Telescopic Alluvial Fans and Pleistocene-Holocene temporary lakes in the quebradas del Río Toro and Tastil (Salta, NW Argentina): main sedimentary features

Telescopic Alluvial Fans and Pleistocene-Holocene temporary lakes in the quebradas del Río Toro and Tastil (Salta, NW Argentina): main sedimentary features | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Telescopic Alluvial Fans and Pleistocene-Holocene temporary lakes in the quebradas del Río Toro and Tastil (Salta, NW Argentina): main sedimentary features Ferran Colombo, J.A. Salfity, Maria Cristina Sánchez This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4751615/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 13 Feb, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Iberian Geology → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Toro and Tastil Quebradas (river valleys) present different terrace-like geoforms made up of deposits of coarse-grained clastic materials. These terraces display convex-upward surfaces, a highly variable distribution, have a small lateral extension and depend on the lithology of the geological basement, which differs significantly along the quebradas . The number of terraces between one area and another indicates that these terraced geoforms should not be ascribed to one single cause, but rather to a variety of factors, i.e. local variations at base-level. The coarse-grained materials of the terraces are usually arranged in roughly horizontal layers that characterize the outcrops. These are interfingered with fine-grained mud-rich materials. The freshwater gastropod remains in the mud-rich materials indicate that they accumulated in lacustrine-like sedimentary environments. These developed from alluvial fans that spread out from the lateral quebradas to occupy the entire main valley (q uebrada) , giving rise to natural dams and temporary lakes upstream. Absolute dates obtained by radiocarbon ( 14 C) methods strongly suggest that the alluvial fans were coeval with the temporary lakes in the Upper Pleistocene - Middle Holocene. The ENSO effects could have brought about the local variations in base-level that generated the younger temporary lakes, whereas the older ones were probably controlled by precession cycles (at about 21,000 y). The large number of temporary lakes scattered across the region suggests the overlapping of forcing factors at local and regional scales. Natural dams paleo ENSO activities Precession cycles sedimentary effects Andean Cordillera NW Argentina Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 1. Introduction The Quebrada del Toro (QT) is a fluvial valley of the Toro River, to the W of Salta, that subsequently continues as the Quebrada del Tastil (QTa) to the NW. The highway 51 (RN 51) and part of the General Belgrano railway line between Chile and Argentina (Fig. 1 ) pass along these valleys. Both quebradas display a high predominance of coarse-grained layers (gravels) interfingered with mud-rich materials (clay-silt) that have been extensively studied (Igarzábal, 1971 ; Marrett and Strecker, 2000 ; Colombo, 2005 ; Hilley and Strecker, 2005 ; Strecker et al., 2009 ; Sánchez et al., 2010 ; Alonso, 2011 ; Luna, 2011 ; Álvarez et al., 2012 ; Tofelde et al., 2019 ). In the QT, the best outcrops are located between Campo Quijano and Puerta del Tastil, extending through QTa to El Cachiñal. Moreover, in the upper reaches of the Río Toro (Ojo de Agua sector) there are similar outcrops that display several deposits of gravel interfingered with sands and fine-grained (mud-rich) materials (Sánchez and Álvarez, 2011 ; Álvarez et al., 2012 ). The two main quebradas are over 60 km long and have an average gradient of about 3%. They correspond to a narrow gorge. The lower part of the gorge is mostly incised in the metamorphic materials of the Puncoviscana Fm. (Paleozoic, Precambrian) the middle part in the sedimentary materials of the Yacoraite Fm. (Mesozoic, Upper Cretaceous) whereas the third part is in the granitoids (Batholith) of Santa Rosa del Tastil (Paleozoic). Finally, the upper part, towards El Cachiñal, is incised in the volcaniclastic materials (Quaternary) of the area (Turner, 1960 ; Salfity et al., 1975 ; Turner and Mon, 1979 ; Moya, 1998 ; Omarini et al., 1999 ; Aceñolaza and Aceñolaza, 2005 ). The aim of the present study is to deepen our understanding of the sedimentary dynamics responsible for the gravel deposits associated with mud-rich materials that constitute the recent infill of much of the QT and the QTa. A further aim is to determine the geological processes that control these sedimentary accumulations at regional scale. These processes could be tectonic or climatic, or they could be due to a significant variability in weather conditions. 2. Materials and methods The two main quebradas contain numerous outcrops of fine and very fine-grained reddish yellowish, mud-rich materials (clays and silts) that lie unconformably over a pre-Quaternary basement. These are usually interfingered with coarse-grained materials (sands and gravels) that are very thick locally. The coarse-grained layers display roughly flat basal contacts, whereas the upper ones are convex and are arranged in terraces in the main quebradas . The terraces have been numbered consecutively (Colombo et al., 2000 ) from the lowest, that of the present river valley (T 0 ), to the highest (T 7 ). Thus, the most modern terrace is clearly identifiable and corresponds to the present riverbed of the creek, whereas the older terraces, with a higher numbering, may have been partially eroded and are un-marked in the landscape. In the figures of the stratigraphic logs, the most important sections and levels that are indicated by conventional letters such as A, B, C, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, and T, provide enough information to support the sedimentological interpretation. In several cases the gravels display some intercalations of levels made up of well-rounded clasts of regional origin. These levels correspond to the coeval accumulation of alluvial gravels of local origin and fluvial deposits in the main quebrada . Thus, they display different events of fluvial incision. Detailed observation of the position of the main riverbed (in QT and Qta) with respect to the other riverbeds of the confluent quebradas allows us to determine subtle variations in the fluvial incision events. The terminology of muds, sands and gravels is used because of the small amount of diagenesis at the present time. The highest level attained by the fine-grained materials that interfingered with the gravel and sand layers is determined. This enabled us to obtain an approximate value of the initial sedimentary thickness of the muds (clays and silts) with respect to coarse-grained (sand and gravel) deposits. Detailed stratigraphic profiling was performed in the main outcrops: El Gólgota, Arroyo Colorado and Las Cuevas. The study of their different sedimentary characteristics enabled us to elucidate the evolution of the flows and the processes responsible for the transport and accumulation of the deposits under study. Some of the profiles contained remains of carbonated gastropod shells. This were analyzed by Prof. P.M. Grootes (using radiocarbon methods) at the Leibniz Labor für Altersbestimmung und Isotopenforschung at the Christian-Albrecht University of Kiel (Germany) to obtain absolute dating and displayed as in uncalibrated years Before the Present (y BP). 3. Presence of natural dams in the 3. Presence of natural dams in the quebradas The numerous confluent valleys of the main quebradas (QT and QTa) contain alluvial fans of varying sizes some of which have spread out to occupy the entire width of the main quebradas locally. These alluvial fans generated natural dams (Costa and Schuster, 1988 ) that blocked the hydraulic flow, facilitating the accumulation of very fine and fine-grained materials that were predominantly transported by wash load. Three sectors along the main quebradas show diverse morphologies controlled by the basement rocks. The quebradas are located at different topographic heights. Thus, in descending order, these correspond to: Sector 1. QTa. El Cachiñal-Puerta del Tastil. The basement is composed of Quaternary volcaniclastic materials from the Puna. Sector 2. QT. Puerta del Tastil-Gólgota. The basement is mainly made up of Paleozoic granitoids from Santa Rosa del Tastil. Sector 3. QT. Gólgota-Campo Quijano. The basement corresponds to the Paleozoic Puncoviscana Fm. The main natural dams are located at various sites and have been given different names. However, smaller natural dams, although discussed herein, are not given specific denominations (Fig. 2 ). The precise location of sample sites and heights were obtained from the GPS device (Garmin 60CSx). The main natural dams were identified along the Qta and QT, from the highest to the lowest sites (Table 1). The altimetric position in meters above sea level (masl) of some of these natural dams related to the temporary lakes are clearly identifiable in the field: 1. El Cachiñal; 2. Encrucijada; 3. Arroyo Incahuasi; 4. Las Cuevas; 5. Esquina Negra; 6. Carrera Muerta; 7. Corte Blanco; 8. Santa Rosa del Tastil; 9. Alfarcito; 10. Tacuará; 11. Puerta del Tastil; 12. Quebrada de Carachi; 13. Gobernador Solá; 14. Quebrada de Lampazar; 15. Quebrada de las Arcas; 16. El Gólgota; 17. Arroyo Colorado; 18. Quebrada del Incamayo; 19. Chorrillos; 20. Estancia Zulema; 21. El Candado; 22. El Alisal; 23. Escuelita El Mollar (Fig. 3 ). 4. Stratigraphy An analysis of the stratigraphic profiles corresponding to the main outcrops follows below: 4.1. El Gólgota This outcrop (Fig. 4 ) is in the QT (24º 39’ 42.0” S; 65º 47’ 27.4” W) to the north on the outskirts of the Ingeniero Maury station main buildings of the C-14 branch of the General Belgrano railway, at kilometer 64 of the National highway (RN 51) and near kilometer 1170 of the railway. It is characterized by a large accumulation (80–85 m thick) of reddish and yellowish mud-rich materials that differ greatly in color from the materials of the Puncoviscana Fm. The blackish gravel clasts from the Puncoviscana Fm., which are its most distinctive feature, are interfingered throughout the stratigraphic profile (Fig. 5 ). The gravel levels overlying a clearly defined basal planar surface, display many clasts with subangular to subrounded morphologies. In some cases, the clasts are scattered within the layers despite exhibiting a roughly positive grain-size trend (Fig. 6 ). The upper boundaries of the gravel layers are usually in sharp contact with the muds. The mud-rich sections show traces of planar lamination with some interfingered layers of very fine silt with subtle lamination (Fig. 7 , level N). Some mud-rich layers are made up of the remains of gastropods with very thin-walled carbonated shells. Radiocarbon datings yield a date of around 25,000 years BP (Table 2). Gravel sections are predominant towards the eastern sector, indicating a preferential accumulation of the gravels transported by the lateral quebradas . The earlier geometry of the QT could have conditioned this granulometric distribution. 4.2. Arroyo Colorado The outcrop is (24º 41’ 46.0” S; 65º 45’ 28.7” W) in the QT about 2.5 km to the south of main buildings of the Ingeniero Maury railway station (Fig. 8 ). Reddish yellowish, predominantly mud-rich layers that are characterized by fine lamination in the silty materials lie unconformably over a substratum of the Puncoviscana Fm. Layers of very fine-grained sands, which display cross-bedding and cross-lamination, are also present. The total thickness is about 65–70 m. The mud-rich materials display several intercalations of gravel levels characterized by clast supported fabric made up of non-organized clasts of the Puncoviscana Fm. The clasts which are randomly distributed, display subangular morphologies with smooth edges. There are occasionally some out-sized clasts distributed towards the top of the sedimentary units. Mud crack casts are displayed at the top of the muddy layers at intervals. Vertical bioturbation traces are common throughout the stratigraphic profile, which shows no obvious hierarchy. Small, highly oxidized iron (Fe) nodules are distributed along the profile. Few decimetric stratiform layers composed of coarse-grained sands with some small dispersed clasts are also present. Some remains of gastropods with very thin-walled carbonated shells are found where the muds are very fine-grained. Radiocarbon dating yields a date of around 26,000 years BP. 4.3. Las Cuevas The outcrop (24º 22’ 45.8” S; 66º 00’ 12.2” W) is located (Fig. 9 ) to the north of the QTa, and 1 km south of Las Cuevas town center. The outcrop is characterized by an accumulation (35–40 m thick) of reddish and yellowish mud-rich materials that are highly visible in the landscape. Interfingered gravel deposits are present throughout the stratigraphic profile. Gravel materials show clasts with angular to subangular shapes that are mainly disordered within the layers. The tabular lithosomes display wide lateral extension. Locally, there are also some massive or cross-bedded lenticular bodies. The upper boundaries of the gravel layers and mud-rich materials are usually sharp despite the local occurrence of some faintly laminated layers of very fine-grained sands. Some outcrops show sandy limestone levels that are displayed gradually as small intercalated centimetric thick carbonate-rich levels (Fig. 9 , level P). This would imply favorable conditions for carbonate deposition in a lacustrine area. The lacustrine zone was large and gave rise to the accumulation of very fine-grained materials evidenced by mud-rich levels locally. The mud-rich profiles show scarce development of planar lamination with some interfingered layers of very fine silts with subtle lamination. Some layers of coarse-grained sands display cross-bedding locally. Gravel levels predominating over muddy materials at the top of stratigraphic profile indicate that the general grain-size trend is negative. Of especial significance are the limestone layers that increase in frequency towards the upper part. Locally, these correspond to carbonate-rich sandy materials and calcilutites that change upwards to carbonated sands, sandy limestones, and carbonate-rich brecciated layers. 5. Telescopic alluvial Fans The gravel-rich materials sourced from the lateral quebradas to the QT and QTa display several terraces that are clearly distinguished from the lowest levels of the Toro and Tastil rivers (Fig. 10 ). The terraces are nested with respect to each other and their paleocurrents display a radial distribution from the upper part (apex) towards the main valley. Locally, the gravel transport and accumulation may be produced by debris flows characterized by a disordered fabric and a very poor clast sorting. These features may explain the presence of out-sized clasts to the upper part of some gravel levels (Fig. 6 , level T). Usually, the gravels interfingered with fine-laminated mud and silts display the characteristics of having been transported by high-density and turbulent flows (Nemec and Muszyński, 1982 ; Nemec, 2009 ) given that the deposits show subangular and subrounded clasts of local origin in a clast-supported fabric (Wasson, 1977 ; Maizels, 1989 ; Moulder and Alexander, 2001; Benvenuti and Martini, 2002 ). These terraces are often constituted by different lithosomes with convex-up surfaces (Fig. 11 ) consisting mainly of gravels that show predominantly clast-supported fabrics indicating that the flows involved in their transport and accumulation are of a high-density type (Lowe, 1992; Petter and Steel, 2006 ). All these coarse-grained materials accumulate as alluvial fan deposits that spread out towards the main valley. This results in several natural dams which lead to numerous retention lakes upstream (Fig. 12 ). This gives rise to terracing as the lacustrine waters spills over natural dams (Fig. 13 ) breaching them because of headward erosion (Colombo et al., 2000 ). Thus, local, and recurrent variations of the base-level generated telescopic alluvial fans (Colombo, 2005 ) in different quebradas scattered across the region (Fig. 14 ). Above the gravel levels, parallel laminations are displayed, consisting of coarse-grained sand layers without apparent structures (Fig. 8 , level O). Several gravel lithosomes with tabular geometry, made up of a disordered fabric, display a decimetric thickness and a wide lateral extension at outcrop scale. Because of a very sharp basal contact, they may have accumulated as a result of very energetic flows with turbulent characteristics. These could have been caused by sheet flood events as a stable water level is reached (Fig. 8 , basal part). Detailed observations of the present adjustments of the low levels of the riverbeds of the main quebradas compared to their counterparts of the lateral quebradas reveal local variations that are significant. Thus, some variations at local base-level reshaped several alluvial terraces (Colombo et al., 2000 ), resulting in the development of telescopic alluvial fans (Colombo, 2005 ), which generate natural dams. Locally there are gravel levels with an open-work fabric, suggesting that they had been transported and deposited in a short-lived high-energy hydraulic context that prevented effective clast sorting (Harms et al., 1975 , 1982 ; Lunt and Bridge, 2007 ). The lack of adjustment between the T 0 (in the lower position) on the right bank of the QT and the lateral quebrada from the West opposite to the main buildings of the Ingeniero Maury railway station yield values of 50–60 cm. Moreover, the lack of adjustment of the T 0 on the right bank of the QT near the “Integration” bridge (the main railway bridge that crosses the Quebrada del Toro) is also worth noting. Thus, there is a difference of 90 cm − 1 m between the T 0 (in the lower position) and the concrete blocks constituting the pillar foundations of the railway bridge on the right bank of the QT. By contrast, the sediments carried by the QT overlie the concrete blocks on the left bank. The irregular incision is very recent since it must have developed after the construction of the railway bridge approximately a century ago. Vast accumulations of gravel with thicknesses of almost 80 m and different terrace levels (T 0 -T 7 ) are present in some areas (Fig. 15 ). These may be attributed to the significant growth of several alluvial fans in some confluent quebradas ( Quebrada del Mollar and Quebrada de Carachi (24º 33’ 18.5” S; 65º 52’ 01.5” W) which blocked the QT. Two episodes of gravel bodies (with cross-stratification and cross-bedding) point to their own progradation within the respective stable water sheet. Thus, the upper level (T 4 ) shows slightly concave-up foresets with an asymptotic basal contact and a geometry akin to that of the coarse-grained lacustrine fan-delta (Gilbert, 1885 ; Colella, 1988 ; Colella and Prior, 1990 ). The gravels that display different cross-bedding were probably transported by means of a confined braided system into the main quebradas made up of numerous small channels with gravel bars (Hein et al. , 1977; Schumm, 1985 ) and must have accumulated finally in the lake margin as several coarse-grained fan-delta bodies. The lower level (T 2 ) reveals foresets that vary in dip and interfinger with fine-grained lacustrine materials. The declining upwards trend in the foresets slope could be controlled by a significant increase in the velocity of the current transported the gravels. But this possibility could be discarded given the insignificant increase in the thickness of the highest and youngest levels of gravels. Therefore, the decreasing upwards trend in the foresets slope could also correspond to a significant change in the area occupied by the lake, perhaps indicating a marked reduction in lake accommodation space coeval with the fan-delta progradation (Colella and Prior, 1990 ; García-Mondéjar, 1990 ). This was probably followed by a rapid abandonment of the sedimentary infilling of the lake. This occurred as in present-day reservoirs when these undergo significant variations in water level during high flood events (Kondolf, 1995 ; Morris and Fan, 1998 ; Owens et al., 2005 ; Schneider et al., 2012 ). A sharp rise in the water level would also have led to an increase in the dynamic reduction in the flow velocity of major discharges and in the foreset dip variation. Fluvial gravel levels (Fig. 16 ) displayed throughout the outcrop are evidenced by highly rounded clasts of regional origin and by effective clast-size sorting (T 3 and T 5 ). These fluvial levels are interfingered with alluvial materials of local origin. In both cases, therefore, the fluvial clast lineation indicates two events of relative stability, and a significant duration of stream positions of the Toro River. Subsequently, the alluvial gravels were eroded until reaching its present position (T 0 ). The Toro River thus underwent three main episodes of incision. From the top of the deposits, the first episode was an incision of about 25 m, facilitating the development of T 5 . The second, was an incision of around 20 m that contributed to the development of T 3 , and the third episode was an incision of about 35 m, which corresponded to the base-level of the present river, i.e. the T 0 . Large alluvial fans from lateral quebradas were probably formed during exceptional and irregularly distributed heavy storm events that would have brought about dense high-energy flows when entering a stable sheet of water where mainly lacustrine muds had accumulated. Some small gravel bodies present a relatively flat base and a convex surface, suggesting a rapid accumulation of coarse-grained clastics at the mouth of a functional channel in a subaqueous context (Fig. 17 B). The convex-up geometry of some small rock-bodies characterizes several outcrops. These could have been due to the arrival of very dense and energetic flows at the bottom of a stable water sheet as the flow undergoes an abrupt fall in velocity, probably due to the friction with the quiet water sheet and furthering the development of some small lobe-shaped lithosomes (Petter and Steel, 2006 ; Zavala et al., 2006 , 2022 ; Arnott and Al-Muftí, 2017). Some gravel lithosomes with tabular geometry, characterized by a disordered fabric, display a decimetric thickness and a wide lateral extension at outcrop scale. With a very sharp basal contact, these lithosomes could have accumulated owing to the activity of very energetic flows with turbulent characteristics. Plenty of evidence such as 1) the variable number of terraced levels, 2) the radial paleocurrents from the highest point (inner part) to the most distal parts, 3) the lithosomes generated by the sedimentary accumulation of aqueous flows, and 4) the alternation of other rock-bodies generated by high-density flows are the key arguments in support of the origin of the gravel beds as a result of the development of different alluvial fans. 6. Temporary lakes Along the main quebrada each natural dam was generated by one or several alluvial fans that blocked the main valley (i.e. QT) and gave rise to lakes made up of the accumulation of the mud-rich materials cropping out among others at Arroyo Colorado, Las Cuevas and El Gólgota. The lakes resulted from the obstruction of the main quebradas by the natural dams. The mud-rich materials made up of clays and silts display a very fine to fine lamination, which is laterally continuous. It is well known that the mud-rich materials outcropping in the QT and QTa correspond to sedimentary deposits that accumulate in temporary lakes (Servant and Fontes, 1978 ; Cencetti and Rivelli, 2011 ). Moreover, there are also several intercalations of fine to medium-grained sands, some massive and others with cross-laminations. The muddy materials (Veizaga-Saavedra et al., 2022 ) are mainly made up of illite (45–60%), chlorite (20–30%), smectite (5–20%) and kaolinite (about 5%). There are several natural dams in the sectors of the QT and QTa that generate numerous lakes, which are scattered among all the quebradas at different heights in the proximity (Salfity et al., 2004 ; Sánchez et al., 2010 ; Sánchez and Álvarez, 2011 ). Because of the topographic constrictions of the main quebrada , it seems that none of these lakes would have been very large. The sharp and irregular base of some lithosomes indicates a certain erosion capacity of the sedimentary substrate given the turbulent behavior of the flows. A tabular level of fine-medium sands with many cross-stratifications and cross-laminations is present locally. This seems to correspond to an unconfined flash flood event made up of a turbulent flow that transports sands by means of different types of hydraulic dunes and other associated bed forms to a lacustrine area. This developed in a shallow water context as suggested by the mud-cracks in the mud-rich materials below the basal part of the sandy lithosome (Fig. 6 , level Q). Shallow lakes with a stable water sheet gave rise to the development of a vegetation fringe that extended gradually to the more central sectors of the lake. Evidence for this lies in the non-hierarchized vertical bioturbation that results in the vegetated cover i.e. grassland. The wide expansion of vegetation leads to the transformation of lacustrine to palustrine (marsh) facies, which would have occurred in an arid or semi-arid context as evidenced by the mud-crack casts at the top of the interfingered mud-rich layers (Moussa et al. , 2024). Thus, recurrent episodes of desiccation in a semi-arid context (Villagrán and Varela, 1990 ; Garralla et al., 2001 ) occurred. It seems therefore reasonable that these lakes should be termed temporary lakes. The shallow water sheet may have been more permanent and stable locally, furthering the development of diverse gastropod communities such as Planorbis s.p. and Biomphalaria s.p. (De Francesco and Hassan, 2009 ). Fine-grained materials interfingered with the alluvial gravel layers strongly suggest that the fans developed coevally with significant variations in lacustrine base-level. The Las Cuevas outcrop is marked by the presence of a number of limestone levels interfingered with mud-rich materials. These limestone levels are displayed along the stratigraphic profile suggesting the development of the mud-rich accumulation coeval with the carbonate-rich sedimentation. The accumulation of carbonated layers suggests the long-term stabilization of the water sheet (Alonso-Zarza, 2003 ; Fregenal-Martínez and Meléndez, 2010 ). The lacustrine muds were gradually replaced by levels of gravel that became predominant towards the upper part of the stratigraphic log. Subsequently the lake was locally infilled with a carbonatic-sandy lithosome with a thickening upwards trend. The overall trend suggests that the sandy accumulation formed a deltaic-like body in a context of lacustrine stability. The limestones probably originated from the calcium carbonate-rich waters that issued from the wash of outcrops of Salta Group (Salfity and Marquillas, 1999 ; Seggiaro et al., 2019 ). Occasional floods in the QT eroded the fronts of some natural dams, washing away most of the lacustrine sediments and leaving behind some lateral remains along the quebrada . These remains are currently visible in the landscape. The water spilled over the natural dam, resulting in its destruction by headward erosion (Colombo, 2005 ). This allowed the water to flow freely down the main river valley with high energy leading to the wide reworking of mud-rich materials that are displayed in the present quebradas. Absolute dating indicates that lacustrine sedimentation occurred episodically during the late Pleistocene-middle Holocene (Robinson et al., 2005 ; Cohen and Gibbard, 2019 ). There is an age gap of about 1,160 years between the El Gólgota (25,210 y BP) and Arroyo Colorado (26,370 y BP), neighboring sites characterized by similar lacustrine facies (Table 2). Thus, two separate lakes developed along the QT at different times during the Pleistocene. By contrast, at the El Candado site (24º 48’ 44.6” S; 65º 37’ 39.8” W), there is a vertical stacking of different lacustrine deposits dated 8,800-8,200 cal y BP (calibrated years Before Present) at the base; 7,300 cal y BP in the middle and 5,500-5,400 cal y BP in the upper levels (Veizaga-Saavedra et al., 2022 ). The dating probably tallies with that of the lakes that were formed at the same sites (i.e. El Candado) along the Holocene. The muddy materials usually display some interfingered coarse-grained (gravel-rich) levels attributed to high-density flows (debris flows with laminar behavior) and diluted debris flows (with turbulent behavior) deposits (Lawson, 1982 ; Petter and Steel, 2006 ; Nemec, 2009 ) in a lacustrine environment. They seem to correspond to events of high-energy sedimentary flows that on entering a stable water sheet transformed into dense turbiditic flows that gradually dissipated (Kondolf, 1995 ). Some lateral quebradas facilitated the mobilization of large amounts of sand, which probably originated from the alteration of the Santa Rosa del Tastil batholith (Kilmurray and Igarzábal, 1971 ; Hongn et al., 2001 ). They also contributed to the transportation of the sand from the drainage catchments placed upwards of the apex of alluvial fans. This gave rise to sand-rich deposits, resulting in the formation of small delta-like bodies. The very localized heavy rainfall, which produced numerous flash flood events as in some recent examples (Coleman et al., 2002 ; Karkani et al., 2021 ; Esper-Angillieri, 2008 ; Rios et al., 2024 ), was probably responsible for reactivating the sedimentary activity of the lateral quebradas . This contributed to the episodic growth of the natural dams that subsequently blocked the main valley, causing water retention and the upstream generation of numerous lakes. This occurs in similar quebradas at present (D’odorico et al., 2009 ; Perucca and Esper-Angillieri, 2011 ). 7. Discussion Formerly, it was believed that natural dams were generated by large rockslides and avalanches in young rock massifs because of extreme climatic conditions (Trauth and Strecker, 1999 ; Strecker et al. , 2001; Trauth et al., 2003 ; Hermanns and Schellenberg, 2008 ; Alonso, 2011 ) in a regional context of intense seismic activity. However, given that the area under study had not undergone any significant seismic activity in recent times we offer a much simpler explanation. The alluvial fans controlled by flows from the lateral quebradas expanded rapidly, blocking both the QTa and the QT. This led to the retention of the waters of the Tastil and Toro rivers and to the subsequent formation of lakes. This probably occurred in recent times because of the irregular distribution of heavy rainfall, which must be attributed to significant variations in weather conditions (Villa-Martínez et al., 2003 ; Anderson et al., 2015 ; Cabré et al., 2019 , 2020 ; Aguilar et al., 2020 ) rather than to climate change. Moreover, it is well known that climate change always implies a significant variation in the landscape and in the vegetation cover among other characteristics (Fischer, 1986 ; Blum and Tornquist, 2000 ; Cecil and Edgar, 2003 ). Evidence of the increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme floods abounds in semi-arid to arid conditions related to multi-decadal climatic cycles because of the present climate crisis in the study area. Given that the natural dams are located at the junction of the main quebradas with their tributaries (Table 1), the alluvial fans would have formed at the mouths of the tributaries. It, therefore, does not seem reasonable to ascribe the generation of natural dams to recurrent falling and sliding of large amounts of gravel with angular clasts due to the absence of evidence in support of the specific gravitational process. Some higher-order cause must, therefore, have played a determining role in the accumulation of such large amounts of clastic materials in the two main quebradas . From the climatic perspective, the air mass circulation in recent times is characterized by the South American Monsoon System (SAMS). This probably controlled the behavior of the South American low-level jet (SALLJ) channeling air masses northwards across the Andean Ranges into tropical and subtropical South America (Vera et al. , 2003; Castino et al. , 2016). The intensity and variability of SAMS that induced heavy rainfalls on the precession time scales (21,000 y) are well known (Zachos et al., 2001 ; Fritz et al., 2004 , 2010 ; Placzek et al., 2006 ; Rohrman et al., 2016 ; Tofelde et al., 2017 ) because of lacustrine evidence obtained among others from the Bolivian Altiplano. The younger reliefs of the highest mountain ranges in the area probably underwent extensive gelivation during the last Quaternary glacial episodes. This would have led to the removal of large amounts of coarse-grained materials by glaciers in the area (Trauth and Strecker, 1999 , Ahumada, 2002 ; Zech et al., 2007 ), which would have generated significant accumulations such as moraines. Such massive and disordered gravel-rich deposits would have been reworked in subsequent water-rich episodes, facilitating the accumulation of large volumes of clastic materials such as lateral alluvial fans and their transport to the main valley (Fig. 18 ). Similar phenomena currently occur in nearby Andean areas (May and Soler, 2011 ; Cabré et al., 2017 , 2019 ) obviating the need for assuming any significant climate change. However, it does seem reasonable to assume that the various episodes of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) undergo intense, irregularly distributed precipitation over short periods of time (Markgraf et al., 1986 ; Rodbell et al., 1999 ; Sandweiss et al., 1999 ; Baker et al., 2001 ; Markgraf and Seltzer, 2001 ). These sedimentary dynamics strongly suggest that episodes such as those of ENSO played a decisive role in the development of the lateral alluvial fans. These are associated with the two main quebradas which then led to the formation of the corresponding temporary lakes (Grosjean et al., 2003 ; Fritz et al., 2004 ; Colombo, 2005 ; Colombo et al., 2009 ; May and Soler, 2011 ; Ortega et al., 2012 ; Baker and Fritz, 2015 ; Montini et al., 2019 ; Ortega et al., 2019 ; Veizaga-Saavedra et al., 2022 ). These lacustrine environments thus functioned as main sedimentary traps for the fine-grained sediments transported as wash-load by the QT and Qta fluvial system. 8. Concluding remarks 1. There is ample evidence in the QT and QTa of numerous natural dams generated by the progradation of alluvial fans originating in the lateral quebradas that eventually blocked the main quebradas . 2. These natural dams blocked the runoff water from the main quebradas , generating many temporary lakes upstream. 3. More than 25 natural dams together with their associated temporary lakes were identified along the QT and QTa. 4. Absolute ages of lacustrine gastropods of about 25,210 y BP and 26,370 y BP were determined for two of the outcrops under study (El Gólgota and Arroyo Colorado, respectively), which are located near each other (2.5 km approx.) along the same main quebrada . This implies that two separate lakes rather than one single lake were active at different times separated by a gap of 1,160 years. In recent times, the sedimentary cycles over 20,000 years were probably controlled by the precession oscillation cycles. Thus, the gap could correspond to a short interruption in the sedimentary activity associated with these oscillations. 5. The drainage basins of some of the alluvial fans along the margins of the lateral quebradas with the same basement and semi-arid conditions were very small (few square kilometers) and noteworthy. This implies that precipitation must have been intermittent, intense, and randomly distributed. 6. The effects of the ENSO episodes may have been responsible for the heavy rainfall irregularly distributed over the region. Thus, the El Candado outcrop reveals the sedimentary results of the different ENSO episodes along the Holocene. 7. Throughout the QT some of the lateral quebradas have undergone an increase in gravel input in recent times. This has led to the almost complete obstruction of some of the railway viaducts, which were built about 100 years ago to cross over the lateral quebradas . As a result, this produced local episodes of aggradation, whereas at the regional level there was a general trend towards incision. This is evidenced by the differences in elevation between the lateral terraces and the current channel (T 0 ) of the QT estimated at about 0.9–1 m in “Integration” railway bridge area and 0.50–0.60 m near the main buildings of Ingeniero Maury railway station. Declarations Acknowledgements This study was funded by Project CGL2012-3896-CO3-02 of the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (MEC), and partially by the Quality Group (2017-SGR-596) of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia). The English version of the manuscript was revised by G. Knorring from UK. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which substantially improved the initial version of the manuscript. On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Authors statement All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Ferran Colombo, José A. Salfity and Maria C. Sánchez. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ferran Colombo and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References Aceñolaza, F., & Aceñolaza, G. (2005). 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Q., Arcuri, M., Di Meglio, M., Zorzano, A., Otharán, G., Hao, B., & Wang, Y. (2022). Lacustrine sequence stratigraphy: New insights from the study of the Yanchang Formation (Middle-Late Triassic), Ordos Basin, China. In R. C. Yang, & Van A. J. Loon (Eds.), The Ordos Basin (pp. 309–335). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85264-7.00012-6 . Zech, R., Kull, C., Kubik, P. W., & Veit, H. (2007). Exposure dating of Late Glacial and pre-LGM moraines in the Cordón de Doña Rosa, Northern/Central Chile (∼31°S). Climate of the Past , 3 , 1–14. Tables Table 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Table 1.- Distribution of the natural dams along the Quebradas del Toro and del Tastil and location of the temporary lakes along the National highway 51 (RN 51) between El Cachiñal and Campo Quijano. Altitude: Elevation in meters above sea level (m a.s.l.). Thick m: natural dam thickness in meters. The numeration is the same as Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Denom: Local denomination. RN 51 PK: kilometric points along the National highway RN 51. The main natural dams in descending order are identified by Roman-style numeration. The thickness of each natural dam is estimated by means of the GPS device and topographical maps. Table2.docx Table 2.- Chronological data. The sample FGT corresponds to the Gólgota outcrop (Fig. 5). The sample FAC corresponds to Arroyo Colorado stratigraphic log (Fig. 8). * From Veizaga-Saavedra et al., 2022. Calibrated years Before Present, Cal. y BP.; uncorrected years Before Present, y BP. Altitude: Elevation in meters above sea level (m a.s.l.). Material; Sh, gastropod shells; Ch, charcoal; Om, organic matter. Precise location of sampling sites and heights were obtained from the GPS device (GARMIN 60CSx). Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 13 Feb, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Iberian Geology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Minor revisions 13 Oct, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Jul, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 30 Jul, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 20 Jul, 2024 First submitted to journal 18 Jul, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4751615","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":333571382,"identity":"92dd8661-fe67-4a13-beb6-3878aa7c54d5","order_by":0,"name":"Ferran Colombo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAnklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5gYGxgYGOQYJIJuHOC2MYC3GpGtJbCBaC397Y+Ojmzts0jfcbmB88LaNCC0SZw42G+eeScvdcOcAs+FcYrQYSCS2See2Hc7dcCOBTZqXFC3pBjcS2H+TpCUBqIWNmSgtML8YzrxzsFlyzjkitPC3Nx98nLvDRp7vdvPBD2/KiNCCBICxMwpGwSgYBaOASgAAa1w5M/tq41UAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4170-1490","institution":"University of Barcelona","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ferran","middleName":"","lastName":"Colombo","suffix":""},{"id":333571383,"identity":"c72dce7e-f946-4fdf-bca3-73e7a411a281","order_by":1,"name":"J.A. Salfity","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional de Salta Facultad de Ciencias Naturales","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"J.A.","middleName":"","lastName":"Salfity","suffix":""},{"id":333571384,"identity":"cb8248e0-3e2b-40d0-89b8-5d6159b27da1","order_by":2,"name":"Maria Cristina Sánchez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional de Salta Facultad de Ciencias Naturales","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maria","middleName":"Cristina","lastName":"Sánchez","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-16 17:54:48","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4751615/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4751615/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-025-00284-y","type":"published","date":"2025-02-13T15:57:04+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":63287223,"identity":"44617138-7bfd-4320-86d4-279350447fa1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:50:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":722950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area (a) in the province of Salta, NW Argentina. The lacustrine deposits (enhanced by small black squares) are mainly distributed along the Río Toro and Río Tastil \u003cem\u003eQuebradas\u003c/em\u003e. The regional framework and location of El Toro Lineament (b) are noteworthy.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/c55851d1966f30e04e0bfa75.jpg"},{"id":63284844,"identity":"80f2e319-5d21-41f0-a9e7-60b44e9170ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:34:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":157058,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Ruta Nacional (National highway) RN 51 follows the \u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e del Tastil (QTa) and \u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e del Río Toro (Qt) main lineation. The most significant natural dams are marked and numbered.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/e405ff85b8870b1c12d4c0f2.jpg"},{"id":63284841,"identity":"b246f628-a2aa-46dc-8038-f0f8b12fe0aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:34:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":157355,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of the temporary lakes along the RN 51 which has an average gradient of about 3% between El Cachiñal and Campo Quijano localities. The thickness of each natural dam is estimated by means of GPS data and topographical maps of the Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN), Argentina.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/b08ee0d75114c1bbcdef24b4.jpg"},{"id":63284187,"identity":"72b61110-9417-4b94-9bb2-b58a6f7403c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":661973,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStratigraphic log of the Gólgota outcrop. The location of K and L enlargements is enhanced. General legend for all the figures: 1) Mud-rich fine-grained materials (Wentworth scale); 2) Fine to medium-grained sands (Wentworth scale); 3) Coarse-grained sands (Wentworth scale); 4) Pebble-grained clasts (Wentworth scale); 5) Limestones; 6) Ripples; 7) Bioturbation; 8) Plant debris; 9) Iron nodules; 10) Mud cracks. Enlargement K, see figure 6.Enlargement L, see figure 7.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/5360d16b6d7484bff67c6a89.jpg"},{"id":63284183,"identity":"f312b811-017e-46ed-99b2-8ab3bc5d5027","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":206210,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCross section of the Gólgota outcrop. The fine-grained lacustrine materials are interfingered with alluvial gravels. Legend for the stratigraphic logs: 6) Ripples; 7) Bioturbation; 8) Plant debris; 9) Iron nodules; 10) Mud cracks; 11) Gastropods; 12) Alluvial gravels (with some out-sized clasts); 13) Silts with intercalations of fine to medium-grained sands; 14) Cross-bedded gravels; 15) Cross-bedded sands; 16) Isolated alluvial clasts; 17) Isolated fluvial clasts. The other signs for all the figures are the same as in figure 4.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/20f21e3d5b29648a0523152e.jpg"},{"id":63284193,"identity":"6af3fafc-6fdf-4da2-9d61-8fec84dde441","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":807804,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDetailed aspects of the lower part of stratigraphic log at Gólgota where the small lobe-shaped body (A) is displayed. This is the enlargement of K in figure 4. The M enlargement concerns the interfingering of coarse-grained materials and mudstones. The level of Q is made of sandstones with different types of cross-lamination and cross-bedding. The gravels of level R show a characteristic disordered fabric generated by the accumulation of high-density flows. The gravels of level S show a characteristic open-work fabric. The gravels of level T display a characteristic out-sized clast. The levels termed Q, R, S and T are enhanced to facilitate their sedimentological interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/5672d88a21206f518a4334e3.jpg"},{"id":63284199,"identity":"37ae99e7-c7cf-4111-9391-ef4e815d7262","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":759543,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDetailed aspects of the middle part of the Gólgota stratigraphic log. The distribution of two lobe-shaped bodies (B and C) is enhanced. This is the enlargement L in figure 4. The N enlargement corresponds to the interfingering of mudstones and coarse-grained materials.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/3949b359afbb822e53bda33c.jpg"},{"id":63284188,"identity":"1fa41708-bc5e-439a-8116-38a02fb5b9a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":570226,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStratigraphic log of the Arroyo Colorado outcrop. The location of the O enlargement corresponds to the interfingering of thin levels of coarse-grained sands and mudstones.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/f49da2a177e0858aee63fa31.jpg"},{"id":63285823,"identity":"b3f6f369-49a4-4786-a49b-8b8423957032","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:42:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":610696,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStratigraphic log of the Las Cuevas outcrop. The location of the P enlargement corresponds to the interfingering of carbonated layers, sandy-rich limestones and mudstones.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/ecec877f9f02d01f806c450f.jpg"},{"id":63284194,"identity":"91641b8e-da47-4ee0-ab4a-384c807264c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":314467,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of the alluvial terrace levels at the QTa. Cerro Blanco (24º 26’ 29.6” S; 65º 58’ 01.1” W) outcrop (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e-T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). Terrace T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e close to the left hand corner of the figure has a thickness of about 2.5 m. The large arrow indicates the flow of the main river\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/e087ca18880ff07cc5a61d2e.jpg"},{"id":63284202,"identity":"09b984ca-5091-4100-931f-84ec5b41251d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:07","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":232289,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of the alluvial terrace levels (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e-T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) at the QT. Chorrillos (24º 46’ 01.7” S; 65º 44’ 28.2” W) outcrop. Terrace T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e around the central part of the figure, has a thickness of about 5 m. The large arrow indicates the main river flow.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/70bf7a8e88db4954d1918ae3.jpg"},{"id":63284195,"identity":"3ff33cc4-357c-4aaf-8ea4-753982a16ea4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":228855,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual model of the telescopic alluvial fan generation when a tributary (A) reaches the main riverbed. An alluvial fan is developed at the junction of the tributary of the main river (i.e. QT) generating a natural dam and a temporary lake upstream (B). When the lacustrine water overflows the natural dam, the subsequent erosion produces a large scar (C). In addition, a new alluvial fan is generated (D) by the sediments transported by the tributary and another dam coeval with a second temporary lake is formed in the same fluvial valley (\u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e). The repeated processes lead to the generation of many alluvial terraces (E) that characterize the telescopic alluvial fans. Río Toro riverbed (1); initial alluvial fan deposits (2); lacustrine materials (3); second alluvial fan deposits (4); Río Toro flow path (5); low base-level (6); high base-level (7); alluvial fan flow paths (8); and (9) tributary river flow path (Colombo \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2000; Colombo, 2005; modified).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/8101aa9c596135b91ba6a9f2.jpg"},{"id":63284847,"identity":"6dd78e94-3e0a-4252-917b-4a173616a790","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:34:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":133447,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of an isolated alluvial fan (AF) made up of debris of the basement (B). As the alluvial fan reaches the opposite margin of the river, a lake is generated because of the natural dam (24º 20’ 24.1” S; 66º 06’ 34.5.” W).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.13.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/2a2483aa785143d246fd08e4.jpg"},{"id":63284197,"identity":"6cc20aaf-975e-47db-93ef-d91cfb7cbf3a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":189905,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of two alluvial fans (AF) made up of debris from the basement (B). When the alluvial fans reach the opposite margin of the river, a lake is generated because of a natural dam (24º 21’ 53.2” S; 66º 05’ 46.7” W).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.14.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/e21d5d1a11d3a2601cdbe62d.jpg"},{"id":63284201,"identity":"e90fdc42-16c6-42c4-88ab-8ecf619330c1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255145,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of several terraces (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e-T\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e) at the Quebrada de Carachi and QT junction (24º 33’ 18.3’’ S; 65º 52’ 01.5’’ W). Two different fluvial-rich clast levels (T\u003csub\u003e5 \u003c/sub\u003e- T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) that interfinger with the alluvial gravels are marked. They are evidence of the main episodes of the River Toro incision. The upper one is about 20 m of incision (T\u003csub\u003e7 \u003c/sub\u003e- T\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e) whereas the middle one is about 25 m of incision (T\u003csub\u003e5 \u003c/sub\u003e- T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). \u0026nbsp;The last incision event is about 35 m when it reaches the QT base-level (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.15.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/40f5ffdae43a569786e9617b.jpg"},{"id":63284200,"identity":"e5b99631-6767-4229-979f-a6122603bda8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":155199,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic distribution of the terraces of the telescopic alluvial fans at the triple junction of QT, Quebrada del Mollar and Quebrada de Carachi. The large amount of alluvial gravel and the distribution of seven alluvial terraces (T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e-T\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e) over the present QT riverbed (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e) are noteworthy. These were developed due to the recurrent local base-level drop (BL\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e - BL\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e) controlled by the lacustrine waters (L) that overflowed the natural dam producing large scars through recurrent erosion (white triangles). Occasionally the main river (QT) flow path is marked by the fluvial clast-rich levels over the alluvial gravels (white arrows, T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and T\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e). The main episodes of incision are marked (black triangles).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.16.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/2f47bb83ba7d18f6071306c3.jpg"},{"id":63284192,"identity":"b06ef8eb-afa8-4588-8ba0-cbcf2a97ef8d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1042235,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGravel intercalation with very sharp basal and upper boundaries. The gravel-rich deposit with disordered fabric suggests a transport by a high-density flow akin to a turbulent debris flow. Gólgota area. Geological hammer for scale. B.-. Frontal part of a gravel-rich intercalation. A close-up view displays that several foresets are marked by grain-size distribution whereas others show subtle continuities into the mud-rich deposits. This suggests a coarse-grained lobe-shaped body development as a high-density flow reached the bottom of lacustrine basin coeval with a marked increase in the water depth. Geological hammer for scale. Lower part of figure 4. Gólgota outcrop. C.- Interfingering of gravels and lacustrine levels, with a thickness of about 8-10 m. Gólgota area. D.- Interfingering of gravels and lacustrine levels. Thickness of about 6-8 m. Gólgota outcrop. E.- Interfingering of gravels and lacustrine levels, with a thickness of about 25 m. Gólgota area. F.- Interfingering of gravels (black) and lacustrine (clear) levels. Thickness of lacustrine outcrop is about 60-65 m. Quebrada de Carachi.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.17.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/43f10c02ca5628586a2351ad.jpg"},{"id":63284196,"identity":"798e6cfe-0274-47a6-b992-361a6cfe781e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:26:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":823746,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA.- Arroyo Colorado. The summit level of the reddish yellowish muds (clays and silts) marked the uppermost level reached by the lacustrine waters.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB.- The right outcrop (approx. 25 m thick) displays several intercalations of gravels (black) and lacustrine (clear) muds, representing the marginal part of the lake. The left outcrop displays a predominance of mudstones, interpreted as the central part of the lake. Gólgota. C.- Interfingering (approx. 25 m thick) of the gravel levels (black) into the (reddish-yellowish) muds. Gólgota outcrop. D.- The boundary between the gravels and lacustrine materials (approx. 4 m thick) is very sharp. Gólgota. E.- The telescopic alluvial fan (AF) displays three terraces over the QT level (bottom). The small drainage basin is noteworthy. Railway bridge over the QT. F.-The main channel (about 5 m wide in the middle part) of lateral alluvial fan is clearly incised in the AF surface. The terrace distribution over the QT level (bottom is significant). The old dirt road RN 51 (10 m wide) that transversely crosses the lower part of the picture for scale. Close to Ingeniero Maury locality.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.18.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/715b27c07c8fe2116563852a.jpg"},{"id":76487700,"identity":"99fe258c-0a5f-4790-b825-d697871547bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-17 16:11:27","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":10093985,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/ec250acf-675b-439b-afde-e5a697f77c3e.pdf"},{"id":63284843,"identity":"dd8afe5d-4a0b-46e7-84b9-4f6c437b37eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:34:05","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18824,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1.- Distribution of the natural dams along the Quebradas del Toro and del Tastil and location of the temporary lakes along the National highway 51 (RN 51) between El Cachiñal and Campo Quijano. Altitude: Elevation in meters above sea level (m a.s.l.). Thick m: natural dam thickness in meters. The numeration is the same as Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Denom: Local denomination. RN 51 PK: kilometric points along the National highway RN 51. The main natural dams in descending order are identified by Roman-style numeration. The thickness of each natural dam is estimated by means of the GPS device and topographical maps.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Table1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/0f34022a76e0e3257b203f23.docx"},{"id":63285822,"identity":"accd7f59-c342-4fd2-9ceb-5c03a9951901","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 13:42:05","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":17919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTable 2.- Chronological data. The sample FGT corresponds to the Gólgota outcrop (Fig. 5). The sample FAC corresponds to Arroyo Colorado stratigraphic log (Fig. 8). * From Veizaga-Saavedra \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e2022. Calibrated years Before Present, Cal. y BP.; uncorrected years Before Present, y BP. Altitude: Elevation in meters above sea level (m a.s.l.). Material; Sh, gastropod shells; Ch, charcoal; Om, organic matter. Precise location of sampling sites and heights were obtained from the GPS device (GARMIN 60CSx).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4751615/v1/d4af81b3f3c63a3ac91c6f64.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Telescopic Alluvial Fans and Pleistocene-Holocene temporary lakes in the quebradas del Río Toro and Tastil (Salta, NW Argentina): main sedimentary features","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e del Toro (QT) is a fluvial valley of the Toro River, to the W of Salta, that subsequently continues as the \u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e del Tastil (QTa) to the NW. The highway 51 (RN 51) and part of the General Belgrano railway line between Chile and Argentina (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) pass along these valleys. Both \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e display a high predominance of coarse-grained layers (gravels) interfingered with mud-rich materials (clay-silt) that have been extensively studied (Igarz\u0026aacute;bal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e; Marrett and Strecker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Colombo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Hilley and Strecker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Strecker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; S\u0026aacute;nchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Alonso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Luna, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Aacute;lvarez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Tofelde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In the QT, the best outcrops are located between Campo Quijano and Puerta del Tastil, extending through QTa to El Cachi\u0026ntilde;al. Moreover, in the upper reaches of the R\u0026iacute;o Toro (Ojo de Agua sector) there are similar outcrops that display several deposits of gravel interfingered with sands and fine-grained (mud-rich) materials (S\u0026aacute;nchez and \u0026Aacute;lvarez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Aacute;lvarez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The two main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e are over 60 km long and have an average gradient of about 3%. They correspond to a narrow gorge. The lower part of the gorge is mostly incised in the metamorphic materials of the Puncoviscana Fm. (Paleozoic, Precambrian) the middle part in the sedimentary materials of the Yacoraite Fm. (Mesozoic, Upper Cretaceous) whereas the third part is in the granitoids (Batholith) of Santa Rosa del Tastil (Paleozoic). Finally, the upper part, towards El Cachi\u0026ntilde;al, is incised in the volcaniclastic materials (Quaternary) of the area (Turner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1960\u003c/span\u003e; Salfity et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e; Turner and Mon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Moya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Omarini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Ace\u0026ntilde;olaza and Ace\u0026ntilde;olaza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The aim of the present study is to deepen our understanding of the sedimentary dynamics responsible for the gravel deposits associated with mud-rich materials that constitute the recent infill of much of the QT and the QTa. A further aim is to determine the geological processes that control these sedimentary accumulations at regional scale. These processes could be tectonic or climatic, or they could be due to a significant variability in weather conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe two main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e contain numerous outcrops of fine and very fine-grained reddish yellowish, mud-rich materials (clays and silts) that lie unconformably over a pre-Quaternary basement. These are usually interfingered with coarse-grained materials (sands and gravels) that are very thick locally. The coarse-grained layers display roughly flat basal contacts, whereas the upper ones are convex and are arranged in terraces in the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e. The terraces have been numbered consecutively (Colombo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) from the lowest, that of the present river valley (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e), to the highest (T\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, the most modern terrace is clearly identifiable and corresponds to the present riverbed of the creek, whereas the older terraces, with a higher numbering, may have been partially eroded and are un-marked in the landscape.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the figures of the stratigraphic logs, the most important sections and levels that are indicated by conventional letters such as A, B, C, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, and T, provide enough information to support the sedimentological interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn several cases the gravels display some intercalations of levels made up of well-rounded clasts of regional origin. These levels correspond to the coeval accumulation of alluvial gravels of local origin and fluvial deposits in the main \u003cem\u003equebrada\u003c/em\u003e. Thus, they display different events of fluvial incision. Detailed observation of the position of the main riverbed (in QT and Qta) with respect to the other riverbeds of the confluent quebradas allows us to determine subtle variations in the fluvial incision events. The terminology of muds, sands and gravels is used because of the small amount of diagenesis at the present time. The highest level attained by the fine-grained materials that interfingered with the gravel and sand layers is determined. This enabled us to obtain an approximate value of the initial sedimentary thickness of the muds (clays and silts) with respect to coarse-grained (sand and gravel) deposits. Detailed stratigraphic profiling was performed in the main outcrops: El G\u0026oacute;lgota, Arroyo Colorado and Las Cuevas. The study of their different sedimentary characteristics enabled us to elucidate the evolution of the flows and the processes responsible for the transport and accumulation of the deposits under study. Some of the profiles contained remains of carbonated gastropod shells. This were analyzed by Prof. P.M. Grootes (using radiocarbon methods) at the Leibniz Labor f\u0026uuml;r Altersbestimmung und Isotopenforschung at the Christian-Albrecht University of Kiel (Germany) to obtain absolute dating and displayed as in uncalibrated years Before the Present (y BP).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Presence of natural dams in the ","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e3. Presence of natural dams in the \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe numerous confluent valleys of the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e (QT and QTa) contain alluvial fans of varying sizes some of which have spread out to occupy the entire width of the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e locally. These alluvial fans generated natural dams (Costa and Schuster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) that blocked the hydraulic flow, facilitating the accumulation of very fine and fine-grained materials that were predominantly transported by wash load.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree sectors along the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e show diverse morphologies controlled by the basement rocks. The quebradas are located at different topographic heights. Thus, in descending order, these correspond to:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSector 1. QTa. El Cachi\u0026ntilde;al-Puerta del Tastil. The basement is composed of Quaternary volcaniclastic materials from the Puna.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSector 2. QT. Puerta del Tastil-G\u0026oacute;lgota. The basement is mainly made up of Paleozoic granitoids from Santa Rosa del Tastil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSector 3. QT. G\u0026oacute;lgota-Campo Quijano. The basement corresponds to the Paleozoic Puncoviscana Fm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main natural dams are located at various sites and have been given different names. However, smaller natural dams, although discussed herein, are not given specific denominations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The precise location of sample sites and heights were obtained from the GPS device (Garmin 60CSx). The main natural dams were identified along the Qta and QT, from the highest to the lowest sites (Table\u0026nbsp;1). The altimetric position in meters above sea level (masl) of some of these natural dams related to the temporary lakes are clearly identifiable in the field: 1. El Cachi\u0026ntilde;al; 2. Encrucijada; 3. Arroyo Incahuasi; 4. Las Cuevas; 5. Esquina Negra; 6. Carrera Muerta; 7. Corte Blanco; 8. Santa Rosa del Tastil; 9. Alfarcito; 10. Tacuar\u0026aacute;; 11. Puerta del Tastil; 12. Quebrada de Carachi; 13. Gobernador Sol\u0026aacute;; 14. Quebrada de Lampazar; 15. Quebrada de las Arcas; 16. El G\u0026oacute;lgota; 17. Arroyo Colorado; 18. Quebrada del Incamayo; 19. Chorrillos; 20. Estancia Zulema; 21. El Candado; 22. El Alisal; 23. Escuelita El Mollar (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Stratigraphy","content":"\u003cp\u003eAn analysis of the stratigraphic profiles corresponding to the main outcrops follows below:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. \u003cem\u003eEl G\u0026oacute;lgota\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis outcrop (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) is in the QT (24\u0026ordm; 39\u0026rsquo; 42.0\u0026rdquo; S; 65\u0026ordm; 47\u0026rsquo; 27.4\u0026rdquo; W) to the north on the outskirts of the Ingeniero Maury station main buildings of the C-14 branch of the General Belgrano railway, at kilometer 64 of the National highway (RN 51) and near kilometer 1170 of the railway. It is characterized by a large accumulation (80\u0026ndash;85 m thick) of reddish and yellowish mud-rich materials that differ greatly in color from the materials of the Puncoviscana Fm. The blackish gravel clasts from the Puncoviscana Fm., which are its most distinctive feature, are interfingered throughout the stratigraphic profile (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe gravel levels overlying a clearly defined basal planar surface, display many clasts with subangular to subrounded morphologies. In some cases, the clasts are scattered within the layers despite exhibiting a roughly positive grain-size trend (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The upper boundaries of the gravel layers are usually in sharp contact with the muds. The mud-rich sections show traces of planar lamination with some interfingered layers of very fine silt with subtle lamination (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, level N). Some mud-rich layers are made up of the remains of gastropods with very thin-walled carbonated shells. Radiocarbon datings yield a date of around 25,000 years BP (Table\u0026nbsp;2). Gravel sections are predominant towards the eastern sector, indicating a preferential accumulation of the gravels transported by the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e. The earlier geometry of the QT could have conditioned this granulometric distribution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Arroyo Colorado\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe outcrop is (24\u0026ordm; 41\u0026rsquo; 46.0\u0026rdquo; S; 65\u0026ordm; 45\u0026rsquo; 28.7\u0026rdquo; W) in the QT about 2.5 km to the south of main buildings of the Ingeniero Maury railway station (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Reddish yellowish, predominantly mud-rich layers that are characterized by fine lamination in the silty materials lie unconformably over a substratum of the Puncoviscana Fm. Layers of very fine-grained sands, which display cross-bedding and cross-lamination, are also present. The total thickness is about 65\u0026ndash;70 m. The mud-rich materials display several intercalations of gravel levels characterized by clast supported fabric made up of non-organized clasts of the Puncoviscana Fm. The clasts which are randomly distributed, display subangular morphologies with smooth edges. There are occasionally some out-sized clasts distributed towards the top of the sedimentary units. Mud crack casts are displayed at the top of the muddy layers at intervals. Vertical bioturbation traces are common throughout the stratigraphic profile, which shows no obvious hierarchy. Small, highly oxidized iron (Fe) nodules are distributed along the profile. Few decimetric stratiform layers composed of coarse-grained sands with some small dispersed clasts are also present. Some remains of gastropods with very thin-walled carbonated shells are found where the muds are very fine-grained. Radiocarbon dating yields a date of around 26,000 years BP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Las Cuevas\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe outcrop (24\u0026ordm; 22\u0026rsquo; 45.8\u0026rdquo; S; 66\u0026ordm; 00\u0026rsquo; 12.2\u0026rdquo; W) is located (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e) to the north of the QTa, and 1 km south of Las Cuevas town center. The outcrop is characterized by an accumulation (35\u0026ndash;40 m thick) of reddish and yellowish mud-rich materials that are highly visible in the landscape. Interfingered gravel deposits are present throughout the stratigraphic profile. Gravel materials show clasts with angular to subangular shapes that are mainly disordered within the layers. The tabular lithosomes display wide lateral extension. Locally, there are also some massive or cross-bedded lenticular bodies. The upper boundaries of the gravel layers and mud-rich materials are usually sharp despite the local occurrence of some faintly laminated layers of very fine-grained sands. Some outcrops show sandy limestone levels that are displayed gradually as small intercalated centimetric thick carbonate-rich levels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, level P). This would imply favorable conditions for carbonate deposition in a lacustrine area. The lacustrine zone was large and gave rise to the accumulation of very fine-grained materials evidenced by mud-rich levels locally. The mud-rich profiles show scarce development of planar lamination with some interfingered layers of very fine silts with subtle lamination. Some layers of coarse-grained sands display cross-bedding locally. Gravel levels predominating over muddy materials at the top of stratigraphic profile indicate that the general grain-size trend is negative.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf especial significance are the limestone layers that increase in frequency towards the upper part. Locally, these correspond to carbonate-rich sandy materials and calcilutites that change upwards to carbonated sands, sandy limestones, and carbonate-rich brecciated layers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Telescopic alluvial Fans","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe gravel-rich materials sourced from the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e to the QT and QTa display several terraces that are clearly distinguished from the lowest levels of the Toro and Tastil rivers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). The terraces are nested with respect to each other and their paleocurrents display a radial distribution from the upper part (apex) towards the main valley. Locally, the gravel transport and accumulation may be produced by debris flows characterized by a disordered fabric and a very poor clast sorting. These features may explain the presence of out-sized clasts to the upper part of some gravel levels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, level T). Usually, the gravels interfingered with fine-laminated mud and silts display the characteristics of having been transported by high-density and turbulent flows (Nemec and Muszyński, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Nemec, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) given that the deposits show subangular and subrounded clasts of local origin in a clast-supported fabric (Wasson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Maizels, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Moulder and Alexander, 2001; Benvenuti and Martini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These terraces are often constituted by different lithosomes with convex-up surfaces (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e) consisting mainly of gravels that show predominantly clast-supported fabrics indicating that the flows involved in their transport and accumulation are of a high-density type (Lowe, 1992; Petter and Steel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). All these coarse-grained materials accumulate as alluvial fan deposits that spread out towards the main valley. This results in several natural dams which lead to numerous retention lakes upstream (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). This gives rise to terracing as the lacustrine waters spills over natural dams (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e) breaching them because of headward erosion (Colombo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, local, and recurrent variations of the base-level generated telescopic alluvial fans (Colombo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) in different \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e scattered across the region (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). Above the gravel levels, parallel laminations are displayed, consisting of coarse-grained sand layers without apparent structures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, level O). Several gravel lithosomes with tabular geometry, made up of a disordered fabric, display a decimetric thickness and a wide lateral extension at outcrop scale. Because of a very sharp basal contact, they may have accumulated as a result of very energetic flows with turbulent characteristics. These could have been caused by sheet flood events as a stable water level is reached (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, basal part). Detailed observations of the present adjustments of the low levels of the riverbeds of the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e compared to their counterparts of the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e reveal local variations that are significant. Thus, some variations at local base-level reshaped several alluvial terraces (Colombo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), resulting in the development of telescopic alluvial fans (Colombo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), which generate natural dams. Locally there are gravel levels with an open-work fabric, suggesting that they had been transported and deposited in a short-lived high-energy hydraulic context that prevented effective clast sorting (Harms et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Lunt and Bridge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The lack of adjustment between the T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (in the lower position) on the right bank of the QT and the lateral \u003cem\u003equebrada\u003c/em\u003e from the West opposite to the main buildings of the Ingeniero Maury railway station yield values of 50\u0026ndash;60 cm. Moreover, the lack of adjustment of the T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e on the right bank of the QT near the \u0026ldquo;Integration\u0026rdquo; bridge (the main railway bridge that crosses the \u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e del Toro) is also worth noting. Thus, there is a difference of 90 cm \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 m between the T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (in the lower position) and the concrete blocks constituting the pillar foundations of the railway bridge on the right bank of the QT. By contrast, the sediments carried by the QT overlie the concrete blocks on the left bank. The irregular incision is very recent since it must have developed after the construction of the railway bridge approximately a century ago. Vast accumulations of gravel with thicknesses of almost 80 m and different terrace levels (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e-T\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e) are present in some areas (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). These may be attributed to the significant growth of several alluvial fans in some confluent \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e del Mollar and \u003cem\u003eQuebrada\u003c/em\u003e de Carachi (24\u0026ordm; 33\u0026rsquo; 18.5\u0026rdquo; S; 65\u0026ordm; 52\u0026rsquo; 01.5\u0026rdquo; W) which blocked the QT. Two episodes of gravel bodies (with cross-stratification and cross-bedding) point to their own progradation within the respective stable water sheet. Thus, the upper level (T\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) shows slightly concave-up foresets with an asymptotic basal contact and a geometry akin to that of the coarse-grained lacustrine fan-delta (Gilbert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1885\u003c/span\u003e; Colella, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Colella and Prior, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). The gravels that display different cross-bedding were probably transported by means of a confined braided system into the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e made up of numerous small channels with gravel bars (Hein \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 1977; Schumm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e) and must have accumulated finally in the lake margin as several coarse-grained fan-delta bodies. The lower level (T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) reveals foresets that vary in dip and interfinger with fine-grained lacustrine materials. The declining upwards trend in the foresets slope could be controlled by a significant increase in the velocity of the current transported the gravels. But this possibility could be discarded given the insignificant increase in the thickness of the highest and youngest levels of gravels. Therefore, the decreasing upwards trend in the foresets slope could also correspond to a significant change in the area occupied by the lake, perhaps indicating a marked reduction in lake accommodation space coeval with the fan-delta progradation (Colella and Prior, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Garc\u0026iacute;a-Mond\u0026eacute;jar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). This was probably followed by a rapid abandonment of the sedimentary infilling of the lake. This occurred as in present-day reservoirs when these undergo significant variations in water level during high flood events (Kondolf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Morris and Fan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Owens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Schneider et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). A sharp rise in the water level would also have led to an increase in the dynamic reduction in the flow velocity of major discharges and in the foreset dip variation. Fluvial gravel levels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e) displayed throughout the outcrop are evidenced by highly rounded clasts of regional origin and by effective clast-size sorting (T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and T\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e). These fluvial levels are interfingered with alluvial materials of local origin. In both cases, therefore, the fluvial clast lineation indicates two events of relative stability, and a significant duration of stream positions of the Toro River. Subsequently, the alluvial gravels were eroded until reaching its present position (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e). The Toro River thus underwent three main episodes of incision. From the top of the deposits, the first episode was an incision of about 25 m, facilitating the development of T\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e. The second, was an incision of around 20 m that contributed to the development of T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and the third episode was an incision of about 35 m, which corresponded to the base-level of the present river, i.e. the T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. Large alluvial fans from lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e were probably formed during exceptional and irregularly distributed heavy storm events that would have brought about dense high-energy flows when entering a stable sheet of water where mainly lacustrine muds had accumulated. Some small gravel bodies present a relatively flat base and a convex surface, suggesting a rapid accumulation of coarse-grained clastics at the mouth of a functional channel in a subaqueous context (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig17\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003eB). The convex-up geometry of some small rock-bodies characterizes several outcrops. These could have been due to the arrival of very dense and energetic flows at the bottom of a stable water sheet as the flow undergoes an abrupt fall in velocity, probably due to the friction with the quiet water sheet and furthering the development of some small lobe-shaped lithosomes (Petter and Steel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Zavala et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Arnott and Al-Muft\u0026iacute;, 2017). Some gravel lithosomes with tabular geometry, characterized by a disordered fabric, display a decimetric thickness and a wide lateral extension at outcrop scale. With a very sharp basal contact, these lithosomes could have accumulated owing to the activity of very energetic flows with turbulent characteristics. Plenty of evidence such as 1) the variable number of terraced levels, 2) the radial paleocurrents from the highest point (inner part) to the most distal parts, 3) the lithosomes generated by the sedimentary accumulation of aqueous flows, and 4) the alternation of other rock-bodies generated by high-density flows are the key arguments in support of the origin of the gravel beds as a result of the development of different alluvial fans.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"6. Temporary lakes","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlong the main \u003cem\u003equebrada\u003c/em\u003e each natural dam was generated by one or several alluvial fans that blocked the main valley (i.e. QT) and gave rise to lakes made up of the accumulation of the mud-rich materials cropping out among others at Arroyo Colorado, Las Cuevas and El G\u0026oacute;lgota. The lakes resulted from the obstruction of the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e by the natural dams. The mud-rich materials made up of clays and silts display a very fine to fine lamination, which is laterally continuous. It is well known that the mud-rich materials outcropping in the QT and QTa correspond to sedimentary deposits that accumulate in temporary lakes (Servant and Fontes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Cencetti and Rivelli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, there are also several intercalations of fine to medium-grained sands, some massive and others with cross-laminations. The muddy materials (Veizaga-Saavedra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) are mainly made up of illite (45\u0026ndash;60%), chlorite (20\u0026ndash;30%), smectite (5\u0026ndash;20%) and kaolinite (about 5%). There are several natural dams in the sectors of the QT and QTa that generate numerous lakes, which are scattered among all the \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e at different heights in the proximity (Salfity et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; S\u0026aacute;nchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; S\u0026aacute;nchez and \u0026Aacute;lvarez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Because of the topographic constrictions of the main \u003cem\u003equebrada\u003c/em\u003e, it seems that none of these lakes would have been very large. The sharp and irregular base of some lithosomes indicates a certain erosion capacity of the sedimentary substrate given the turbulent behavior of the flows. A tabular level of fine-medium sands with many cross-stratifications and cross-laminations is present locally. This seems to correspond to an unconfined flash flood event made up of a turbulent flow that transports sands by means of different types of hydraulic dunes and other associated bed forms to a lacustrine area. This developed in a shallow water context as suggested by the mud-cracks in the mud-rich materials below the basal part of the sandy lithosome (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, level Q). Shallow lakes with a stable water sheet gave rise to the development of a vegetation fringe that extended gradually to the more central sectors of the lake. Evidence for this lies in the non-hierarchized vertical bioturbation that results in the vegetated cover i.e. grassland. The wide expansion of vegetation leads to the transformation of lacustrine to palustrine (marsh) facies, which would have occurred in an arid or semi-arid context as evidenced by the mud-crack casts at the top of the interfingered mud-rich layers (Moussa \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2024). Thus, recurrent episodes of desiccation in a semi-arid context (Villagr\u0026aacute;n and Varela, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Garralla et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) occurred. It seems therefore reasonable that these lakes should be termed temporary lakes. The shallow water sheet may have been more permanent and stable locally, furthering the development of diverse gastropod communities such as \u003cem\u003ePlanorbis\u003c/em\u003e s.p. and \u003cem\u003eBiomphalaria\u003c/em\u003e s.p. (De Francesco and Hassan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Fine-grained materials interfingered with the alluvial gravel layers strongly suggest that the fans developed coevally with significant variations in lacustrine base-level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Las Cuevas outcrop is marked by the presence of a number of limestone levels interfingered with mud-rich materials. These limestone levels are displayed along the stratigraphic profile suggesting the development of the mud-rich accumulation coeval with the carbonate-rich sedimentation. The accumulation of carbonated layers suggests the long-term stabilization of the water sheet (Alonso-Zarza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Fregenal-Mart\u0026iacute;nez and Mel\u0026eacute;ndez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The lacustrine muds were gradually replaced by levels of gravel that became predominant towards the upper part of the stratigraphic log. Subsequently the lake was locally infilled with a carbonatic-sandy lithosome with a thickening upwards trend. The overall trend suggests that the sandy accumulation formed a deltaic-like body in a context of lacustrine stability. The limestones probably originated from the calcium carbonate-rich waters that issued from the wash of outcrops of Salta Group (Salfity and Marquillas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Seggiaro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Occasional floods in the QT eroded the fronts of some natural dams, washing away most of the lacustrine sediments and leaving behind some lateral remains along the \u003cem\u003equebrada\u003c/em\u003e. These remains are currently visible in the landscape. The water spilled over the natural dam, resulting in its destruction by headward erosion (Colombo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). This allowed the water to flow freely down the main river valley with high energy leading to the wide reworking of mud-rich materials that are displayed in the present quebradas. Absolute dating indicates that lacustrine sedimentation occurred episodically during the late Pleistocene-middle Holocene (Robinson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Cohen and Gibbard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). There is an age gap of about 1,160 years between the El G\u0026oacute;lgota (25,210 y BP) and Arroyo Colorado (26,370 y BP), neighboring sites characterized by similar lacustrine facies (Table\u0026nbsp;2). Thus, two separate lakes developed along the QT at different times during the Pleistocene. By contrast, at the El Candado site (24\u0026ordm; 48\u0026rsquo; 44.6\u0026rdquo; S; 65\u0026ordm; 37\u0026rsquo; 39.8\u0026rdquo; W), there is a vertical stacking of different lacustrine deposits dated 8,800-8,200 cal y BP (calibrated years Before Present) at the base; 7,300 cal y BP in the middle and 5,500-5,400 cal y BP in the upper levels (Veizaga-Saavedra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The dating probably tallies with that of the lakes that were formed at the same sites (i.e. El Candado) along the Holocene. The muddy materials usually display some interfingered coarse-grained (gravel-rich) levels attributed to high-density flows (debris flows with laminar behavior) and diluted debris flows (with turbulent behavior) deposits (Lawson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Petter and Steel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Nemec, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) in a lacustrine environment. They seem to correspond to events of high-energy sedimentary flows that on entering a stable water sheet transformed into dense turbiditic flows that gradually dissipated (Kondolf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Some lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e facilitated the mobilization of large amounts of sand, which probably originated from the alteration of the Santa Rosa del Tastil batholith (Kilmurray and Igarz\u0026aacute;bal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e; Hongn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). They also contributed to the transportation of the sand from the drainage catchments placed upwards of the apex of alluvial fans. This gave rise to sand-rich deposits, resulting in the formation of small delta-like bodies. The very localized heavy rainfall, which produced numerous flash flood events as in some recent examples (Coleman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Karkani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Esper-Angillieri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Rios et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), was probably responsible for reactivating the sedimentary activity of the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e. This contributed to the episodic growth of the natural dams that subsequently blocked the main valley, causing water retention and the upstream generation of numerous lakes. This occurs in similar \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e at present (D\u0026rsquo;odorico et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Perucca and Esper-Angillieri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFormerly, it was believed that natural dams were generated by large rockslides and avalanches in young rock massifs because of extreme climatic conditions (Trauth and Strecker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Strecker \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2001; Trauth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Hermanns and Schellenberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Alonso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) in a regional context of intense seismic activity. However, given that the area under study had not undergone any significant seismic activity in recent times we offer a much simpler explanation. The alluvial fans controlled by flows from the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e expanded rapidly, blocking both the QTa and the QT. This led to the retention of the waters of the Tastil and Toro rivers and to the subsequent formation of lakes. This probably occurred in recent times because of the irregular distribution of heavy rainfall, which must be attributed to significant variations in weather conditions (Villa-Martínez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Cabré et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Aguilar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) rather than to climate change. Moreover, it is well known that climate change always implies a significant variation in the landscape and in the vegetation cover among other characteristics (Fischer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Blum and Tornquist, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Cecil and Edgar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Evidence of the increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme floods abounds in semi-arid to arid conditions related to multi-decadal climatic cycles because of the present climate crisis in the study area. Given that the natural dams are located at the junction of the main quebradas with their tributaries (Table\u0026nbsp;1), the alluvial fans would have formed at the mouths of the tributaries. It, therefore, does not seem reasonable to ascribe the generation of natural dams to recurrent falling and sliding of large amounts of gravel with angular clasts due to the absence of evidence in support of the specific gravitational process. Some higher-order cause must, therefore, have played a determining role in the accumulation of such large amounts of clastic materials in the two main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the climatic perspective, the air mass circulation in recent times is characterized by the South American Monsoon System (SAMS). This probably controlled the behavior of the South American low-level jet (SALLJ) channeling air masses northwards across the Andean Ranges into tropical and subtropical South America (Vera \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2003; Castino \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2016). The intensity and variability of SAMS that induced heavy rainfalls on the precession time scales (21,000 y) are well known (Zachos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Fritz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Placzek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Rohrman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Tofelde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) because of lacustrine evidence obtained among others from the Bolivian Altiplano. The younger reliefs of the highest mountain ranges in the area probably underwent extensive gelivation during the last Quaternary glacial episodes. This would have led to the removal of large amounts of coarse-grained materials by glaciers in the area (Trauth and Strecker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, Ahumada, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Zech et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), which would have generated significant accumulations such as moraines. Such massive and disordered gravel-rich deposits would have been reworked in subsequent water-rich episodes, facilitating the accumulation of large volumes of clastic materials such as lateral alluvial fans and their transport to the main valley (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig18\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Similar phenomena currently occur in nearby Andean areas (May and Soler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Cabré et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) obviating the need for assuming any significant climate change. However, it does seem reasonable to assume that the various episodes of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) undergo intense, irregularly distributed precipitation over short periods of time (Markgraf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Rodbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Sandweiss et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Baker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Markgraf and Seltzer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). These sedimentary dynamics strongly suggest that episodes such as those of ENSO played a decisive role in the development of the lateral alluvial fans. These are associated with the two main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e which then led to the formation of the corresponding temporary lakes (Grosjean et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Fritz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Colombo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Colombo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; May and Soler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Ortega et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Baker and Fritz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Montini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ortega et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Veizaga-Saavedra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These lacustrine environments thus functioned as main sedimentary traps for the fine-grained sediments transported as wash-load by the QT and Qta fluvial system.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"8. Concluding remarks","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. There is ample evidence in the QT and QTa of numerous natural dams generated by the progradation of alluvial fans originating in the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e that eventually blocked the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. These natural dams blocked the runoff water from the main \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e, generating many temporary lakes upstream.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. More than 25 natural dams together with their associated temporary lakes were identified along the QT and QTa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. Absolute ages of lacustrine gastropods of about 25,210 y BP and 26,370 y BP were determined for two of the outcrops under study (El G\u0026oacute;lgota and Arroyo Colorado, respectively), which are located near each other (2.5 km approx.) along the same main \u003cem\u003equebrada\u003c/em\u003e. This implies that two separate lakes rather than one single lake were active at different times separated by a gap of 1,160 years. In recent times, the sedimentary cycles over 20,000 years were probably controlled by the precession oscillation cycles. Thus, the gap could correspond to a short interruption in the sedimentary activity associated with these oscillations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. The drainage basins of some of the alluvial fans along the margins of the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e with the same basement and semi-arid conditions were very small (few square kilometers) and noteworthy. This implies that precipitation must have been intermittent, intense, and randomly distributed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. The effects of the ENSO episodes may have been responsible for the heavy rainfall irregularly distributed over the region. Thus, the El Candado outcrop reveals the sedimentary results of the different ENSO episodes along the Holocene.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. Throughout the QT some of the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e have undergone an increase in gravel input in recent times. This has led to the almost complete obstruction of some of the railway viaducts, which were built about 100 years ago to cross over the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e. As a result, this produced local episodes of aggradation, whereas at the regional level there was a general trend towards incision. This is evidenced by the differences in elevation between the lateral terraces and the current channel (T\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e) of the QT estimated at about 0.9\u0026ndash;1 m in \u0026ldquo;Integration\u0026rdquo; railway bridge area and 0.50\u0026ndash;0.60 m near the main buildings of Ingeniero Maury railway station.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was funded by Project CGL2012-3896-CO3-02 of the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (MEC), and partially by the Quality Group (2017-SGR-596) of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia). The English version of the manuscript was revised by G. Knorring from UK. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which substantially improved the initial version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Ferran Colombo, Jos\u0026eacute; A. Salfity and Maria C. S\u0026aacute;nchez. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ferran Colombo and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAce\u0026ntilde;olaza, F., \u0026amp; Ace\u0026ntilde;olaza, G. (2005). 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These terraces display convex-upward surfaces, a highly variable distribution, have a small lateral extension and depend on the lithology of the geological basement, which differs significantly along the \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e. The number of terraces between one area and another indicates that these terraced geoforms should not be ascribed to one single cause, but rather to a variety of factors, i.e. local variations at base-level. The coarse-grained materials of the terraces are usually arranged in roughly horizontal layers that characterize the outcrops. These are interfingered with fine-grained mud-rich materials. The freshwater gastropod remains in the mud-rich materials indicate that they accumulated in lacustrine-like sedimentary environments. These developed from alluvial fans that spread out from the lateral \u003cem\u003equebradas\u003c/em\u003e to occupy the entire main valley (q\u003cem\u003euebrada)\u003c/em\u003e, giving rise to natural dams and temporary lakes upstream. Absolute dates obtained by radiocarbon (\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003eC) methods strongly suggest that the alluvial fans were coeval with the temporary lakes in the Upper Pleistocene - Middle Holocene. The ENSO effects could have brought about the local variations in base-level that generated the younger temporary lakes, whereas the older ones were probably controlled by precession cycles (at about 21,000 y). The large number of temporary lakes scattered across the region suggests the overlapping of forcing factors at local and regional scales.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Telescopic Alluvial Fans and Pleistocene-Holocene temporary lakes in the quebradas del Río Toro and Tastil (Salta, NW Argentina): main sedimentary features","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-26 13:26:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4751615/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Minor revisions","date":"2024-10-13T13:00:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-07-31T07:20:31+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-07-30T07:15:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-07-20T04:27:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Iberian Geology","date":"2024-07-18T06:07:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-iberian-geology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jibg","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Iberian Geology](http://link.springer.com/journal/41513)","snPcode":"41513","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jibg/default2.aspx","title":"Journal of Iberian Geology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"29388452-136d-4c4f-9770-1cb507a1e1c1","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 26th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-17T16:06:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4751615","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-025-00284-y","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-iberian-geology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Iberian Geology"},"publishedOn":"2025-02-13 15:57:04","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 13th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-26 13:26:00","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s41513-025-00284-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-025-00284-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4751615","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4751615","identity":"rs-4751615","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}