and pollution (Brown, 2023; Hosseinian \u0026amp; Nezamoleslami, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). There were also reports of soil alkalinity and accumulation of heavy metal, which reduced the health of plants; hence, biodiversity was lost (Wojtacha-Rychter \u0026amp; Smoliński, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The socioeconomic implications were a contrasting case of land acquisition based on cement kilns or mining sites that led to the permanent loss of arable land accompanied by dissatisfaction of the community because of ineffective compensation practices, as it is observed in Malaysia and Zimbabwe (Mohamad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Nkhama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).Cement plants also employ people, yet majority of those falling in the community claimed that they only get low paying or short term contractual employment, with the better skilled jobs being offered to outsiders. This system made the system to be seen as unfair and a source of social tension. In Indonesia, the locals noted that foreigners ended up securing better skilled jobs than Indonesians which created a vicious cycle of being rejected (Kamaruddin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of economic dependency on an individual industrial employer was also dangerous: temporary shutdowns in Rumuolumeni led to unemployment and economic uncertainty (Brown, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere were also social effects even though they were less documented. The growth of plants led to the displacement of the community, thus undermining the cultural practices, traditional land-based identities, and social ties that have been existing over time and among the members of the community (Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Families that had been resettled in Nigeria and Zambia had problems adjusting to new locations, resources and marginalization. There have been cases when unaddressed issues of pollution, poor compensation, or the absence of involvement in the decisions-making process in the community resulted in protests and mistrust between the communities and those who operated the plants (Brown, 2023; Nkhama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong terms or intervention research is one of the gaps identified in the literature. Several studies were of cross-sectional design; thus, cumulative exposure could not be estimated, nor could the mitigation strategies be evaluated. Such complex environmental modeling as dust dispersion simulations was in short supply. The identification of only one systematic method of analysis allowed for estimating one of the key sources of pollution: DEMATEL, which was applied by Zeb et al. (2019) in Pakistan, and which ranged in machine movements like crushers or kilns as the main ones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePolicy and mitigation implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservations in LMICs reveal that there are massive English in pollution-control monitoring frameworks and regulation enforcement procedures. As an illustration, 74% of communities close to a cement plant in Nigeria indicated inadequate mitigation procedures (Oyinloye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The installation of advanced control technologies had been made without transparency and the involvement of the residents in Ethiopia (Berhe \u0026amp; Alemayehu, 2014). LMICs require the setting up of regulatory systems in line with the air quality standards set by the World Health Organisation\u0026rsquo;s (2021). It involves the introduction of PM, SO₂, and NOₓ restrictions of emissions that demand dust detention technology and real-time and community-level reporting of data on air and water quality to the community. Impacts could be minimized by making improvements at the technical level. Substitute fuels, reprocessing, and clinker replacement because they are cleaner manufacturing approaches have demonstrated the ability to achieve a 12% cost of CO 2 reduction by 2025 (Mishra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Co-processing waste and integrating renewable energy, as already practised in some high-income countries, could be adapted for LMIC contexts with suitable technical and financial support. Equitable economic benefit-sharing is also important. Residents exposed to pollution should receive tangible benefits such as employment assurances, health programs, medical screening, and community growth funds. Meaningful resident engagement in environmental monitoring and decision-making can support the rebuilding of trust and ensure accountability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFuture Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn future research, the following should be emphasized:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies are encouraged adopting longitudinal research designs, following the cohorts of a given population such as children, pregnant women, and older adults who live around cement plants, during a long period. The fact that data is gathered on varying scales of time helps the studies to capture the varying development of the health outcomes, which include, premature birth, miscarriage, subsequent lungs infection, respiratory infections prevalence declines, and cancer, over periods associated with the metrics of exposure. Notably, a process developed by the community of establishing a connection between the native respondents to the research process method and data collection will add to the relevance and trust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome of the research that should be pursued in the future are composite monitoring frameworks that can effectively monitor the amount of pollutants in the atmosphere, water, and the soil. The techniques that would be involved in this framework include the use of low-cost networks of sensors to measure PMs; real time measurements of NOₓ and SO₂ and periodical sample of heavy metals. The supply of supplemental information could be offered by the use of sophisticated methods such as remote detection of dust plumes, biomonitoring with the help of the plants or lichens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research needs to explore the allocation of costs and benefits which may come as a result of cement production in specific parts of community. This will entail the measurement of the economic trade offs between employment gains and losses as a result of environmental degradation, expenditure of health, loss of crops, and damage to properties. Moreover, qualitative research describing experiences and perceptions of members of the community would contribute to the knowledge about realities being lived and would mean a lot when it comes to designing inclusive policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe inhabitants residing close to cement plants in LMICs have to encounter a lot of difficulties such as environmental loss, pollution that causes severe health issues, and multi-tangled socioeconomic effects. The papers cited in this review are those published after 2010, and they offer credible evidence of air, water, and soil pollution by the cement plants, which have led to a high level of respiratory and other diseases among the communities living around the cement plants. There was an uneven distribution of benefits of cement plants with many missing out on economic gains, and those who benefited favored a few members of local communities, causing them to be unable to earn a living, undermined their economies, and social instability. These results highlight the importance of taking some action. Cement plant leaders and policymakers in LMICs need to put more stringent measures to protect the communities. He or she should enforce stringent emission laws as enforced by international laws, install new state-of-the-art pollution controlling devices and make sure that the local population of the country is not left behind in the positive economic gain of the cement plant initiatives. To restore trust, the community and environmental monitoring should be involved and transparent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, there should be more ecologically friendly method in cement production. Through this scoping review, the researcher will inform multi-sectoral, government cement plants, and the civil society in developing policy regulations and intervention programs that will promote economic growth through the use of cement plants and other industries without inflicting issues of health and livelihood on the vulnerable groups. With the ever-shaunching urbanisation and industrialisation of LMICs, the challenge would be to keep pace to economic growth with environmental health and social justice. The given recommendations can lead to specific changes in the cement industry, so these issues can be solved in a way so that the process of change is sustainable and holistic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStrengths and limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe comparative evidence of the effects of cement plants on LMIC communities is the first scoping conducted to the knowledge of the author that connects both the environmental and social studies. A comprehensive search in several databases, including the grey literature, improved the reporting of the non-indexed local research. Quantitative and qualitative data, along with a review of perspectives on the covered works, are provided in order to have a comprehensive picture. Nevertheless, this review has some limitations. No research in other languages was considered; they could have missed related studies conducted in other languages. This was restricted to the period 2010\u0026ndash;2024: previous studies dating back to 1980\u0026ndash;2009 when some of the plants were also initiated may not have been considered thus establishing a gap in time. It also emerged that the evidence levels were mixed with some studies having limited sample sizes and lack of strict exposure evaluation, therefore the findings must be taken wary to causality. Being a scoping review, we have not aimed to critically appraise or sift out research studies due to quality considerations; rather, we aimed to map out all available evidence. Last, it was impossible to measure the impacts using meta-analysis due to heterogeneity in its outcomes and methods. Publication bias might also occur: those that have reported the dramatic impacts might be more likely to be published and thus community with no impacts (or minimal impacts) might not have been reported at all.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eLMICS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Lower Middle-Income Countries\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePM \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Particulate matter\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSO2 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; sulphur dioxide\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNOₓ \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Nitrogen Oxides\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCO \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;carbon monoxide\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZahid Ali Khan: Conceptualization; Methodology; Data Curation; Formal Analysis; Investigation; Original Draft Preparation; Visualization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eŁukasz Afeltowicz: Supervision; Methodology; Validation; Writing Review and Editing; Conceptual Guidance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Jacek Gądecki: Supervision; Writing Review and Editing; Validation; Theoretical Guidance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets of included studies during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. This study is a scoping review of previously published literature and did not involve human participants or primary data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAI Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis scoping review was conducted by the authors, and no AI was involved in generating ideas, arguments, or substantive content.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdul-Wahab SA. Impact of fugitive dust emissions from cement plants on nearby communities. 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Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal. 2018 Nov 13;30(4):751-67. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/MEQ-06-2018-0112/full/html?journalCode=meq\u0026amp;utm_source=TrendMD\u0026amp;utm_medium=cpc\u0026amp;utm_campaign=Management_of_Environmental_Quality_TrendMD_1\u0026amp;WT.mc_id=Emerald_TrendMD_1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Environment, Health, Socio-Economic Problems, LMICs, Cement Plants","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8450765/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8450765/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement production is known to contribute significantly to the growth of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs); its booming growth has cast significant concerns about the environmental and socio-economic effects, it has on the immediate inhabitants living around the projects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the JBI and PRISMA-ScR criteria, this scoping review was a compilation of peer-reviewed materials published between 2010 and 2024 on social socioeconomic impact. The number of studies in Asia and Africa was nineteen, and all of them demonstrated a certain pattern of negative impact on the local environment and human health. In all the researched papers, there was a significant amount of air pollution, and plants produced the dust and dangerous gases in large quantities. The quality of air often surpasses disadvantages to a point of causing health-related issues among the communities, such as coughing, wheezing, and eye irritation, among other respiratory symptoms, and this may decrease crop yields. Water pollution was also a critical issue because wastewater and runoff moved sediment, oil, and chemical toxins to rivers and groundwater, making the sources of water unhealthy. The blasting of mines to extract raw materials and heavy machinery in cement plants are the cause of loud noise pollution, which has been identified as the source of severe stress and sleep disorders in communities. Cement plants do not offer many jobs and fewer infrastructures, but these advantages were not enough. Plants primarily employ outsiders permanently and the native agriculturalists lost their land without being compensated. The dislocation, cultural interference, and clash between the plant operators were the order of the day.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFindings:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings highlighted the fact that more stringent rules and protection of the residents are needed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe governments ought to adopt emission control pollution checking and involve the residents who will be affected in the decision-making process. More modern and current technologies should be employed in cement plants, and the economic gains genuinely shared with the natives.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Environmental and socio-economic impacts of cement industry on communities living near cement plants in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) from 2010 to 2024: scoping reviews","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-07 12:00:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8450765/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ec3c7062-26be-473e-bcce-5d714e7bbcf5","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-20T22:11:26+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-07 12:00:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8450765","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8450765","identity":"rs-8450765","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}