Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia

Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia Luis F. Bustamante-Narváez, Damaris Grandas-Gaona, Valeria Machacón Gonzalez, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9476737/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Antropogenic factors have come to determine the distribution and behavior of different species, whether native or invasive. In this way, this study, through citizen sciencie carried out during the COVID-19 lockdown, sought to determine the urban distribution of the invasive frog E.johnstonei , Specie with direct development. 1,770 recordings were collected, revealing that the species has a high occurrence in high-income areas with tall buildings, while it was absent in low-income sectores generally characterized by low-rise constructions. Significant differences were observed in environmental variables such as temperature and precipitacion, being lower in areas with presence than in those with absence, whereas NDVI did not show a clear effect. This highlights the influence of the urban environment and social segregation in the distribution of the species, limiting the distribution range of invasive species. Furthermore, it underscores the value of integrating social dimensions into urban ecology, using easily accessible tools for fauna monitoring, especially in contexts where the impact of urban expansion on biodiversity is poorly understood. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Urban environments present complex mosaics of social and ecological structures. Invasive species are often viewed as generalists capable of exploiting disturbed habitats, yet recent perspectives highlight the importance of socioeconomic and urban structural factors in shaping ecological distributions within cities (Kraus 2015 ; Borden and Flory 2021 ; Simkin et al. 2022 ). In this case study, we present evidence that the distribution of Eleutherodactylus johnstonei in Barranquilla, Colombia a widely introduced, direct-developing frog (Ernst et al. 2011 ; Yuan et al. 2022 ), is shaped not by vegetation or rainfall, but by patterns socioeconomic and urban form. Through a city-wide citizen science initiative conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown, we mapped the presence of this species across urban gradients. Our findings illustrate how social geography can create ecological boundaries, reinforcing calls to integrate human and ecological dimensions in urban invasion biology (Chamberlain et al. 2020 ). Case Study and Approach The study focused on the urban distribution of Eleutherodactylus johnstonei in Barranquilla, Colombia, one of the largest urban centers in the Caribbean region, located in the department of Atlántico (Galvis-Aponte 2009 ). The city lies along the Magdalena River and exhibits a hot, humid tropical climate. Barranquilla’s urban landscape includes wetlands, mangroves, tropical dry forest remnants, and densely built neighborhoods (Aldana-Dominguez et al. 2022), offering a gradient of socioecological conditions ideal for evaluating species distribution under urbanization pressures. To investigate how this urban heterogeneity influences the presence of Eleutherodactylus johnstonei, a large-scale acoustic survey was conducted involving local community participation. Thus, between July and August 2020, over 500 students from Universidad del Norte participated in a citizen science initiative under the "Ecocampus" program. Each participant recorded nighttime audio from their household window and submitted the recordings via a mobile form. Using Google Maps plus codes and Barranquilla's corner-based location system, we georeferenced over 2,424 recordings. A team of researchers curated the dataset, retaining 1,771 high-quality georeferenced audio clips. This resulted in 470 presence-confirmed recordings and 1300 absences of E. johnstonei . The information related to each record and the audio recordings was stored in the open and multidisciplinary repository Zenodo. You may consult this information at the following link: https://zenodo.org/records/19446090 These data were overlaid on a 550 × 550 m spatial grid covering the city (Fig. 1 ). We combined these presence/absence maps with the next variables: Socioeconomic strata (Fig. 1 B): these data were obtained from Barranquilla’s city planning office, based on simplified layers derived from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE; https://www.dane.gov.co ). The stratification system classifies neighborhoods into strata 1 (lowest income) through 6 (highest income). Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) : for this variable, 10 cloud-free raster layers (3 × 3-pixel resolution) were generated using Planet satellite data (Planet 2025 ) corresponding to: Jan 4, Jan 6, Feb 1, Mar 1, Mar 25, Jul 25, Sep 4, Nov 4, Dec 4, and Dec 30, 2020. Precipitation and Temperature were obtained from WorldClim v2 (Fick and Hijmans 2017 ). Local Climate Zones (LCZs) generated using the WUDAPT (World Urban Database and Access Portal Tools) platform (Demuzere et al. 2022 ) (Fig. 1 C). To analyze the relationship between Local Climate Zones (LCZ) and socioeconomic levels, a bar chart was used to show how socioeconomic strata are distributed across each zone type. Additionally, statistical tests were applied to evaluate whether these zones and strata influence the presence of the frog Eleutherodactylus johnstonei . One of these tests was Fisher’s exact test, which confirmed a significant relationship between the presence or absence of the frog and the categories variables. In the case of socioeconomic strata, a special version of this test with simulations (10,000 repetitions) was used, which provided a more reliable result, especially since there were very few data points in some strata. On other hand, we used exploratory box-and-whisker plots to visualize the distribution of NDVI and bioclimatic variables between presence and absence sites. To formally assess environmental differences between presence and absence cells, we implemented a Monte Carlo simulation with stratified random sampling to balance group sizes: For NDVI , we randomly sampled 490 presence and 490 absence values across all dates per iteration. For Precipitation and Temperature , we used 49 presence values and randomly sampled 49 absence values per iteration (static raster). Each of 1,000 iterations included a Kruskal-Wallis test to compare distributions. We recorded p-values across iterations and computed the proportion of simulations yielding statistically significant results (p < 0.05) as a measure of statistical robustness. Key Findings and Observations The frog was detected in 49 sites (unique grid cells) with presence (Fig. 1 A), all within intermedian (level 4) and high (levels 5 and 6) socioeconomic strata, predominantly composed of compact or open high-rise buildings. On the other hand, E. johnstonei recorded 87 absences in lower strata (1–3). These results are highly related due to the spatial segregation of local climate zones in relation to different social strata ( Fig. 1 F ) . Zone [1] (compact areas with tall skyscrapers) accounts for more than 50% of high-income strata (stratum 5: 88.6% and stratum 6: 90.9%). On the other hand, zone [4] (open areas with tall skyscrapers) is only present in middle (stratum 4: 4%) and high-income strata (stratum 5: 5.9%). It is worth noting that, for this urban classification, records of the frog’s presence were found only in these zones. In contrast, zone [3] (compact areas with low-rise buildings) predominates with more than 50% in low-income strata (strata 1, 2, and 3), as well as in middle-high stratum (stratum 4). This reflects a preference of the species for areas with tall buildings. The results obtained for the bioclimatic variables showed a high proportion of replications with statistically significant differences (p < 0.05), exceeding or approaching the 95% threshold in most cases (Temperature 1: 100%; Precipitation: 94.6%). This suggests that even when randomly controlling for the imbalance in sample size between presence and absence categories, the differences between groups were consistent and statistically robust. This trend was supported by boxplots, which showed systematically lower values of mean annual temperature and total annual precipitation in sites where Eleutherodactylus johnstonei was present, compared to those where the species was absent. In contrast, the NDVI analysis did not show a significant difference, as only 89.1% of the Kruskal-Wallis test iterations were significant, suggesting that this variable did not have a determining effect on the species' distribution (Fig. 2 ). This pattern reveals a striking ecological constraint imposed by socioeconomic structure. Likewise, the luxury effect where biodiversity is concentrated in wealthier areas has been documented in other urban contexts, often linked to higher investment in greenery and ecological infrastructure (Villadiego and Velay-Dabat 2014 ; Chamberlein et al. 2020). In Barranquilla, this phenomenon appears to shape not only native biodiversity but also the establishment of non-native species. The spatial coupling of economic inequality and ecological access creates an unusual pattern where an invasive amphibian is constrained by social geography. Reflections and Broader Implications This case illustrates the value of integrating socioeconomic data into urban biodiversity research. The observed pattern challenges the notion that invasive species universally thrive across disturbed environments (Borden and Flory 2021 ; Ernst et al. 2011 ). In cities, ecological opportunity is not equally distributed: luxury-driven landscaping, irrigation, and urban form can generate microhabitats that support or exclude species (Chamberlain et al. 2020 ). The study also demonstrates how citizen science can generate high-resolution, actionable data under difficult conditions. Conducted entirely during a lockdown, the project mobilized hundreds of non-specialists to collect spatial data using smartphones, enabling real-time biodiversity monitoring at a city-wide scale. Curious exploration using low-cost, widely available tools such as smartphones, online mapping services, and cloud platforms can effectively support ecological knowledge development, particularly in regions where baseline biodiversity data are sparse or absent. This approach is particularly valuable when studying species with complex invasion dynamics, such as Eleutherodactylus johnstonei . Although this species has been categorized as invasive in Colombia (Ernst et al. 2011 ), the naturally hot and arid conditions of Barranquilla may impose physiological constraints that limit its expansion. This observation has important conservation and management implications. Notably, E. johnstonei is a known carrier of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the chytrid fungus responsible for global amphibian declines (Hudson et al. 2019 ). Its current restriction to more affluent, possibly more vegetated urban areas may be containing its potential ecological impact. However, as urban sprawl and infrastructure continue to expand, the available niche for this species could also increase. Therefore, future monitoring efforts should integrate not only ecological corridors but also the socioeconomic structure of urban landscapes when modeling its potential spread and impact. Conclusion Urban ecosystems are shaped not only by buildings and trees, but by the distribution of wealth, privilege, and access. In Barranquilla, E. johnstonei exemplifies an invasive species constrained not by climate or habitat, but by the social structure of the city. These findings urge researchers and planners to recognize the social boundaries that define ecological possibility in cities. Citizen science, especially when embedded in educational programs, offers a powerful pathway to uncover and address these patterns. This model can be extended to track other vocal or visually distinctive species. As cities grow, monitoring efforts must consider not only ecological corridors and green space but also social stratification, infrastructure, and access. Effective urban biodiversity management requires an understanding of how human patterns shape ecological ones. Declarations Author Contribution L.F.B.N. performed analyses and wrote the manuscript. D.G.G. and V.M.G. curated the data. D.A.P.E. conducted preliminary LCZ analyses and assisted with data curation. J.H. coordinated data collection. R.N. conceived the study, contributed to statistical analyses, and co-wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement We sincerely thank all participants who contributed audio recordings during the COVID-19 lockdown, without whom this study would not have been possible. We acknowledge Juan Pablo Gómez Echeverri (Universidad del Norte) for valuable discussions during the early development of this project. We also thank Javier Cristancho, Alberto Reales, Toni Celia, and Harold Padilla for stimulating conversations and for posing the initial challenge that led to this work. Data Availability The dataset generated and analyzed during this study, including georeferenced audio recordings and associated metadata, is publicly available in the Zenodo repository under the title “Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia”. The data can be accessed at: https://zenodo.org/records/19446090Socioeconomic stratification data were obtained from Barranquilla’s city planning office based on layers derived from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) and are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author, subject to institutional permissions.NDVI raster data were generated using Planet satellite imagery (Planet API), and climatic variables (temperature and precipitation) were obtained from WorldClim v2, both of which are publicly available from their respective repositories.All other data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper. References Aldana-Domínguez J, Palomo I, Arellana J, de la Gómez C (2022) Unpacking the complexity of nature´s contributions to human well-being: lessons to transform the Barranquilla Metropolitan Area into a BiodiverCity. Ecosyst People 18(1):430–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2022.2097477 Borden JB, Flory SL (2021) Urban evolution of invasive species. Front Ecol Environ 19:184–191. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2295 Chamberlain D, Reynolds C, Amar A, Henry D, Caprio E, Batáry P (2020) Wealth, water and wildlife: Landscape aridity intensifies the urban luxury effect. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 29(9):1595–1605. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13122 Demuzere M, Kittner J, Martilli A, Mills G, Moede C, Stewart ID, van Vliet J, Bechtel B (2022) A global map of Local Climate Zones to support earth system modelling and urban scale environmental science. Earth System Science Data Discussions 2022: 1–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-010-9930-5 Ernst R, Massemin D, Kowarik I (2011) Non-invasive invaders from the Caribbean: The status of Johnstone’s Whistling frog ( Eleutherodactylus johnstonei ) ten years after its introduction to Western French Guiana. Biol Invasions 13:1767–1777 Fick SE, Hijmans RJ (2017) WorldClim 2: New 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int J Climatol 37(12):4302–4315. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5086 Galvis-Aponte LA (2009) Geografía económica del Caribe continental. Documentos de Trabajo Sobre Economía Reg y Urbana 119:1–77 Hudson MA, Griffiths RA, Martin L, Fenton C, Adams SL, Blackman A, Sulton M, Perkins MW, Lopez J, Garcia G, Tapley B, Young RP, Cunningham AA (2019) Reservoir frogs: seasonality of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in robber frogs in Dominica and Montserrat, vol 7. PeerJ, p e7021. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7021 Kraus F (2015) Impacts from invasive reptiles and amphibians. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 46:75–97 Planet LPBC (2025) Planet application program interface: In space for life on Earth. https://api.planet.com . Accessed 28 july 2025 Simkin RD, Seto KC, McDonald RI, Jetz W (2022) Biodiversity impacts and conservation implications of urban land expansion projected to 2050. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 (12): e2117297119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2117297119 Villadiego K, Velay-Dabat MA (2014) Outdoor thermal comfort in a hot and humid climate of Colombia: Afield study in Barranquilla. Build Environ 75:142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.01.017 Yuan ML, Frederick JH, McGuire JA, Bell RC, Smith SR, Fenton C, Cassius J, Williams R, Wang IJ, Powell R, Hedges SB (2022) Endemism, invasion, and overseas dispersal: the phylogeographic history of the Lesser Antillean frog, Eleutherodactylus johnstonei . Biol Invasions 24(9):2707–2722 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9476737","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":627897850,"identity":"4410d372-56ef-41d9-8f8d-42110a4ae1a4","order_by":0,"name":"Luis F. 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(B) Spatial division of socioeconomic strata recorded for Barranquilla. (C) Spatial distribution of defined local climate zones in Barranquilla. Grid cells are delimited by 550 × 550 m pixels. (D) Frequency of \u003cem\u003eE. johnstonei\u003c/em\u003epresence/absence as a function of socioeconomic strata. (E) Proportion of \u003cem\u003eE. johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e presence/absence by local climate zones. (F) Variation of local climate zones across socioeconomic strata. The frog is present in areas with higher socioeconomic classification (Fisher’s exact test, p \u0026lt; 0.05), as well as in zones with a higher density of skyscrapers, whether compact or open (Fisher’s exact test, p \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9476737/v1/42df7fcd3748d7f4518a3b99.png"},{"id":107687638,"identity":"0948d66c-b5ca-4cd6-bbb0-0535ada87c06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 04:55:16","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":148934,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnvironmental conditions associated with E. johnstonei presence\u003c/strong\u003e. (A) NDVI distribution across presence/absence sites. (B) Mean annual temperature distribution across sites. (C) Total annual precipitation distribution across sites. (D–F) Distributions of p-values from 1,000 Kruskal-Wallis Monte Carlo simulations for (D) NDVI – Not consistently significant; (E) Bioclimatic Variable 1 – 100% significant; (F) Bioclimatic Variable 12 – 94.6% significant. Gray shading marks variable-outcome combinations with ≥95% significant tests.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9476737/v1/025948281bab965a96e25685.png"},{"id":107707630,"identity":"2aad1f16-9d2f-494a-ac10-b3af9fa88c72","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:20:47","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":611062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9476737/v1/867f994d-cc0f-435b-a4b7-563d995a65ef.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrban environments present complex mosaics of social and ecological structures. Invasive species are often viewed as generalists capable of exploiting disturbed habitats, yet recent perspectives highlight the importance of socioeconomic and urban structural factors in shaping ecological distributions within cities (Kraus \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Borden and Flory \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Simkin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this case study, we present evidence that the distribution of \u003cem\u003eEleutherodactylus johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e in Barranquilla, Colombia a widely introduced, direct-developing frog (Ernst et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Yuan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), is shaped not by vegetation or rainfall, but by patterns socioeconomic and urban form. Through a city-wide citizen science initiative conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown, we mapped the presence of this species across urban gradients. Our findings illustrate how social geography can create ecological boundaries, reinforcing calls to integrate human and ecological dimensions in urban invasion biology (Chamberlain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Case Study and Approach","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study focused on the urban distribution of \u003cem\u003eEleutherodactylus johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e in Barranquilla, Colombia, one of the largest urban centers in the Caribbean region, located in the department of Atl\u0026aacute;ntico (Galvis-Aponte \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The city lies along the Magdalena River and exhibits a hot, humid tropical climate. Barranquilla\u0026rsquo;s urban landscape includes wetlands, mangroves, tropical dry forest remnants, and densely built neighborhoods (Aldana-Dominguez et al. 2022), offering a gradient of socioecological conditions ideal for evaluating species distribution under urbanization pressures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate how this urban heterogeneity influences the presence of Eleutherodactylus johnstonei, a large-scale acoustic survey was conducted involving local community participation. Thus, between July and August 2020, over 500 students from Universidad del Norte participated in a citizen science initiative under the \"Ecocampus\" program. Each participant recorded nighttime audio from their household window and submitted the recordings via a mobile form. Using Google Maps plus codes and Barranquilla's corner-based location system, we georeferenced over 2,424 recordings. A team of researchers curated the dataset, retaining 1,771 high-quality georeferenced audio clips. This resulted in 470 presence-confirmed recordings and 1300 absences of \u003cem\u003eE. johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e. The information related to each record and the audio recordings was stored in the open and multidisciplinary repository Zenodo. You may consult this information at the following link: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://zenodo.org/records/19446090\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://zenodo.org/records/19446090\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese data were overlaid on a 550 \u0026times; 550 m spatial grid covering the city (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). We combined these presence/absence maps with the next variables:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSocioeconomic strata\u003c/b\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB): these data were obtained from Barranquilla\u0026rsquo;s city planning office, based on simplified layers derived from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.dane.gov.co\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.dane.gov.co\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e).\u003c/span\u003e The stratification system classifies neighborhoods into strata 1 (lowest income) through 6 (highest income).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNormalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)\u003c/b\u003e: for this variable, 10 cloud-free raster layers (3 \u0026times; 3-pixel resolution) were generated using Planet satellite data (Planet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) corresponding to: Jan 4, Jan 6, Feb 1, Mar 1, Mar 25, Jul 25, Sep 4, Nov 4, Dec 4, and Dec 30, 2020.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePrecipitation\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003eTemperature\u003c/b\u003e were obtained from WorldClim v2 (Fick and Hijmans \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLocal Climate Zones (LCZs)\u003c/b\u003e generated using the WUDAPT (World Urban Database and Access Portal Tools) platform (Demuzere et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo analyze the relationship between Local Climate Zones (LCZ) and socioeconomic levels, a bar chart was used to show how socioeconomic strata are distributed across each zone type. Additionally, statistical tests were applied to evaluate whether these zones and strata influence the presence of the frog \u003cem\u003eEleutherodactylus johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e. One of these tests was Fisher\u0026rsquo;s exact test, which confirmed a significant relationship between the presence or absence of the frog and the categories variables. In the case of socioeconomic strata, a special version of this test with simulations (10,000 repetitions) was used, which provided a more reliable result, especially since there were very few data points in some strata.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn other hand, we used exploratory box-and-whisker plots to visualize the distribution of NDVI and bioclimatic variables between presence and absence sites. To formally assess environmental differences between presence and absence cells, we implemented a Monte Carlo simulation with stratified random sampling to balance group sizes: For \u003cb\u003eNDVI\u003c/b\u003e, we randomly sampled 490 presence and 490 absence values across all dates per iteration. For \u003cb\u003ePrecipitation and Temperature\u003c/b\u003e, we used 49 presence values and randomly sampled 49 absence values per iteration (static raster). Each of 1,000 iterations included a Kruskal-Wallis test to compare distributions. We recorded p-values across iterations and computed the proportion of simulations yielding statistically significant results (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) as a measure of statistical robustness.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Key Findings and Observations","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe frog was detected in 49 sites (unique grid cells) with presence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA), all within intermedian (level 4) and high (levels 5 and 6) socioeconomic strata, predominantly composed of compact or open high-rise buildings. On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eE. johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e recorded 87 absences in lower strata (1\u0026ndash;3). These results are highly related due to the spatial segregation of local climate zones in relation to different social strata \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. Zone [1] (compact areas with tall skyscrapers) accounts for more than 50% of high-income strata (stratum 5: 88.6% and stratum 6: 90.9%). On the other hand, zone [4] (open areas with tall skyscrapers) is only present in middle (stratum 4: 4%) and high-income strata (stratum 5: 5.9%). It is worth noting that, for this urban classification, records of the frog\u0026rsquo;s presence were found only in these zones. In contrast, zone [3] (compact areas with low-rise buildings) predominates with more than 50% in low-income strata (strata 1, 2, and 3), as well as in middle-high stratum (stratum 4). This reflects a preference of the species for areas with tall buildings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results obtained for the bioclimatic variables showed a high proportion of replications with statistically significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), exceeding or approaching the 95% threshold in most cases (Temperature 1: 100%; Precipitation: 94.6%). This suggests that even when randomly controlling for the imbalance in sample size between presence and absence categories, the differences between groups were consistent and statistically robust. This trend was supported by boxplots, which showed systematically lower values of mean annual temperature and total annual precipitation in sites where Eleutherodactylus johnstonei was present, compared to those where the species was absent. In contrast, the NDVI analysis did not show a significant difference, as only 89.1% of the Kruskal-Wallis test iterations were significant, suggesting that this variable did not have a determining effect on the species' distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis pattern reveals a striking ecological constraint imposed by socioeconomic structure. Likewise, the luxury effect where biodiversity is concentrated in wealthier areas has been documented in other urban contexts, often linked to higher investment in greenery and ecological infrastructure (Villadiego and Velay-Dabat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Chamberlein et al. 2020). In Barranquilla, this phenomenon appears to shape not only native biodiversity but also the establishment of non-native species. The spatial coupling of economic inequality and ecological access creates an unusual pattern where an invasive amphibian is constrained by social geography.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Reflections and Broader Implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis case illustrates the value of integrating socioeconomic data into urban biodiversity research. The observed pattern challenges the notion that invasive species universally thrive across disturbed environments (Borden and Flory \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ernst et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In cities, ecological opportunity is not equally distributed: luxury-driven landscaping, irrigation, and urban form can generate microhabitats that support or exclude species (Chamberlain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study also demonstrates how citizen science can generate high-resolution, actionable data under difficult conditions. Conducted entirely during a lockdown, the project mobilized hundreds of non-specialists to collect spatial data using smartphones, enabling real-time biodiversity monitoring at a city-wide scale. Curious exploration using low-cost, widely available tools such as smartphones, online mapping services, and cloud platforms can effectively support ecological knowledge development, particularly in regions where baseline biodiversity data are sparse or absent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis approach is particularly valuable when studying species with complex invasion dynamics, such as \u003cem\u003eEleutherodactylus johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e. Although this species has been categorized as invasive in Colombia (Ernst et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), the naturally hot and arid conditions of Barranquilla may impose physiological constraints that limit its expansion. This observation has important conservation and management implications. Notably, \u003cem\u003eE. johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e is a known carrier of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the chytrid fungus responsible for global amphibian declines (Hudson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Its current restriction to more affluent, possibly more vegetated urban areas may be containing its potential ecological impact. However, as urban sprawl and infrastructure continue to expand, the available niche for this species could also increase. Therefore, future monitoring efforts should integrate not only ecological corridors but also the socioeconomic structure of urban landscapes when modeling its potential spread and impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrban ecosystems are shaped not only by buildings and trees, but by the distribution of wealth, privilege, and access. In Barranquilla, \u003cem\u003eE. johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e exemplifies an invasive species constrained not by climate or habitat, but by the social structure of the city. These findings urge researchers and planners to recognize the social boundaries that define ecological possibility in cities. Citizen science, especially when embedded in educational programs, offers a powerful pathway to uncover and address these patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis model can be extended to track other vocal or visually distinctive species. As cities grow, monitoring efforts must consider not only ecological corridors and green space but also social stratification, infrastructure, and access. Effective urban biodiversity management requires an understanding of how human patterns shape ecological ones.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eL.F.B.N. performed analyses and wrote the manuscript. D.G.G. and V.M.G. curated the data. D.A.P.E. conducted preliminary LCZ analyses and assisted with data curation. J.H. coordinated data collection. R.N. conceived the study, contributed to statistical analyses, and co-wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank all participants who contributed audio recordings during the COVID-19 lockdown, without whom this study would not have been possible. We acknowledge Juan Pablo G\u0026oacute;mez Echeverri (Universidad del Norte) for valuable discussions during the early development of this project. We also thank Javier Cristancho, Alberto Reales, Toni Celia, and Harold Padilla for stimulating conversations and for posing the initial challenge that led to this work.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dataset generated and analyzed during this study, including georeferenced audio recordings and associated metadata, is publicly available in the Zenodo repository under the title \u0026ldquo;Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia\u0026rdquo;. The data can be accessed at: https://zenodo.org/records/19446090Socioeconomic stratification data were obtained from Barranquilla\u0026rsquo;s city planning office based on layers derived from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) and are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author, subject to institutional permissions.NDVI raster data were generated using Planet satellite imagery (Planet API), and climatic variables (temperature and precipitation) were obtained from WorldClim v2, both of which are publicly available from their respective repositories.All other data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAldana-Dom\u0026iacute;nguez J, Palomo I, Arellana J, de la G\u0026oacute;mez C (2022) Unpacking the complexity of nature\u0026acute;s contributions to human well-being: lessons to transform the Barranquilla Metropolitan Area into a BiodiverCity. Ecosyst People 18(1):430\u0026ndash;446. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2022.2097477\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/26395916.2022.2097477\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorden JB, Flory SL (2021) Urban evolution of invasive species. Front Ecol Environ 19:184\u0026ndash;191. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2295\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/fee.2295\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChamberlain D, Reynolds C, Amar A, Henry D, Caprio E, Bat\u0026aacute;ry P (2020) Wealth, water and wildlife: Landscape aridity intensifies the urban luxury effect. 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Earth System Science Data Discussions 2022: 1\u0026ndash;57. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-010-9930-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10530-010-9930-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eErnst R, Massemin D, Kowarik I (2011) Non-invasive invaders from the Caribbean: The status of Johnstone\u0026rsquo;s Whistling frog (\u003cem\u003eEleutherodactylus johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e) ten years after its introduction to Western French Guiana. Biol Invasions 13:1767\u0026ndash;1777\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFick SE, Hijmans RJ (2017) WorldClim 2: New 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. 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Accessed 28 july 2025\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSimkin RD, Seto KC, McDonald RI, Jetz W (2022) Biodiversity impacts and conservation implications of urban land expansion projected to 2050. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 (12): e2117297119. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2117297119\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1073/pnas.2117297119\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVilladiego K, Velay-Dabat MA (2014) Outdoor thermal comfort in a hot and humid climate of Colombia: Afield study in Barranquilla. Build Environ 75:142\u0026ndash;152. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.01.017\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.01.017\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYuan ML, Frederick JH, McGuire JA, Bell RC, Smith SR, Fenton C, Cassius J, Williams R, Wang IJ, Powell R, Hedges SB (2022) Endemism, invasion, and overseas dispersal: the phylogeographic history of the Lesser Antillean frog, \u003cem\u003eEleutherodactylus johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e. Biol Invasions 24(9):2707\u0026ndash;2722\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9476737/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9476737/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAntropogenic factors have come to determine the distribution and behavior of different species, whether native or invasive. In this way, this study, through citizen sciencie carried out during the COVID-19 lockdown, sought to determine the urban distribution of the invasive frog \u003cem\u003eE.johnstonei\u003c/em\u003e, Specie with direct development. 1,770 recordings were collected, revealing that the species has a high occurrence in high-income areas with tall buildings, while it was absent in low-income sectores generally characterized by low-rise constructions. Significant differences were observed in environmental variables such as temperature and precipitacion, being lower in areas with presence than in those with absence, whereas NDVI did not show a clear effect. This highlights the influence of the urban environment and social segregation in the distribution of the species, limiting the distribution range of invasive species. Furthermore, it underscores the value of integrating social dimensions into urban ecology, using easily accessible tools for fauna monitoring, especially in contexts where the impact of urban expansion on biodiversity is poorly understood.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Socioeconomic Barriers Shape the Urban Distribution of an Invasive Frog: A Case Study from Barranquilla, Colombia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-24 04:55:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9476737/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c6132af2-0cbd-441d-8051-e58acca80ce6","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 24th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-24T04:55:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-24 04:55:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9476737","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9476737","identity":"rs-9476737","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}