The Opportunities and Challenges of E-Learning among University EFL Students in Afghanistan Following the 2021 transition

The Opportunities and Challenges of E-Learning among University EFL Students in Afghanistan Following the 2021 transition | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Opportunities and Challenges of E-Learning among University EFL Students in Afghanistan Following the 2021 transition Mohammad Qasim Farooqi, Nasim Tahsildar, Jamshid Sultanzadah This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8464355/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Despite significant global advancements in e-learning research, particularly in pedagogical approaches, technology integration, and instructional design, a critical gap remains concerning specific populations and contexts in underrepresented regions such as Afghanistan. Employing a mixed-methods research design, this study investigated the opportunities and limitations of e-learning among Afghan EFL students (N = 277) across different English proficiency levels via a questionnaire. Subsequently, thirteen participants were purposively selected for in-depth interviews to gain deeper insights into the status of e-learning. The analysis identified several opportunities and limitations associated with online classrooms. Opportunities included the development of students’ technological competencies and autonomous learning, the facilitation of active participation among introverted learners, and the provision of flexible schedules alongside access to up-to-date resources. Conversely, limitations encompassed issues related to digital access and infrastructure failures, deficiencies in digital literacy and skills, violations of academic integrity, and various environmental factors. The study concludes with implications aimed at assisting policymakers, administrators, and instructors in formulating more effective e-learning policies and creating supportive learning environments. E-learning EFL students opportunities challenges Figures Figure 1 Introduction E-learning has advanced considerably with the emergence of technology, significantly enhancing teaching and learning worldwide by enabling access to online classes from any location (Allen & Seaman, 2017). However, these classes face several limitations, particularly in developing countries such as Afghanistan, where technological infrastructure and digital literacy remain underdeveloped (Rahmany & Sohail, 2021 ; Rahim & Chandran, 2021 ). Although the adoption of e-learning in Afghanistan accelerated following the COVID-19 pandemic, which necessitated a rapid transition from traditional face-to-face instruction to online education (Shams et al., 2021), this sudden shift has offered substantial benefits to learners in various respects. However, in the post-COVID-19 period, e-learning still continues to be used by many female students in Afghanistan, largely as a result of the political transition and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan’s policies that limit their physical attendance at schools and universities. While online learning offers an alternative means of education, female students now face a range of emerging challenges that seem to act as barriers to meaningful participation. These include staying at home without income-generating opportunities, limited access to e-learning courses conducted within the country, certain family-related constraints, and the inability of some families to provide the necessary digital tools and internet connectivity. These conditions suggest the presence of both systemic and household-level factors influencing the effectiveness of e-learning in the current context. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the perceptions of students, particularly those deprived of physical attendance at university, regarding the challenges and opportunities associated with e-learning in Afghanistan. E-learning, which is used interchangeably with 'online learning' (Moore & Galyen, 2011) in the current study, refers to education that takes place via internet or any instruction delivered over a digital communication network (Dziuban et al., 2016 ). It is one of the learning methods that appeared with the advent of the internet and the global web in the 1990s. Some of the major types of e-learning, as stated by Parveen (2016) are synchronous, asynchronous, and blended learning. Synchronous e-learning involves instructors and learners being online together and at the same time although not all in the same place. For instance, students from different places in the world perform a learning activity together simultaneously through online chats, video conferencing, and so on (Amiti, 2020 ). In contrast, asynchronous e-learning is the one in which the instructor and students engage with the course material at various times; for example, the teacher gives learners some learning materials including discussion forums, required readings, online tests, etc. to perform on their schedule. Blended online learning, on the other hand, refers to methods where traditional face-to-face classroom instruction is combined with online learning (Amiti, 2020 ). The purpose of blended learning, however, is to improve and expand the learning promises for students beyond classroom learning and the actual online lessons themselves can be either synchronous, asynchronous, or both (Su, 2019 ). E-learning is associated with various affordances, which in this context refer to its opportunities and challenges. One of its primary opportunities is the convenience it offers. E-learning allows students to attend classes from home, eliminating the need for commuting to schools or universities (Rahmawati, 2016 ). Additionally, studies by Herwiana and Laili ( 2022 ) and Borstorff and Lowe ( 2007 ) highlight that e-learning bridges geographical distances between teachers and students, enabling access to educational content from virtually any location at any time. It also supports individualized learning by accommodating diverse learning needs and schedules (Ja'ashan, 2020 ). Furthermore, e-learning encourages students to become more autonomous, as they engage in self-directed learning by searching for and processing information independently, which in turn enhances their self-regulation skills (Herwiana & Laili, 2022 ; Sarwari et al., 2022 ). It may also influence learners’ attitudes, including their emotions, thought patterns, and behaviors (Herwiana & Laili, 2022 ). Further, e-learning environments offer features such as error-free practice, immediate feedback, and self-paced instruction (Sarwari et al., 2022 ). Studies on e-learning in the EFL context consistently highlight its potential to make language education more flexible, accessible, and student-centered (Domingo & Garganté, 2016). Online platforms offer EFL learners’ opportunities to engage with multimodal materials, such as videos, audio, and interactive content, that can enhance vocabulary acquisition, listening, and reading skills (Gillett-Swan, 2017). E-learning also encourages learner autonomy and supports self-paced study, which is particularly valuable in language learning (Rajaee, 2015; Rahim & Chandran, 2021 ). However, numerous challenges hinder its effectiveness, especially in contexts like Afghanistan. Common barriers include unreliable electricity, poor internet access, lack of digital devices, and limited ICT skills among both students and instructors (Mohammadi et al., 2024; Rahim, 2020). In addition, e-learning methods often clash with traditional classroom norms and local curricula, leading to a mismatch between content and context (Tareen, 2022). Many students also experience anxiety and low confidence when using unfamiliar digital tools (Rahim & Chandran, 2021 ). Overall, while e-learning offers meaningful advantages for EFL instruction, its success depends on addressing the technological, pedagogical, and contextual limitations identified across the literature (Heng & Sol, 2021; Rahim & Chandran, 2021 ). In addition, for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers, e-learning also presents opportunities for professional development, as it encourages experimentation with diverse instructional strategies and fosters creativity in teaching (Sundarwati & Pahlevi, 2021 ). Besides, e-learning has the potential to enhance EFL education by making it more interactive, flexible, and learner-centered; however, its successful implementation in Afghan universities is hindered by ongoing challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, limited digital literacy among students and instructors, misalignment with traditional teaching contexts, and anxiety related to the use of online platforms (Rahim & Chandran, 2021 ). Despite its advantages, e-learning in EFL education is fraught with numerous challenges that hinder its effectiveness. One of the most frequently cited obstacles is poor internet connectivity, which causes frequent disruptions during online sessions, undermining learner concentration, impairing communication, and fostering negative perceptions toward online education (Taghizadeh & Basirat, 2022; Suharsih & Wijayanti, 2021 ; Mahyoob, 2020 ; Farooqi, 2022 ). In addition, limited digital competence among both students and instructors significantly restricts the effective use of online platforms and tools. Many users lack experience with essential applications such as Zoom and Google Meet, as well as basic computer literacy, which hampers the teaching-learning process (Turnbull & Luck, 2021; Hijazi & Alnatour, 2021 ; Faza et al., 2024 ). Another prominent limitation is the lack of meaningful interaction. Technical difficulties, inadequate feedback, and limited peer engagement diminish the interactive quality of virtual classrooms (Saleh & Meccawy, 2022 ; Okyar, 2023 ; Hijazi & Alnatour, 2021 ). Student engagement and motivation also tend to decline in online settings, often due to passive instructional methods, absence of timely guidance, and limited teacher involvement (Herwiana & Laili, 2022 ). Moreover, studies highlight problems in mutual understanding between teachers and students, including lack of clarity regarding course expectations, rules, and assessments (Hijazi & Alnatour, 2021 ). EFL learners also report discomfort with camera use due to anxiety, privacy concerns, and unsuitable learning environments (Dağgöl & Akçayoğlu, 2023 ). Finally, e-learning environments often fail to address students’ diverse learning styles and cognitive needs, with instruction heavily relying on PowerPoint presentations and offering minimal auditory or visual variety. This lack of pedagogical flexibility limits inclusive learning, particularly in large classes (Atmojo & Nugroho, 2020 ; Sarwari et al., 2022 ; Maryono & Lengkanawati, 2022 ). With the widespread adoption of online learning—particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic—numerous scholars have examined its implementation across diverse educational contexts (Alqurashi, 2011; Derakhshan et al., 2021 ; Herwiana & Laili, 2022 ; Marsevani, 2022 ; Amah & Zuhiriyah, 2023 ). Ja’ashan (2020), for instance, employed a quantitative approach to investigate online English language teaching at the University of Bisha in Saudi Arabia and identified several academic, administrative, and technical constraints encountered by instructors. In a similar vein, Marsevani ( 2022 ) conducted a mixed-methods study at a private Indonesian university and found that lecturers struggled with time limitations, inadequate familiarity with digital tools, and unstable internet, while learners faced challenges including limited access to devices, low motivation, and technical difficulties. Despite these obstacles, the study underscored the necessity of adaptation by both instructors and students for successful online education. In Turkey, Valizadeh (2022) used a mixed-methods design to explore strategies for minimizing academic dishonesty and recommended individualized assessments, webcam usage during exams, and alternative evaluation techniques; yet, infrastructural limitations and inconsistent teacher monitoring remained problematic. Derakhshan et al. ( 2021 ) reported additional barriers in Iran, such as monotonous lectures, logistical issues, and low student engagement, and emphasized the importance of fostering teacher-student interaction to enhance classroom dynamism. Likewise, Amah and Zuhiriyah ( 2023 ) employed qualitative methods to examine challenges in teaching reading and speaking skills in online EFL classes, attributing them to reduced learner motivation, lack of direct interaction, and limited access to digital devices. Recommended interventions included using authentic materials, increasing learner involvement, and maintaining communication with parents. In the Afghan context, Rahim and Chandran ( 2021 ) highlighted persistent issues such as power outages, weak internet access, and insufficient ICT resources as major hindrances for EFL learners at Kunduz University. Although the literature reveals a wide range of online learning challenges, a significant gap remains in understanding the specific barriers faced by Afghan students (Rahim & Chandran, 2021 ; Rahmany & Sohail, 2021 ). The present study seeks to address this gap by investigating how EFL learners in Afghanistan perceive both the opportunities and limitations of e-learning. In sum, while e-learning offers increased flexibility and access, its implementation is hindered by persistent pedagogical, technological, and contextual barriers. Adapting instruction to diverse cognitive needs and learning styles remains challenging, particularly in online environments dominated by static materials and limited interactivity (Atmojo & Nugroho, 2020 ; Sarwari et al., 2022 ). Teachers face increased workloads and difficulty managing engagement, assessment, and academic integrity, especially in settings with minimal support (Sundarwati & Pahlevi, 2021 ; Sutami et al., 2022 ). These challenges have been documented across various contexts—including Saudi Arabia (Ja’ashan, 2020), Indonesia (Marsevani, 2022 ; Amah & Zuhiriyah, 2023 ), Iran (Derakhshan et al., 2021 ), Turkey (Valizadeh, 2022), and Afghanistan (Rahim & Chandran, 2021 )—highlighting shared struggles such as unreliable internet, lack of motivation, and limited familiarity with digital tools. However, much of the existing literature centers on relatively well-resourced or frequently studied regions, leaving the specific challenges of underrepresented contexts—such as Afghanistan—largely underexplored. This gap is particularly critical in light of current restrictions on female students, for whom online learning has become both an essential alternative and a site of ongoing struggle. Despite this, little empirical research has examined how Afghan EFL learners perceive the potential and limitations of online education. To address this gap, the present study investigates the experiences of university-level EFL students in Afghanistan, with the aim of identifying both enabling conditions and persistent barriers to inform more inclusive and context-sensitive educational strategies. Research Questions What are the main opportunities that online learning has provided to university EFL students in Afghanistan since the 2021 government transition? What challenges do these students face in accessing and participating in e-learning post-2021? How do male and female students differ in their access to and usage of e-learning? How do male and female university EFL students describe their experiences with accessing and participating in e-learning post-2021? Methods The study employed a sequential mixed-methods design to examine college students’ perceived opportunities and challenges related to e-learning courses. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach enhances data validity through methodological triangulation (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004 ), allows for follow-up exploration of unexpected findings (Ivankova et al., 2006), and ultimately generates robust, theoretical, practical, and actionable insights for e-learning education (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009 ). Survey questionnaires and interviews were used to collect descriptive, inferential, and qualitative data, respectively. Participants The study recruited 277 college students, 218 males and 59 females, using convenience sampling, defined as “a way of selecting participants from the target population based on ease of access” (Golzar et al., 2022, p. 72). All participants had more than two years of experience learning English through online courses and were drawn from four universities across Afghanistan. From this sample, 13 participants were purposively selected for interviews to ensure the inclusion of information-rich cases. Table 1 demonstrates the demographics of the participants. Table 1 The participants’ demographic characteristics Demographic Frequency Valid Percentage Gender Female 59 21.3 Male 218 78.7 Age group 15–25 1 .4 18–24 246 88.8 25–34 16 5.8 25–35 1 .4 35–45 1 .4 Less than 18 8 2.9 More than 45 4 1.4 Total 277 100.0 Data Collection Quantitative data were collected using an online questionnaire adapted from Maatuk et al. ( 2022 ). The questionnaire comprised 21 items related to the e-learning opportunities and challenges experienced by participants during their college studies. These items included seven Likert-scale questions, ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”), seven yes/no questions, and seven descriptive questions consisting of frequency, categorical, and open-ended responses. The questionnaire demonstrated good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.780, indicating high reliability. Participants’ informed consent was obtained prior to distributing the survey via WhatsApp and Telegram. Qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews consisting of nine questions focusing on students’ e-learning experiences, perceptions, and perceived opportunities and challenges. Each interview lasted between 20 and 30 minutes. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, the researchers securely stored the data, assigned pseudonyms to participants, and refrained from disclosing any personal information without explicit permission. Data Analysis Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 25 to generate descriptive statistics. The results were presented in tables showing means, medians, standard deviations, and ranges. Qualitative data, on the other hand, were analyzed using thematic analysis, “a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). First, the interview transcripts were read multiple times to gain a comprehensive understanding of the data. Concurrently, the researchers took extensive memos to identify initial codes, which were then compared to detect significant connections and subsequently grouped into broader themes. Several initial codes were identified, including “internet affordability,” “internet accessibility,” “internet speed,” “lack of smartphone or computer,” “insufficient funds for internet data plans,” “limited familiarity with online platforms,” “limited proficiency with smartphones and computers,” “academic dishonesty,” “lack of feedback,” “noisy environments,” and “limited interaction.” To enhance the rigor of the analysis, a moderator was invited to review the coding and thematic development. The research team held multiple joint discussions to resolve discrepancies. Additionally, a rating agreement table was employed to increase objectivity, using a 0–5 scale, with codes achieving an average rating of at least 3.8 being retained. The finalized list of codes was then shared with participants for member checking and validation. Triangulation was achieved by comparing the researchers’ initial analyses, the moderator’s interpretations, and participants’ feedback. Through this iterative process, key themes were refined. The final themes emerging from the qualitative data analysis were: “digital access and infrastructure challenges,” “deficits in digital literacy and skills,” “violations of academic integrity,” “inconsistent evaluation practices,” and “environmental factors.” Results Online Learning Opportunities Descriptive statistics for several individual items indicated that college students generally held positive perceptions of e-learning. Participants reported that online education had significantly enhanced their technology skills (M = 4.01). Additionally, online courses were perceived to provide updated content and information to a large extent (M = 3.96). Online learning environments also highly motivated introverted students to participate actively in lessons (M = 4.01). Furthermore, students indicated that these courses substantially improved their self-directed learning abilities (M = 4.06). The flexibility of online courses, which allowed them to fit students’ schedules, was rated moderately high (M = 3.82). Participants also reported experiencing online learning in a satisfactory and conducive environment to some extent (M = 3.66). Finally, students acknowledged that online courses provided access to rich and virtually unlimited learning resources to a moderate degree (M = 3.73). Table 2 presents further details. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Individual Items Individual Items N Mean Median Std. Deviation Range Valid Missing Online training has improved my technology skills 277 0 4.01 4.00 1.007 4 Online training courses provide updated content and information 277 0 3.96 4.00 1.042 4 Online learning environments encourage shy students to participate 277 0 4.01 4.00 1.083 4 Online training courses increase my ability to learn independently 277 0 4.06 4.00 1.009 4 The flexibility of online training fits my schedule 277 0 3.82 4.00 1.107 4 I experience online learning comfortably and in a suitable environment 277 0 3.66 4.00 1.225 4 Online courses provide me with access to rich and unlimited learning resources. 277 0 3.73 4.00 1.208 4 Online Learning Challenges Participants also provided descriptive information regarding the challenges they faced in online learning. A majority reported frequent issues with weak internet connections during online classes (69.3%). When asked about difficulties related to insufficient knowledge of using smartphones, laptops, or tablets for online learning, 69% of students indicated that they faced such challenges, while 31% reported no difficulties. Additionally, 62.1% of participants experienced challenges due to unfamiliarity with online educational platforms such as Google Meet and Telegram. Slightly over half of the students (51.6%) reported receiving adequate guidance on using online learning tools, whereas the remainder did not. More than half of the respondents (55.2%) felt that the existing online learning infrastructure was inadequate for their needs. The cost of internet data plans was also a significant barrier, with 61.4% stating they could not afford them. Participation in online class activities was reported as difficult by 57% of students. Regarding engagement, 41.9% found online classes very interesting, 43% considered them moderately interesting, and 15.2% described them as boring. In terms of academic integrity, 48.4% of students stated that they never sought help from the internet or peers during online exams, 29.6% admitted to occasionally doing so, and 22% acknowledged frequent reliance on external help. Privacy concerns were notable, with 43% of participants reporting discomfort with turning on their cameras during online classes, while 30.3% did not find this problematic, and the remainder had no opinion. Moreover, 56.7% of students reported experiencing eye fatigue or headaches due to prolonged screen time during online sessions. Despite these challenges, 64.3% indicated that they had access to a quiet and suitable environment at home for participating in online classes. Finally, 67.5% of participants reported receiving regular feedback from their instructors. Table 3 provides further details. Table 3 Participants’ Reported Experiences of Online Learning Challenges Category Response Percentage % Internet connection issues Often struggled with weak connections 69.3 Limited knowledge of technical devices Encountered limits utilizing devices 69.0 No tension reported 31.0 a Online learning platforms familiarity Experienced challenges with platforms such as Google Meet, Telegram etc. 62.1 Guidance on the utilization of online learning tools Received guidance 51.6 Did not receive proper guidance 48.4 Online learning infrastructure sufficiency Insufficient infrastructure 55.2 Internet data plans affordability Could not afford data expenses 61.4 Engagement in in-class activities Found engagement difficult 57.0 Academic integrity in exams Never tried to seek external help 48.4 Sometimes tried to seek help 29.6 Often tried to seek help 22.0 Privacy sensitivity issues (camera use) Found turning on camera sensitive 43.0 Inconsequential issue 30.3 Never challenging 26.7 Health related issues (eye fatigue/headache) Experienced discomfort 56.7 Suitable learning environment Had an suitable study space 64.3 Regular feedback from instructors Received feedback 67.5 Note. a Calculated according to the remaining percentage (100% – 69% = 31%). Interview Results The interview findings identified several challenges related to the e-learning environment, including issues with digital access and infrastructure, deficits in digital literacy and skills, violations of academic integrity, inconsistent evaluation practices, and environmental factors. Figure 1 provides further details. Digital Access and Infrastructure Malfunctioning The first challenge reported by participants regarding online learning was related to digital access and infrastructure issues, including low internet speed, limited internet accessibility, internet affordability, lack of funding for students’ data plans, and the absence of digital devices. Many participants indicated that their internet speed was so slow that downloading or uploading materials within their online learning groups was often impossible. For example, S1 explained: “When I want to download or upload something, I can’t do that because of the low internet speed. Sometimes it takes more than three or four hours to download or upload something in the group. So, when a teacher shares videos or audio files, I cannot download them because of the poor internet connection.” In addition to low speed, participants seemed to frequently experience disconnection issues. Some reported being unable to join online classes at all or being repeatedly disconnected during sessions. For instance, S3 stated: “Sometimes I cannot join the class because my internet is very weak; however, when I join, I disconnect from the class and have to rejoin several times because the connection is so unstable.” Internet accessibility was another significant issue, especially for those living in remote areas without telecommunication infrastructure. The absence of cellular antennas in these regions meant no internet signal was available. S7 shared: “When we had to study online for one semester, it was very difficult because there was no antenna in our village, making it hard to send or receive anything.” Due to the lack of internet access, some students were forced to visit their teachers in person to obtain learning materials. S6 noted: “…sometimes we had to see the teacher physically to solve our problems and get the materials the teacher had posted online.” Financial constraints on the other hand posed major other challenges. Many participants reported that they could not afford to purchase internet data packages. For example, S5 said: “I did not have money to activate internet packages required for online training.” Similarly, S2 emphasized the high cost of internet services: “Internet packages in Afghanistan are very expensive and beyond economic reach, which is one of the problems we face.” Participants echoed these concerns regarding the inability to pay for internet data plans. S13 remarked: “I had financial difficulties and could not afford the cost of internet packages because they were very expensive.” S8 also shared how economic challenges led to absenteeism: “I didn’t have money to activate the internet, so I missed many classes. As a result, I could not learn much from online courses due to financial problems.” Finally, some students from impoverished families lacked essential digital devices such as smartphones or computers, which made participation in online education impossible. S10 stated: “…actually, I am from a poor family and cannot afford to buy a smartphone. Therefore, I was deprived of any online education and could not participate in it.” Deficit in Digital Literacy and Skills The second challenge reported by participants pertained to deficits in digital literacy and skills. Many students demonstrated inadequate familiarity with online platforms and digital tools essential for e-learning, such as Telegram, WhatsApp, and Zoom, as well as limited proficiency in using smartphones and computers. For instance, S1 explained: “We did not have enough information about technology at all. Some students did not know how to download or upload lesson materials from Telegram and WhatsApp groups. Also, we did not know much about how to use a computer or a smartphone because we bought either a computer or a smartphone just to join the online classes.” This lack of digital literacy was not limited to students; teachers also struggled with the new online education system. S3 noted: “The problem was that professors and students were not fully acquainted with online education because it was a new system, and no one had prior experience teaching or learning through it.” S7 further described challenges encountered with the Zoom platform, highlighting technical difficulties due to instructors’ limited knowledge of the software: “…our teacher who created the link did not have full knowledge of the Zoom program. The duration of each lesson was 40 or 50 minutes. The lesson was interrupted once or twice when the allotted time ran out; the teacher and students had to reconnect. The teacher couldn’t limit the time to prevent the program from automatically interrupting the lesson before it was over.” Violation of Academic Integrity The third challenge identified by participants is related to academic dishonesty in online learning. Students reported that upon realizing teachers did not thoroughly check their homework for originality or provide feedback, they resorted to copying assignments from one another and submitting identical work, yet still receiving full marks. For example, S3 stated: “When we realized that our teacher did not check our homework for plagiarism, we copied the homework from each other, sent it to the teacher, and received a complete mark.” Similarly, S8 observed: “…when one student did the homework and others copied it, all were given full scores because the teacher did not verify the assignments.” These accounts suggest that inadequate teacher oversight and lack of rigorous evaluation fostered academic dishonesty. This not only compromised the quality of learning but also resulted in unfair grading, as students who completed their assignments independently received the same scores as those who plagiarized. The findings underscore the need for more stringent assessment practices to uphold academic integrity in online education. Inconsistent Evaluation Another challenge highlighted by the participants concerned inconsistent evaluation, particularly the lack of feedback from instructors. They reported that they did not receive any feedback on their assignments, which hindered their ability to identify and correct mistakes. For instance, S4 stated: “We had problems with teachers who did not give us feedback to correct our problems and mistakes.” Similarly, S12 shared: “…when the teacher assigned homework, he said he would check it and provide feedback, but he never sent any, so we did not know whether our homework was correct.” S5 also expressed: “I had a problem with homework because after submitting it, the teacher did not give me any feedback to correct my mistakes. The teacher did not indicate whether my assignments were of good quality or if I needed to revise them.” These accounts emphasize the critical role of timely and constructive feedback in facilitating effective learning and improvement in online education settings. Environmental Factors A further tension reported by the EFL learners regarding online learning classes pertained to environmental factors, particularly health issues, noisy surroundings, and demotivation caused by limited alignment with learners’ individual learning styles and restricted interaction. Participants indicated that prolonged exposure to computer or smartphone screens resulted in headaches and eye strain. For example, S9 stated: “Because of the light from the phone and computer during online studying, I got a headache and eyesore.” Similarly, S11 noted: “When the online class started and I used the phone and computer more, it caused headaches and eyesores, and I couldn’t use technology materials for extended periods.” Moreover, participants reported a lack of quiet spaces to join video calls. For instance, S10 said: “I do not have a quiet place to make video calls and cannot call due to privacy and circumstances.” S6 also shared: “…because of the crowd and noise in the family, I had to go to another room in the cold weather to finish the online training and then return to the warm home.” Additionally, the online learning environment was perceived as not adequately accommodating students’ individual learning styles, especially kinesthetic learners who prefer physical movement during lessons. The constrained interaction between teachers and students further diminished learners’ motivation. S4 explained: “I don’t have any motivation for learning in online classes because there is no movement, no opportunity for role-play, and little interaction with classmates and teachers.” These environmental and pedagogical limitations negatively impacted students’ engagement and overall learning experience in online courses. Discussion This study investigated the opportunities and challenges of online learning in the Afghan higher education context. The findings revealed both opportunities and challenges that shaped learners' experiences with online education. One key benefit was the development of learners’ technological competencies. A majority of participants reported that their engagement with online platforms enhanced their digital skills, particularly through the use of tools such as Google Classroom, Telegram, and WhatsApp. These findings align with those of Herwiana and Laili ( 2022 ), Borstorff and Lowe ( 2007 ), and Farooqi ( 2022 ), who similarly observed that online learning environments contribute significantly to the advancement of students’ technological literacy. Another reported advantage was the flexibility and accessibility of updated content. Online platforms enabled learners to access contemporary resources at their convenience, thus promoting continuous and autonomous learning. This supports prior research by Borstorff and Lowe ( 2007 ) and Faza et al. ( 2024 ), who found that online learning allows for greater flexibility and access to current educational materials. Furthermore, the study revealed that online classes encouraged participation among introverted students, who typically hesitate to engage in face-to-face settings. This finding corroborates Rahmawati ( 2016 ), who noted that virtual learning environments can empower shy students to participate more confidently. In addition, online learning was found to support the development of learner autonomy. Participants reported that they became more self-directed in seeking out resources and managing their own learning processes. These findings are echoed in the work of Herwiana and Laili ( 2022 ) and Sarwari et al. ( 2022 ), who argue that e-learning fosters independent learning by reducing reliance on teacher-led instruction. Despite these opportunities, the study identified several critical challenges, beginning with infrastructure and digital access. Participants frequently cited unreliable internet connectivity, high data costs, lack of government support for internet packages, and limited access to smartphones or computers, particularly among students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. These findings align with previous studies, including Rahmawati ( 2016 ), Taghizadeh and Basirat (2022), Suharsih and Wijayanti ( 2021 ), and Muthi’ah et al. (2021), all of which emphasize infrastructure deficits as a major barrier to effective e-learning. Similarly, Faza et al. ( 2024 ) and Mahyoob ( 2020 ) highlighted the destabilizing effects of poor connectivity and limited digital infrastructure on students' learning experiences. Another prominent challenge was the lack of digital literacy and technical skills. Many participants noted their limited ability to navigate e-learning platforms or utilize technological tools effectively. This deficiency extended to some instructors as well, undermining the effectiveness of online instruction. This is consistent with findings from Hijazi and Alnatour ( 2021 ), Sutami et al. ( 2022 ), and Mahyoob ( 2020 ), who reported that both students and teachers often struggle with the technical demands of online learning environments. Issues related to academic integrity also emerged. Several participants acknowledged engaging in dishonest practices, such as copying assignments from peers, largely due to insufficient monitoring and a lack of meaningful feedback from instructors. This behavior not only undermined the learning process but also led to perceived injustice among students. These findings support previous studies by Herwiana and Laili ( 2022 ), Turnbull et al. ( 2021 ), and Rahmawati ( 2016 ), all of which report that online learning environments may foster increased opportunities for cheating due to reduced supervision and limited formative assessment practices. Another significant challenge concerned the inconsistency of instructional feedback. Participants frequently expressed frustration about the absence of constructive responses from instructors regarding their submitted assignments. This lack of feedback impeded their ability to identify and correct errors, ultimately weakening their learning outcomes. Similar concerns have been raised in the literature by Rahmawati ( 2016 ) and Saleh and Meccawy ( 2022 ), who note that insufficient feedback is a recurring issue in online educational contexts. Finally, environmental and health-related concerns were identified. Students often lacked quiet and private spaces for learning, especially in shared households. In addition, extended screen time contributed to health problems such as headaches and eye strain. Furthermore, the lack of kinesthetic learning activities and limited peer or teacher interaction led to reduced student engagement and motivation. These concerns echo findings from Saleh and Meccawy ( 2022 ), Atmojo and Nugroho ( 2020 ), and Faza et al. ( 2024 ), who all emphasized the adverse health effects and interactional constraints of online learning. Rahmawati ( 2016 ) also noted the deficiency of real-time communication and feedback in online environments, which contributes to student disengagement. In summary, while online learning in Afghanistan presents notable opportunities such as increased technological competence, flexibility, and opportunities for autonomous learning, it is equally constrained by structural, pedagogical, and contextual challenges. These findings underscore the need for systemic interventions, particularly in improving infrastructure, digital literacy, instructional practices, and learner support systems, to fully harness the potential of e-learning in resource-limited contexts. Concluding Remarks This study explored the opportunities and challenges of E-learning for Afghan EFL university students. The findings revealed that while online education offers several pedagogical and technological benefits, it also presents substantial challenges that must be addressed to maximize its effectiveness in low-resource contexts. The reported opportunities of E-learning included the development of students’ technological competence, enhanced autonomous learning, increased participation among introverted learners, flexible scheduling, and access to up-to-date digital resources. These findings underscore the potential of online education to promote more inclusive and learner-centered environments, particularly when appropriate infrastructure and pedagogical strategies are in place. Conversely, the study identified significant challenges. These included restricted digital access and infrastructure malfunctioning (e.g., slow internet, high data costs, and limited device availability), inadequate digital literacy among both students and instructors, violations of academic integrity due to insufficient monitoring and feedback, and various environmental factors, such as health-related issues, lack of quiet study spaces, and limited interactivity. Based on these findings, several implications emerge: Digital Access and Infrastructure : The Afghan government, particularly the Ministry of Communications and the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), should invest in strengthening internet infrastructure, especially in remote areas. Additionally, affordable data plans or financial assistance should be provided to economically disadvantaged students to ensure equitable participation. Digital Literacy and Skills : To address the digital skills gap, universities should offer training workshops focused on using online learning platforms. Supplementary support—such as step-by-step tutorial videos and peer-to-peer troubleshooting groups—could enhance learners’ familiarity with E-learning tools and foster collaborative problem-solving. Academic Integrity : Instructors should employ plagiarism detection software and adopt stricter assessment protocols to ensure academic honesty. Furthermore, incorporating ethics and academic integrity into the curriculum can help raise students' awareness and cultivate responsible digital behavior. Environmental and Pedagogical Challenges : To reduce eye strain and improve concentration, instructors should integrate regular breaks into their class schedules. Enhancing engagement through interactive methods (e.g., discussion boards, polls, and group projects) and providing timely and constructive feedback, either individually or collectively, can improve learning outcomes and motivation. Future Research Directions Several avenues for further inquiry emerge from this study. Future researchers could: Investigate the affordances of mobile learning platforms specifically designed for low-bandwidth environments. Explore the role of artificial intelligence in creating adaptive E-learning systems that deliver personalized instruction. Conduct longitudinal studies to examine the long-term impact of E-learning on students’ academic performance, motivation, and self-regulatory behaviors. Limitations This study is not without limitations. First, the sample included relatively few female participants, limiting the gender representation and generalizability of the findings. Future studies should aim for a more balanced gender distribution. Second, this research did not employ a specific theoretical framework. Subsequent studies could adopt the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework, which emphasizes the interplay of cognitive, social, and teaching presence in online learning environments, to provide deeper theoretical insights. Declarations Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Clinical trial number: not applicable. Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethics approval: Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of Badghis University, which served as the lead institution for the research. Data collection at other universities was limited to voluntary participation by adult students and did not require separate institutional ethical approval. All procedures were conducted in accordance with institutional ethical guidelines for human-subject research. Consent to participate: Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to the interviews. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and their right to withdraw at any time. Consent to publish: Not Applicable Author Contribution M .Q Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, SupervisionN.TMethodology, Formal analysis, Project administration, Writing - review & editing, Validation, SoftwareJ.SData curation, Resources,Visualisation, Investigation References Amah M, Zuhiriyah M. EFL teachers’ problems in online learning during covid-19 pandemic and their solution. EJI (English J Indragiri): Stud Educ Literature Linguistics. 2023;7(2):379–409. https://doi.org/10.61672/eji.v7i2.2549 . Amiti F. Synchronous and asynchronous E-learning. Eur J Open Educ E-Learning Stud. 2020;5(2):60–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.46827/ejoe.v5i2.3313 . Atmojo AEP, Nugroho A. EFL classes must go online! Teaching activities and challenges during COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. Register J. 2020;13(1):49–76. https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.49-76 . Banson J. Co-regulated learning and online learning: A systematic review. Social Sci Humanit Open. 2022;6(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100376 . Borstorff PC, Lowe SK. Student perceptions and opinions toward e-learning in the college environment. Acad Educational Leadersh J. 2007;11(2):13–30. https://doi.org/10.31943/mathline.v6i2.234 . Creswell JW. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson. Creswell JW, Plano Clark VL. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 3rd ed. Sage; 2018. Dağgöl GD, Akçayoğlu Dİ. From emergency remote teaching to remote online education: challenges, benefits and differences in EFL setting. Kastamonu Educ J. 2023;31(1):48–59. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.1243546 . Denzin NK. The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. Routledge; 2017. Derakhshan A, Kruk M, Mehdizadeh M, Pawlak M. Boredom in online classes in the Iranian EFL context: Sources and solutions. System. 2021;101:102556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102556 . Dolgunsöz E, Yıldırım G. The role of mobile devices on online EFL skill courses during Covid-19 emergency remote education. Acuity: J Engl Lang Pedagogy Literature Cult. 2021;6(2):118–31. https://doi.org/10.35974/acuity.v6i2.2486 . Dziuban CD, Picciano AG, Graham CR, Moskal PD. Conducting research in online and blended learning environments. New Pedagogical Front. 2016. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315814605 . Farooqi MQ. Teaching and learning of English as a foreign language: The impact of COVID-19. J Social Humanity Educ. 2022;2(4):357–66. https://doi.org/10.35912/jshe.v2i4.979 . Faza A, Harry Budi Santoso, Hadi O. Navigating online learning challenges and opportunities: Insights from small group of lecturers during pandemic. Procedia Comput Sci. 2024;234:1164–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2024.03.112 . Francom GM, Lee SJ, Pinkney H. Technologies, challenges and needs of K-12 teachers in the transition to distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. TechTrends. 2021;65(4):589–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/S8528-021-00625-5 . Herwiana S, Laili EN. Exploring benefits and obstacles of online learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic in EFL students' experiences. QALAMUNA: Jurnal Pendidikan Sosial Dan Agama. 2022;14(1):61–72. https://doi.org/10.37680/qalamuna.v14i1.1259 . Hijazi D, Alnatour A. Online learning challenges affecting students of English in an EFL context during COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Educ Pract. 2021;9(2):379–95. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.61.2021.92.379.395 . Iryna Volodymyrivna Z, Svitlana Vasylivna V, Anatoliivna I, L., Iryna Anatoliivna M. EFL university students challenges in the process of online learning of foreign languages in Ukraine. Arab World Engl J (AWEJ). 2021;770–7. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/call7.5 . Ja'ashan MMNH. The challenges and prospects of using e-learning among EFL students in Bisha University. Arab World Engl J (AWEJ). 2020;11(1):124–37. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no1.11 . Johnson RB, Onwuegbuzie AJ. Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher. 2004;33(7):14–26. Maatuk AM, Elberkawi EK, Aljawarneh S, Rashaideh H, Alharbi H. The COVID-19 pandemic and E-learning: challenges and opportunities from the perspective of students and instructors. J Comput High Educ. 2022;34(1):21–38. Mahyoob M. Challenges of e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced by EFL learners. Arab World Engl J (AWEJ). 2020;11(4):351–62. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23 . Marsevani M. The challenges of E-Learning for higher education lecturers and learners. J Educ Technol. 2022;6(3):467–77. https://doi.org/10.23887/jet.v6i3.45537 . Maryono GD, Lengkanawati NS. EFL teachers’ strategies to accommodate students’ learning styles in distance learning and their challenges. J Engl as Foreign Lang. 2022;12(1):159–78. https://doi.org/10.23971/jefl.v12i1.3130 . Muthi’ah, Nawir MS, Tsuraya AS. Teachers’ perceptions of the challenges in the online EFL teaching: A review of previous studies. Lentera Pendidikan: Jurnal Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan. 2021;24(2):215–23. https://doi.org/10.24252/lp.2021v24n2i5 . Nartiningrum N, Nugroho A. Online learning amidst global pandemic: EFL students’ challenges, suggestions, and needed materials. Engl Franca: Acad J Engl Lang Educ. 2020;4(2):115–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.29240/ef.v4i2.1494 . O’Doherty D, Dromey M, Lougheed J, Hannigan A, Last J, McGrath D. Barriers and solutions to online learning in medical education–an integrative review. BMC Med Educ. 2018;18:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1240-0 . Okyar H. University-level EFL students’ views on learning English online: A qualitative study. Educ Inform Technol. 2023;28(1):81–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/S7639-022-11155-9 . Perveen A. Synchronous and asynchronous e-language learning: A case study of virtual university of Pakistan. Open Praxis. 2016;8(1):21–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.8.1.212 . Rahim MN, Chandran SSC. Investigating EFL students’ perceptions on e-learning paradigm-shift during Covid-19 pandemic. Elsya: J Engl Lang Stud. 2021;3(1):56–66. https://doi.org/10.31849/elsya.v3i1.5949 . Rahmany AB, Sohail FR. EFL Students’ Readiness towards Mobile Learning at Kandahar University in Afghanistan. J Foreign Lang Teach Translation Stud. 2021;6(4):39–56. https://doi.org/10.22034/efl.2022.319610.1132 . Rahmawati F. E-Learning implementation: Its opportunities and drawbacks perceived by EFL students. J Foreign Lang Teach Learn. 2016;1(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.18196/ftl.111 . Saleh AM, Meccawy Z. Teaching in tough times: Examining EFL teachers' perceptions of online learning challenges in the context of higher education in Saudi Arabia. J Educ Learn. 2022;11(3):47–57. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v11n3p47 . Sarwari K, Kakar AF, Golzar J, Miri MA. Distance learning during COVID-19 in Afghanistan: Challenges and opportunities. E-learning Digit Media. 2022;19(2):144–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/20427530211044757 . Su F. (2019). Blended Learning Pedagogy in Higher Education. Encyclopedia of Educational Innovation , 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2262-4_19-1 Suharsih S, Wijayanti MA. Online learning for EFL learners: Perceptions, challenges, and expectations. J Engl Lang Stud. 2021;6(2):244–57. https://doi.org/10.30870/jels.v6i2.12122 . Sundarwati E, Pahlevi MR. EFL teachers’ challenges and opportunities of emergency remote teaching during the Covid-19 Pandemi C: Narrative inquiry. Lang Educ J Undiksha. 2021;4(2):74–85. https://doi.org/10.23887/leju.v4i2.37565 . Sutami NK, Santosa MH, Mahendrayana G. Students and teacher's challenges in distance learning implementation in EFL context in SMK Nusa Dua Toya Anyar Kubu, Karangasem. J Engl Teach. 2022;8(2):320–8. https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v8i2.3905 . Taghizadeh M, Basirat M. Investigating pre-service EFL teachers’ attitudes and challenges of online teaching. Comput Assist Lang Learn. 2024;37(7):1937–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2136201 . Teddlie C, Tashakkori A. Foundations of mixed methods research. Sage; 2009. Turnbull D, Chugh R, Luck J. Transitioning to E-Learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: How have higher education institutions responded to the challenge? Educ Inform Technol. 2021;26(5):6401–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/S7639-021-10633-w . Ulfa K. Challenges of online learning faced by EFL students during Covid 19 pandemic. TIN: Terapan Informatika Nusantara. 2021;2(4):222–5. Vershitskaya ER, Mikhaylova AV, Gilmanshina SI, Dorozhkin EM, Epaneshnikov VV. Present-day management of universities in Russia: Prospects and challenges of e-learning. Educ Inform Technol. 2020;25:611–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/S7639-019-09978-0 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8464355","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":591608589,"identity":"f7e93c9e-7203-4fdc-b66d-fdac1bce4018","order_by":0,"name":"Mohammad Qasim Farooqi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgdgio29BypwAIgr8GphNoBo4TmDpOUMLtXIWhgkcojUotuezPi5osJGtk/y7cGPP9sY5PhuJDB+OIBHi9mZx8ySZ86kGbdJ5yVL87YxGEveSGCWwKvlRv4Byca2w4lt0jkG0oxtDIkbbiQwSH/AqyWZ+SdYi+QZ459Ah9UDtTD/wG9LMhvEFgkeMwmgwxIMbiSw4XfYmcdslg0gv/DkpVnznJMwnHnmYZsFXi3Hk5lvNgBDbH772cM3f5TZyPMdTz58A58WBoYEMMnYAOFJILGJ1DIKRsEoGAWjABMAAEtwU0YpGfVUAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Badghis University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammad","middleName":"Qasim","lastName":"Farooqi","suffix":""},{"id":591608590,"identity":"3d8563ff-88da-44b6-9069-0d3ecbeec612","order_by":1,"name":"Nasim Tahsildar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Herat University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nasim","middleName":"","lastName":"Tahsildar","suffix":""},{"id":591608591,"identity":"3c36f184-8ea3-4a39-94c9-541829c4ed4c","order_by":2,"name":"Jamshid Sultanzadah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Badghis University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jamshid","middleName":"","lastName":"Sultanzadah","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-28 07:08:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8464355/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8464355/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102991378,"identity":"2e42bc84-e56f-4838-859b-dc38fb6131b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 11:31:48","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":479057,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Challenges Associated with Online Learning Classes\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8464355/v1/4533314c1d7729d0a2615e04.jpeg"},{"id":106745409,"identity":"860a3cd3-ba4a-4dc4-bcda-cc0e81d2c046","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 05:26:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1353404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8464355/v1/a6128cdc-cc5a-42d5-8a56-e998d2c35f7a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Opportunities and Challenges of E-Learning among University EFL Students in Afghanistan Following the 2021 transition","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eE-learning has advanced considerably with the emergence of technology, significantly enhancing teaching and learning worldwide by enabling access to online classes from any location (Allen \u0026amp; Seaman, 2017). However, these classes face several limitations, particularly in developing countries such as Afghanistan, where technological infrastructure and digital literacy remain underdeveloped (Rahmany \u0026amp; Sohail, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the adoption of e-learning in Afghanistan accelerated following the COVID-19 pandemic, which necessitated a rapid transition from traditional face-to-face instruction to online education (Shams et al., 2021), this sudden shift has offered substantial benefits to learners in various respects. However, in the post-COVID-19 period, e-learning still continues to be used by many female students in Afghanistan, largely as a result of the political transition and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan\u0026rsquo;s policies that limit their physical attendance at schools and universities. While online learning offers an alternative means of education, female students now face a range of emerging challenges that seem to act as barriers to meaningful participation. These include staying at home without income-generating opportunities, limited access to e-learning courses conducted within the country, certain family-related constraints, and the inability of some families to provide the necessary digital tools and internet connectivity. These conditions suggest the presence of both systemic and household-level factors influencing the effectiveness of e-learning in the current context. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the perceptions of students, particularly those deprived of physical attendance at university, regarding the challenges and opportunities associated with e-learning in Afghanistan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eE-learning, which is used interchangeably with 'online learning' (Moore \u0026amp; Galyen, 2011) in the current study, refers to education that takes place via internet or any instruction delivered over a digital communication network (Dziuban et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). It is one of the learning methods that appeared with the advent of the internet and the global web in the 1990s. Some of the major types of e-learning, as stated by Parveen (2016) are synchronous, asynchronous, and blended learning. Synchronous e-learning involves instructors and learners being online together and at the same time although not all in the same place. For instance, students from different places in the world perform a learning activity together simultaneously through online chats, video conferencing, and so on (Amiti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, asynchronous e-learning is the one in which the instructor and students engage with the course material at various times; for example, the teacher gives learners some learning materials including discussion forums, required readings, online tests, etc. to perform on their schedule. Blended online learning, on the other hand, refers to methods where traditional face-to-face classroom instruction is combined with online learning (Amiti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The purpose of blended learning, however, is to improve and expand the learning promises for students beyond classroom learning and the actual online lessons themselves can be either synchronous, asynchronous, or both (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eE-learning is associated with various affordances, which in this context refer to its opportunities and challenges. One of its primary opportunities is the convenience it offers. E-learning allows students to attend classes from home, eliminating the need for commuting to schools or universities (Rahmawati, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, studies by Herwiana and Laili (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Borstorff and Lowe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) highlight that e-learning bridges geographical distances between teachers and students, enabling access to educational content from virtually any location at any time. It also supports individualized learning by accommodating diverse learning needs and schedules (Ja'ashan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, e-learning encourages students to become more autonomous, as they engage in self-directed learning by searching for and processing information independently, which in turn enhances their self-regulation skills (Herwiana \u0026amp; Laili, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sarwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It may also influence learners\u0026rsquo; attitudes, including their emotions, thought patterns, and behaviors (Herwiana \u0026amp; Laili, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Further, e-learning environments offer features such as error-free practice, immediate feedback, and self-paced instruction (Sarwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on e-learning in the EFL context consistently highlight its potential to make language education more flexible, accessible, and student-centered (Domingo \u0026amp; Gargant\u0026eacute;, 2016). Online platforms offer EFL learners\u0026rsquo; opportunities to engage with multimodal materials, such as videos, audio, and interactive content, that can enhance vocabulary acquisition, listening, and reading skills (Gillett-Swan, 2017). E-learning also encourages learner autonomy and supports self-paced study, which is particularly valuable in language learning (Rajaee, 2015; Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, numerous challenges hinder its effectiveness, especially in contexts like Afghanistan. Common barriers include unreliable electricity, poor internet access, lack of digital devices, and limited ICT skills among both students and instructors (Mohammadi et al., 2024; Rahim, 2020). In addition, e-learning methods often clash with traditional classroom norms and local curricula, leading to a mismatch between content and context (Tareen, 2022). Many students also experience anxiety and low confidence when using unfamiliar digital tools (Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, while e-learning offers meaningful advantages for EFL instruction, its success depends on addressing the technological, pedagogical, and contextual limitations identified across the literature (Heng \u0026amp; Sol, 2021; Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers, e-learning also presents opportunities for professional development, as it encourages experimentation with diverse instructional strategies and fosters creativity in teaching (Sundarwati \u0026amp; Pahlevi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Besides, e-learning has the potential to enhance EFL education by making it more interactive, flexible, and learner-centered; however, its successful implementation in Afghan universities is hindered by ongoing challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, limited digital literacy among students and instructors, misalignment with traditional teaching contexts, and anxiety related to the use of online platforms (Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its advantages, e-learning in EFL education is fraught with numerous challenges that hinder its effectiveness. One of the most frequently cited obstacles is poor internet connectivity, which causes frequent disruptions during online sessions, undermining learner concentration, impairing communication, and fostering negative perceptions toward online education (Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Basirat, 2022; Suharsih \u0026amp; Wijayanti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mahyoob, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Farooqi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, limited digital competence among both students and instructors significantly restricts the effective use of online platforms and tools. Many users lack experience with essential applications such as Zoom and Google Meet, as well as basic computer literacy, which hampers the teaching-learning process (Turnbull \u0026amp; Luck, 2021; Hijazi \u0026amp; Alnatour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Faza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Another prominent limitation is the lack of meaningful interaction. Technical difficulties, inadequate feedback, and limited peer engagement diminish the interactive quality of virtual classrooms (Saleh \u0026amp; Meccawy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Okyar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Hijazi \u0026amp; Alnatour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Student engagement and motivation also tend to decline in online settings, often due to passive instructional methods, absence of timely guidance, and limited teacher involvement (Herwiana \u0026amp; Laili, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, studies highlight problems in mutual understanding between teachers and students, including lack of clarity regarding course expectations, rules, and assessments (Hijazi \u0026amp; Alnatour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). EFL learners also report discomfort with camera use due to anxiety, privacy concerns, and unsuitable learning environments (Dağg\u0026ouml;l \u0026amp; Ak\u0026ccedil;ayoğlu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, e-learning environments often fail to address students\u0026rsquo; diverse learning styles and cognitive needs, with instruction heavily relying on PowerPoint presentations and offering minimal auditory or visual variety. This lack of pedagogical flexibility limits inclusive learning, particularly in large classes (Atmojo \u0026amp; Nugroho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sarwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Maryono \u0026amp; Lengkanawati, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith the widespread adoption of online learning\u0026mdash;particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic\u0026mdash;numerous scholars have examined its implementation across diverse educational contexts (Alqurashi, 2011; Derakhshan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Herwiana \u0026amp; Laili, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Marsevani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Amah \u0026amp; Zuhiriyah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Ja\u0026rsquo;ashan (2020), for instance, employed a quantitative approach to investigate online English language teaching at the University of Bisha in Saudi Arabia and identified several academic, administrative, and technical constraints encountered by instructors. In a similar vein, Marsevani (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a mixed-methods study at a private Indonesian university and found that lecturers struggled with time limitations, inadequate familiarity with digital tools, and unstable internet, while learners faced challenges including limited access to devices, low motivation, and technical difficulties. Despite these obstacles, the study underscored the necessity of adaptation by both instructors and students for successful online education. In Turkey, Valizadeh (2022) used a mixed-methods design to explore strategies for minimizing academic dishonesty and recommended individualized assessments, webcam usage during exams, and alternative evaluation techniques; yet, infrastructural limitations and inconsistent teacher monitoring remained problematic. Derakhshan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported additional barriers in Iran, such as monotonous lectures, logistical issues, and low student engagement, and emphasized the importance of fostering teacher-student interaction to enhance classroom dynamism. Likewise, Amah and Zuhiriyah (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) employed qualitative methods to examine challenges in teaching reading and speaking skills in online EFL classes, attributing them to reduced learner motivation, lack of direct interaction, and limited access to digital devices. Recommended interventions included using authentic materials, increasing learner involvement, and maintaining communication with parents. In the Afghan context, Rahim and Chandran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted persistent issues such as power outages, weak internet access, and insufficient ICT resources as major hindrances for EFL learners at Kunduz University. Although the literature reveals a wide range of online learning challenges, a significant gap remains in understanding the specific barriers faced by Afghan students (Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rahmany \u0026amp; Sohail, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The present study seeks to address this gap by investigating how EFL learners in Afghanistan perceive both the opportunities and limitations of e-learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn sum, while e-learning offers increased flexibility and access, its implementation is hindered by persistent pedagogical, technological, and contextual barriers. Adapting instruction to diverse cognitive needs and learning styles remains challenging, particularly in online environments dominated by static materials and limited interactivity (Atmojo \u0026amp; Nugroho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sarwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Teachers face increased workloads and difficulty managing engagement, assessment, and academic integrity, especially in settings with minimal support (Sundarwati \u0026amp; Pahlevi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sutami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These challenges have been documented across various contexts\u0026mdash;including Saudi Arabia (Ja\u0026rsquo;ashan, 2020), Indonesia (Marsevani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Amah \u0026amp; Zuhiriyah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), Iran (Derakhshan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Turkey (Valizadeh, 2022), and Afghanistan (Rahim \u0026amp; Chandran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;highlighting shared struggles such as unreliable internet, lack of motivation, and limited familiarity with digital tools. However, much of the existing literature centers on relatively well-resourced or frequently studied regions, leaving the specific challenges of underrepresented contexts\u0026mdash;such as Afghanistan\u0026mdash;largely underexplored. This gap is particularly critical in light of current restrictions on female students, for whom online learning has become both an essential alternative and a site of ongoing struggle. Despite this, little empirical research has examined how Afghan EFL learners perceive the potential and limitations of online education. To address this gap, the present study investigates the experiences of university-level EFL students in Afghanistan, with the aim of identifying both enabling conditions and persistent barriers to inform more inclusive and context-sensitive educational strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are the main opportunities that online learning has provided to university EFL students in Afghanistan since the 2021 government transition?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat challenges do these students face in accessing and participating in e-learning post-2021?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do male and female students differ in their access to and usage of e-learning?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do male and female university EFL students describe their experiences with accessing and participating in e-learning post-2021?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study employed a sequential mixed-methods design to examine college students\u0026rsquo; perceived opportunities and challenges related to e-learning courses. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach enhances data validity through methodological triangulation (Johnson \u0026amp; Onwuegbuzie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), allows for follow-up exploration of unexpected findings (Ivankova et al., 2006), and ultimately generates robust, theoretical, practical, and actionable insights for e-learning education (Teddlie \u0026amp; Tashakkori, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Survey questionnaires and interviews were used to collect descriptive, inferential, and qualitative data, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study recruited 277 college students, 218 males and 59 females, using convenience sampling, defined as \u0026ldquo;a way of selecting participants from the target population based on ease of access\u0026rdquo; (Golzar et al., 2022, p. 72). All participants had more than two years of experience learning English through online courses and were drawn from four universities across Afghanistan. From this sample, 13 participants were purposively selected for interviews to ensure the inclusion of information-rich cases. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates the demographics of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participants\u0026rsquo; demographic characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValid Percentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGender\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFemale\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMale\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge group\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than 18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were collected using an online questionnaire adapted from Maatuk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The questionnaire comprised 21 items related to the e-learning opportunities and challenges experienced by participants during their college studies. These items included seven Likert-scale questions, ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;strongly agree\u0026rdquo;), seven yes/no questions, and seven descriptive questions consisting of frequency, categorical, and open-ended responses. The questionnaire demonstrated good internal consistency, with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.780, indicating high reliability. Participants\u0026rsquo; informed consent was obtained prior to distributing the survey via WhatsApp and Telegram.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews consisting of nine questions focusing on students\u0026rsquo; e-learning experiences, perceptions, and perceived opportunities and challenges. Each interview lasted between 20 and 30 minutes. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, the researchers securely stored the data, assigned pseudonyms to participants, and refrained from disclosing any personal information without explicit permission.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 25 to generate descriptive statistics. The results were presented in tables showing means, medians, standard deviations, and ranges. Qualitative data, on the other hand, were analyzed using thematic analysis, \u0026ldquo;a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data\u0026rdquo; (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, 2006, p. 79). First, the interview transcripts were read multiple times to gain a comprehensive understanding of the data. Concurrently, the researchers took extensive memos to identify initial codes, which were then compared to detect significant connections and subsequently grouped into broader themes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral initial codes were identified, including \u0026ldquo;internet affordability,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;internet accessibility,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;internet speed,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;lack of smartphone or computer,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;insufficient funds for internet data plans,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;limited familiarity with online platforms,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;limited proficiency with smartphones and computers,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;academic dishonesty,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;lack of feedback,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;noisy environments,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;limited interaction.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo enhance the rigor of the analysis, a moderator was invited to review the coding and thematic development. The research team held multiple joint discussions to resolve discrepancies. Additionally, a rating agreement table was employed to increase objectivity, using a 0\u0026ndash;5 scale, with codes achieving an average rating of at least 3.8 being retained. The finalized list of codes was then shared with participants for member checking and validation. Triangulation was achieved by comparing the researchers\u0026rsquo; initial analyses, the moderator\u0026rsquo;s interpretations, and participants\u0026rsquo; feedback. Through this iterative process, key themes were refined. The final themes emerging from the qualitative data analysis were: \u0026ldquo;digital access and infrastructure challenges,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;deficits in digital literacy and skills,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;violations of academic integrity,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;inconsistent evaluation practices,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;environmental factors.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOnline Learning Opportunities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for several individual items indicated that college students generally held positive perceptions of e-learning. Participants reported that online education had significantly enhanced their technology skills (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.01). Additionally, online courses were perceived to provide updated content and information to a large extent (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.96). Online learning environments also highly motivated introverted students to participate actively in lessons (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.01). Furthermore, students indicated that these courses substantially improved their self-directed learning abilities (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.06). The flexibility of online courses, which allowed them to fit students\u0026rsquo; schedules, was rated moderately high (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.82). Participants also reported experiencing online learning in a satisfactory and conducive environment to some extent (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.66). Finally, students acknowledged that online courses provided access to rich and virtually unlimited learning resources to a moderate degree (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.73). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents further details.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics for Individual Items\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividual Items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMissing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline training has improved my technology skills\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline training courses provide updated content and information\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline learning environments encourage shy students to participate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline training courses increase my ability to learn independently\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe flexibility of online training fits my schedule\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.107\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI experience online learning comfortably and in a suitable environment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.225\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline courses provide me with access to rich and unlimited learning resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOnline Learning Challenges\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants also provided descriptive information regarding the challenges they faced in online learning. A majority reported frequent issues with weak internet connections during online classes (69.3%). When asked about difficulties related to insufficient knowledge of using smartphones, laptops, or tablets for online learning, 69% of students indicated that they faced such challenges, while 31% reported no difficulties. Additionally, 62.1% of participants experienced challenges due to unfamiliarity with online educational platforms such as Google Meet and Telegram. Slightly over half of the students (51.6%) reported receiving adequate guidance on using online learning tools, whereas the remainder did not. More than half of the respondents (55.2%) felt that the existing online learning infrastructure was inadequate for their needs. The cost of internet data plans was also a significant barrier, with 61.4% stating they could not afford them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation in online class activities was reported as difficult by 57% of students. Regarding engagement, 41.9% found online classes very interesting, 43% considered them moderately interesting, and 15.2% described them as boring. In terms of academic integrity, 48.4% of students stated that they never sought help from the internet or peers during online exams, 29.6% admitted to occasionally doing so, and 22% acknowledged frequent reliance on external help. Privacy concerns were notable, with 43% of participants reporting discomfort with turning on their cameras during online classes, while 30.3% did not find this problematic, and the remainder had no opinion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, 56.7% of students reported experiencing eye fatigue or headaches due to prolonged screen time during online sessions. Despite these challenges, 64.3% indicated that they had access to a quiet and suitable environment at home for participating in online classes. Finally, 67.5% of participants reported receiving regular feedback from their instructors. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e provides further details.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; Reported Experiences of Online Learning Challenges\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternet connection issues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften struggled with weak connections\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited knowledge of technical devices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncountered limits utilizing devices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo tension reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;sup\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;a\u0026lt;/sup\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline learning platforms familiarity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperienced challenges with platforms such as Google Meet, Telegram etc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuidance on the utilization of online learning tools\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReceived guidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDid not receive proper guidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnline learning infrastructure sufficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsufficient infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternet data plans affordability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCould not afford data expenses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement in in-class activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFound engagement difficult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademic integrity in exams\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever tried to seek external help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSometimes tried to seek help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften tried to seek help\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivacy sensitivity issues (camera use)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFound turning on camera sensitive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInconsequential issue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever challenging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth related issues (eye fatigue/headache)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperienced discomfort\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuitable learning environment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHad an suitable study space\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegular feedback from instructors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReceived feedback\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote.\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Calculated according to the remaining percentage (100% \u0026ndash; 69% = 31%).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInterview Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interview findings identified several challenges related to the e-learning environment, including issues with digital access and infrastructure, deficits in digital literacy and skills, violations of academic integrity, inconsistent evaluation practices, and environmental factors. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e provides further details.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDigital Access and Infrastructure Malfunctioning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first challenge reported by participants regarding online learning was related to digital access and infrastructure issues, including low internet speed, limited internet accessibility, internet affordability, lack of funding for students\u0026rsquo; data plans, and the absence of digital devices. Many participants indicated that their internet speed was so slow that downloading or uploading materials within their online learning groups was often impossible. For example, S1 explained: \u0026ldquo;When I want to download or upload something, I can\u0026rsquo;t do that because of the low internet speed. Sometimes it takes more than three or four hours to download or upload something in the group. So, when a teacher shares videos or audio files, I cannot download them because of the poor internet connection.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to low speed, participants seemed to frequently experience disconnection issues. Some reported being unable to join online classes at all or being repeatedly disconnected during sessions. For instance, S3 stated: \u0026ldquo;Sometimes I cannot join the class because my internet is very weak; however, when I join, I disconnect from the class and have to rejoin several times because the connection is so unstable.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternet accessibility was another significant issue, especially for those living in remote areas without telecommunication infrastructure. The absence of cellular antennas in these regions meant no internet signal was available. S7 shared: \u0026ldquo;When we had to study online for one semester, it was very difficult because there was no antenna in our village, making it hard to send or receive anything.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the lack of internet access, some students were forced to visit their teachers in person to obtain learning materials. S6 noted: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;sometimes we had to see the teacher physically to solve our problems and get the materials the teacher had posted online.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial constraints on the other hand posed major other challenges. Many participants reported that they could not afford to purchase internet data packages. For example, S5 said: \u0026ldquo;I did not have money to activate internet packages required for online training.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, S2 emphasized the high cost of internet services: \u0026ldquo;Internet packages in Afghanistan are very expensive and beyond economic reach, which is one of the problems we face.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants echoed these concerns regarding the inability to pay for internet data plans. S13 remarked: \u0026ldquo;I had financial difficulties and could not afford the cost of internet packages because they were very expensive.\u0026rdquo; S8 also shared how economic challenges led to absenteeism: \u0026ldquo;I didn\u0026rsquo;t have money to activate the internet, so I missed many classes. As a result, I could not learn much from online courses due to financial problems.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, some students from impoverished families lacked essential digital devices such as smartphones or computers, which made participation in online education impossible. S10 stated: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;actually, I am from a poor family and cannot afford to buy a smartphone. Therefore, I was deprived of any online education and could not participate in it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeficit in Digital Literacy and Skills\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second challenge reported by participants pertained to deficits in digital literacy and skills. Many students demonstrated inadequate familiarity with online platforms and digital tools essential for e-learning, such as Telegram, WhatsApp, and Zoom, as well as limited proficiency in using smartphones and computers. For instance, S1 explained: \u0026ldquo;We did not have enough information about technology at all. Some students did not know how to download or upload lesson materials from Telegram and WhatsApp groups. Also, we did not know much about how to use a computer or a smartphone because we bought either a computer or a smartphone just to join the online classes.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis lack of digital literacy was not limited to students; teachers also struggled with the new online education system. S3 noted: \u0026ldquo;The problem was that professors and students were not fully acquainted with online education because it was a new system, and no one had prior experience teaching or learning through it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eS7 further described challenges encountered with the Zoom platform, highlighting technical difficulties due to instructors\u0026rsquo; limited knowledge of the software: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;our teacher who created the link did not have full knowledge of the Zoom program. The duration of each lesson was 40 or 50 minutes. The lesson was interrupted once or twice when the allotted time ran out; the teacher and students had to reconnect. The teacher couldn\u0026rsquo;t limit the time to prevent the program from automatically interrupting the lesson before it was over.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eViolation of Academic Integrity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe third challenge identified by participants is related to academic dishonesty in online learning. Students reported that upon realizing teachers did not thoroughly check their homework for originality or provide feedback, they resorted to copying assignments from one another and submitting identical work, yet still receiving full marks. For example, S3 stated: \u0026ldquo;When we realized that our teacher did not check our homework for plagiarism, we copied the homework from each other, sent it to the teacher, and received a complete mark.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, S8 observed: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;when one student did the homework and others copied it, all were given full scores because the teacher did not verify the assignments.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese accounts suggest that inadequate teacher oversight and lack of rigorous evaluation fostered academic dishonesty. This not only compromised the quality of learning but also resulted in unfair grading, as students who completed their assignments independently received the same scores as those who plagiarized. The findings underscore the need for more stringent assessment practices to uphold academic integrity in online education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInconsistent Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother challenge highlighted by the participants concerned inconsistent evaluation, particularly the lack of feedback from instructors. They reported that they did not receive any feedback on their assignments, which hindered their ability to identify and correct mistakes. For instance, S4 stated: \u0026ldquo;We had problems with teachers who did not give us feedback to correct our problems and mistakes.\u0026rdquo; Similarly, S12 shared: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;when the teacher assigned homework, he said he would check it and provide feedback, but he never sent any, so we did not know whether our homework was correct.\u0026rdquo; S5 also expressed: \u0026ldquo;I had a problem with homework because after submitting it, the teacher did not give me any feedback to correct my mistakes. The teacher did not indicate whether my assignments were of good quality or if I needed to revise them.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese accounts emphasize the critical role of timely and constructive feedback in facilitating effective learning and improvement in online education settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnvironmental Factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA further tension reported by the EFL learners regarding online learning classes pertained to environmental factors, particularly health issues, noisy surroundings, and demotivation caused by limited alignment with learners\u0026rsquo; individual learning styles and restricted interaction. Participants indicated that prolonged exposure to computer or smartphone screens resulted in headaches and eye strain. For example, S9 stated: \u0026ldquo;Because of the light from the phone and computer during online studying, I got a headache and eyesore.\u0026rdquo; Similarly, S11 noted: \u0026ldquo;When the online class started and I used the phone and computer more, it caused headaches and eyesores, and I couldn\u0026rsquo;t use technology materials for extended periods.\u0026rdquo; Moreover, participants reported a lack of quiet spaces to join video calls. For instance, S10 said: \u0026ldquo;I do not have a quiet place to make video calls and cannot call due to privacy and circumstances.\u0026rdquo; S6 also shared: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;because of the crowd and noise in the family, I had to go to another room in the cold weather to finish the online training and then return to the warm home.\u0026rdquo; Additionally, the online learning environment was perceived as not adequately accommodating students\u0026rsquo; individual learning styles, especially kinesthetic learners who prefer physical movement during lessons. The constrained interaction between teachers and students further diminished learners\u0026rsquo; motivation. S4 explained: \u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t have any motivation for learning in online classes because there is no movement, no opportunity for role-play, and little interaction with classmates and teachers.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese environmental and pedagogical limitations negatively impacted students\u0026rsquo; engagement and overall learning experience in online courses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the opportunities and challenges of online learning in the Afghan higher education context. The findings revealed both opportunities and challenges that shaped learners' experiences with online education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne key benefit was the development of learners\u0026rsquo; technological competencies. A majority of participants reported that their engagement with online platforms enhanced their digital skills, particularly through the use of tools such as Google Classroom, Telegram, and WhatsApp. These findings align with those of Herwiana and Laili (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), Borstorff and Lowe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), and Farooqi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who similarly observed that online learning environments contribute significantly to the advancement of students\u0026rsquo; technological literacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother reported advantage was the flexibility and accessibility of updated content. Online platforms enabled learners to access contemporary resources at their convenience, thus promoting continuous and autonomous learning. This supports prior research by Borstorff and Lowe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) and Faza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who found that online learning allows for greater flexibility and access to current educational materials. Furthermore, the study revealed that online classes encouraged participation among introverted students, who typically hesitate to engage in face-to-face settings. This finding corroborates Rahmawati (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who noted that virtual learning environments can empower shy students to participate more confidently.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, online learning was found to support the development of learner autonomy. Participants reported that they became more self-directed in seeking out resources and managing their own learning processes. These findings are echoed in the work of Herwiana and Laili (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Sarwari et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who argue that e-learning fosters independent learning by reducing reliance on teacher-led instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these opportunities, the study identified several critical challenges, beginning with infrastructure and digital access. Participants frequently cited unreliable internet connectivity, high data costs, lack of government support for internet packages, and limited access to smartphones or computers, particularly among students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. These findings align with previous studies, including Rahmawati (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), Taghizadeh and Basirat (2022), Suharsih and Wijayanti (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and Muthi\u0026rsquo;ah et al. (2021), all of which emphasize infrastructure deficits as a major barrier to effective e-learning. Similarly, Faza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and Mahyoob (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the destabilizing effects of poor connectivity and limited digital infrastructure on students' learning experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother prominent challenge was the lack of digital literacy and technical skills. Many participants noted their limited ability to navigate e-learning platforms or utilize technological tools effectively. This deficiency extended to some instructors as well, undermining the effectiveness of online instruction. This is consistent with findings from Hijazi and Alnatour (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Sutami et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and Mahyoob (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that both students and teachers often struggle with the technical demands of online learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIssues related to academic integrity also emerged. Several participants acknowledged engaging in dishonest practices, such as copying assignments from peers, largely due to insufficient monitoring and a lack of meaningful feedback from instructors. This behavior not only undermined the learning process but also led to perceived injustice among students. These findings support previous studies by Herwiana and Laili (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), Turnbull et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and Rahmawati (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), all of which report that online learning environments may foster increased opportunities for cheating due to reduced supervision and limited formative assessment practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother significant challenge concerned the inconsistency of instructional feedback. Participants frequently expressed frustration about the absence of constructive responses from instructors regarding their submitted assignments. This lack of feedback impeded their ability to identify and correct errors, ultimately weakening their learning outcomes. Similar concerns have been raised in the literature by Rahmawati (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Saleh and Meccawy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who note that insufficient feedback is a recurring issue in online educational contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, environmental and health-related concerns were identified. Students often lacked quiet and private spaces for learning, especially in shared households. In addition, extended screen time contributed to health problems such as headaches and eye strain. Furthermore, the lack of kinesthetic learning activities and limited peer or teacher interaction led to reduced student engagement and motivation. These concerns echo findings from Saleh and Meccawy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), Atmojo and Nugroho (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and Faza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who all emphasized the adverse health effects and interactional constraints of online learning. Rahmawati (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) also noted the deficiency of real-time communication and feedback in online environments, which contributes to student disengagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, while online learning in Afghanistan presents notable opportunities such as increased technological competence, flexibility, and opportunities for autonomous learning, it is equally constrained by structural, pedagogical, and contextual challenges. These findings underscore the need for systemic interventions, particularly in improving infrastructure, digital literacy, instructional practices, and learner support systems, to fully harness the potential of e-learning in resource-limited contexts.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Concluding Remarks","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study explored the opportunities and challenges of E-learning for Afghan EFL university students. The findings revealed that while online education offers several pedagogical and technological benefits, it also presents substantial challenges that must be addressed to maximize its effectiveness in low-resource contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reported opportunities of E-learning included the development of students\u0026rsquo; technological competence, enhanced autonomous learning, increased participation among introverted learners, flexible scheduling, and access to up-to-date digital resources. These findings underscore the potential of online education to promote more inclusive and learner-centered environments, particularly when appropriate infrastructure and pedagogical strategies are in place.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the study identified significant challenges. These included restricted digital access and infrastructure malfunctioning (e.g., slow internet, high data costs, and limited device availability), inadequate digital literacy among both students and instructors, violations of academic integrity due to insufficient monitoring and feedback, and various environmental factors, such as health-related issues, lack of quiet study spaces, and limited interactivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on these findings, several implications emerge:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDigital Access and Infrastructure\u003c/b\u003e: The Afghan government, particularly the Ministry of Communications and the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), should invest in strengthening internet infrastructure, especially in remote areas. Additionally, affordable data plans or financial assistance should be provided to economically disadvantaged students to ensure equitable participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDigital Literacy and Skills\u003c/b\u003e: To address the digital skills gap, universities should offer training workshops focused on using online learning platforms. Supplementary support\u0026mdash;such as step-by-step tutorial videos and peer-to-peer troubleshooting groups\u0026mdash;could enhance learners\u0026rsquo; familiarity with E-learning tools and foster collaborative problem-solving.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAcademic Integrity\u003c/b\u003e: Instructors should employ plagiarism detection software and adopt stricter assessment protocols to ensure academic honesty. Furthermore, incorporating ethics and academic integrity into the curriculum can help raise students' awareness and cultivate responsible digital behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEnvironmental and Pedagogical Challenges\u003c/b\u003e: To reduce eye strain and improve concentration, instructors should integrate regular breaks into their class schedules. Enhancing engagement through interactive methods (e.g., discussion boards, polls, and group projects) and providing timely and constructive feedback, either individually or collectively, can improve learning outcomes and motivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFuture Research Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral avenues for further inquiry emerge from this study. Future researchers could:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigate the affordances of mobile learning platforms specifically designed for low-bandwidth environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplore the role of artificial intelligence in creating adaptive E-learning systems that deliver personalized instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eConduct longitudinal studies to examine the long-term impact of E-learning on students\u0026rsquo; academic performance, motivation, and self-regulatory behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is not without limitations. First, the sample included relatively few female participants, limiting the gender representation and generalizability of the findings. Future studies should aim for a more balanced gender distribution. Second, this research did not employ a specific theoretical framework. Subsequent studies could adopt the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework, which emphasizes the interplay of cognitive, social, and teaching presence in online learning environments, to provide deeper theoretical insights.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u003c/strong\u003e not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of Badghis University, which served as the lead institution for the research. Data collection at other universities was limited to voluntary participation by adult students and did not require separate institutional ethical approval. All procedures were conducted in accordance with institutional ethical guidelines for human-subject research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants prior to the interviews. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and their right to withdraw at any time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish:\u003c/strong\u003e Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM .Q Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, SupervisionN.TMethodology, Formal analysis, Project administration, Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Validation, SoftwareJ.SData curation, Resources,Visualisation, Investigation\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmah M, Zuhiriyah M. EFL teachers\u0026rsquo; problems in online learning during covid-19 pandemic and their solution. EJI (English J Indragiri): Stud Educ Literature Linguistics. 2023;7(2):379\u0026ndash;409. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.61672/eji.v7i2.2549\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.61672/eji.v7i2.2549\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmiti F. Synchronous and asynchronous E-learning. Eur J Open Educ E-Learning Stud. 2020;5(2):60\u0026ndash;70. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.46827/ejoe.v5i2.3313\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.46827/ejoe.v5i2.3313\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAtmojo AEP, Nugroho A. EFL classes must go online! Teaching activities and challenges during COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. Register J. 2020;13(1):49\u0026ndash;76. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v13i1.49-76\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18326/rgt.v13i1.49-76\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBanson J. Co-regulated learning and online learning: A systematic review. Social Sci Humanit Open. 2022;6(1):1\u0026ndash;12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100376\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100376\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorstorff PC, Lowe SK. Student perceptions and opinions toward e-learning in the college environment. Acad Educational Leadersh J. 2007;11(2):13\u0026ndash;30. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.31943/mathline.v6i2.234\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.31943/mathline.v6i2.234\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCreswell JW. (2012). \u003cem\u003eEducational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research\u003c/em\u003e (4th ed.). Pearson.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCreswell JW, Plano Clark VL. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 3rd ed. Sage; 2018.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDağg\u0026ouml;l GD, Ak\u0026ccedil;ayoğlu Dİ. From emergency remote teaching to remote online education: challenges, benefits and differences in EFL setting. Kastamonu Educ J. 2023;31(1):48\u0026ndash;59. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.1243546\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24106/kefdergi.1243546\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDenzin NK. The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. Routledge; 2017.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDerakhshan A, Kruk M, Mehdizadeh M, Pawlak M. Boredom in online classes in the Iranian EFL context: Sources and solutions. System. 2021;101:102556. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102556\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.system.2021.102556\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDolguns\u0026ouml;z E, Yıldırım G. The role of mobile devices on online EFL skill courses during Covid-19 emergency remote education. Acuity: J Engl Lang Pedagogy Literature Cult. 2021;6(2):118\u0026ndash;31. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.35974/acuity.v6i2.2486\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.35974/acuity.v6i2.2486\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDziuban CD, Picciano AG, Graham CR, Moskal PD. Conducting research in online and blended learning environments. New Pedagogical Front. 2016. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4324/9781315814605\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4324/9781315814605\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarooqi MQ. Teaching and learning of English as a foreign language: The impact of COVID-19. J Social Humanity Educ. 2022;2(4):357\u0026ndash;66. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.35912/jshe.v2i4.979\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.35912/jshe.v2i4.979\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFaza A, Harry Budi Santoso, Hadi O. Navigating online learning challenges and opportunities: Insights from small group of lecturers during pandemic. Procedia Comput Sci. 2024;234:1164\u0026ndash;74. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2024.03.112\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.procs.2024.03.112\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFrancom GM, Lee SJ, Pinkney H. Technologies, challenges and needs of K-12 teachers in the transition to distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. TechTrends. 2021;65(4):589\u0026ndash;601. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/S8528-021-00625-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S8528-021-00625-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHerwiana S, Laili EN. Exploring benefits and obstacles of online learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic in EFL students' experiences. QALAMUNA: Jurnal Pendidikan Sosial Dan Agama. 2022;14(1):61\u0026ndash;72. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.37680/qalamuna.v14i1.1259\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.37680/qalamuna.v14i1.1259\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHijazi D, Alnatour A. Online learning challenges affecting students of English in an EFL context during COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Educ Pract. 2021;9(2):379\u0026ndash;95. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.18488/journal.61.2021.92.379.395\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18488/journal.61.2021.92.379.395\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIryna Volodymyrivna Z, Svitlana Vasylivna V, Anatoliivna I, L., Iryna Anatoliivna M. EFL university students challenges in the process of online learning of foreign languages in Ukraine. Arab World Engl J (AWEJ). 2021;770\u0026ndash;7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/call7.5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24093/awej/call7.5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJa'ashan MMNH. The challenges and prospects of using e-learning among EFL students in Bisha University. Arab World Engl J (AWEJ). 2020;11(1):124\u0026ndash;37. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no1.11\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24093/awej/vol11no1.11\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJohnson RB, Onwuegbuzie AJ. Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher. 2004;33(7):14\u0026ndash;26.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaatuk AM, Elberkawi EK, Aljawarneh S, Rashaideh H, Alharbi H. The COVID-19 pandemic and E-learning: challenges and opportunities from the perspective of students and instructors. J Comput High Educ. 2022;34(1):21\u0026ndash;38.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahyoob M. Challenges of e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced by EFL learners. Arab World Engl J (AWEJ). 2020;11(4):351\u0026ndash;62. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMarsevani M. The challenges of E-Learning for higher education lecturers and learners. J Educ Technol. 2022;6(3):467\u0026ndash;77. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.23887/jet.v6i3.45537\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.23887/jet.v6i3.45537\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaryono GD, Lengkanawati NS. EFL teachers\u0026rsquo; strategies to accommodate students\u0026rsquo; learning styles in distance learning and their challenges. J Engl as Foreign Lang. 2022;12(1):159\u0026ndash;78. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.23971/jefl.v12i1.3130\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.23971/jefl.v12i1.3130\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMuthi\u0026rsquo;ah, Nawir MS, Tsuraya AS. Teachers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of the challenges in the online EFL teaching: A review of previous studies. Lentera Pendidikan: Jurnal Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan. 2021;24(2):215\u0026ndash;23. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.24252/lp.2021v24n2i5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24252/lp.2021v24n2i5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNartiningrum N, Nugroho A. Online learning amidst global pandemic: EFL students\u0026rsquo; challenges, suggestions, and needed materials. Engl Franca: Acad J Engl Lang Educ. 2020;4(2):115\u0026ndash;40. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.29240/ef.v4i2.1494\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.29240/ef.v4i2.1494\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eO\u0026rsquo;Doherty D, Dromey M, Lougheed J, Hannigan A, Last J, McGrath D. Barriers and solutions to online learning in medical education\u0026ndash;an integrative review. BMC Med Educ. 2018;18:1\u0026ndash;11. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1240-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12909-018-1240-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkyar H. University-level EFL students\u0026rsquo; views on learning English online: A qualitative study. Educ Inform Technol. 2023;28(1):81\u0026ndash;107. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/S7639-022-11155-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S7639-022-11155-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePerveen A. Synchronous and asynchronous e-language learning: A case study of virtual university of Pakistan. Open Praxis. 2016;8(1):21\u0026ndash;39. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.8.1.212\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5944/openpraxis.8.1.212\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahim MN, Chandran SSC. Investigating EFL students\u0026rsquo; perceptions on e-learning paradigm-shift during Covid-19 pandemic. Elsya: J Engl Lang Stud. 2021;3(1):56\u0026ndash;66. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.31849/elsya.v3i1.5949\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.31849/elsya.v3i1.5949\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahmany AB, Sohail FR. EFL Students\u0026rsquo; Readiness towards Mobile Learning at Kandahar University in Afghanistan. J Foreign Lang Teach Translation Stud. 2021;6(4):39\u0026ndash;56. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.22034/efl.2022.319610.1132\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.22034/efl.2022.319610.1132\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahmawati F. E-Learning implementation: Its opportunities and drawbacks perceived by EFL students. J Foreign Lang Teach Learn. 2016;1(1):1\u0026ndash;15. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.18196/ftl.111\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18196/ftl.111\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaleh AM, Meccawy Z. Teaching in tough times: Examining EFL teachers' perceptions of online learning challenges in the context of higher education in Saudi Arabia. J Educ Learn. 2022;11(3):47\u0026ndash;57. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v11n3p47\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5539/jel.v11n3p47\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSarwari K, Kakar AF, Golzar J, Miri MA. Distance learning during COVID-19 in Afghanistan: Challenges and opportunities. E-learning Digit Media. 2022;19(2):144\u0026ndash;62. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/20427530211044757\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/20427530211044757\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu F. (2019). Blended Learning Pedagogy in Higher Education. \u003cem\u003eEncyclopedia of Educational Innovation\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;6. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2262-4_19-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-981-13-2262-4_19-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSuharsih S, Wijayanti MA. Online learning for EFL learners: Perceptions, challenges, and expectations. J Engl Lang Stud. 2021;6(2):244\u0026ndash;57. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.30870/jels.v6i2.12122\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.30870/jels.v6i2.12122\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSundarwati E, Pahlevi MR. EFL teachers\u0026rsquo; challenges and opportunities of emergency remote teaching during the Covid-19 Pandemi C: Narrative inquiry. Lang Educ J Undiksha. 2021;4(2):74\u0026ndash;85. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.23887/leju.v4i2.37565\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.23887/leju.v4i2.37565\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSutami NK, Santosa MH, Mahendrayana G. Students and teacher's challenges in distance learning implementation in EFL context in SMK Nusa Dua Toya Anyar Kubu, Karangasem. J Engl Teach. 2022;8(2):320\u0026ndash;8. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v8i2.3905\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.33541/jet.v8i2.3905\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTaghizadeh M, Basirat M. Investigating pre-service EFL teachers\u0026rsquo; attitudes and challenges of online teaching. Comput Assist Lang Learn. 2024;37(7):1937\u0026ndash;74. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2136201\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/09588221.2022.2136201\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTeddlie C, Tashakkori A. Foundations of mixed methods research. Sage; 2009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTurnbull D, Chugh R, Luck J. Transitioning to E-Learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: How have higher education institutions responded to the challenge? Educ Inform Technol. 2021;26(5):6401\u0026ndash;19. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/S7639-021-10633-w\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S7639-021-10633-w\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUlfa K. Challenges of online learning faced by EFL students during Covid 19 pandemic. TIN: Terapan Informatika Nusantara. 2021;2(4):222\u0026ndash;5.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVershitskaya ER, Mikhaylova AV, Gilmanshina SI, Dorozhkin EM, Epaneshnikov VV. Present-day management of universities in Russia: Prospects and challenges of e-learning. Educ Inform Technol. 2020;25:611\u0026ndash;21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/S7639-019-09978-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S7639-019-09978-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"E-learning, EFL students, opportunities, challenges","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8464355/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8464355/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDespite significant global advancements in e-learning research, particularly in pedagogical approaches, technology integration, and instructional design, a critical gap remains concerning specific populations and contexts in underrepresented regions such as Afghanistan. Employing a mixed-methods research design, this study investigated the opportunities and limitations of e-learning among Afghan EFL students (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;277) across different English proficiency levels via a questionnaire. Subsequently, thirteen participants were purposively selected for in-depth interviews to gain deeper insights into the status of e-learning. The analysis identified several opportunities and limitations associated with online classrooms. Opportunities included the development of students\u0026rsquo; technological competencies and autonomous learning, the facilitation of active participation among introverted learners, and the provision of flexible schedules alongside access to up-to-date resources. Conversely, limitations encompassed issues related to digital access and infrastructure failures, deficiencies in digital literacy and skills, violations of academic integrity, and various environmental factors. The study concludes with implications aimed at assisting policymakers, administrators, and instructors in formulating more effective e-learning policies and creating supportive learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Opportunities and Challenges of E-Learning among University EFL Students in Afghanistan Following the 2021 transition","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-19 11:31:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8464355/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"96a26506-ff68-4ad7-8a6f-d0647ef2b7cc","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 19th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-13T05:25:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-19 11:31:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8464355","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8464355","identity":"rs-8464355","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}