Spatial Distribution and Environmental Implications of Waste Collection Points in Calabar South, Nigeria

Spatial Distribution and Environmental Implications of Waste Collection Points in Calabar South, Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Spatial Distribution and Environmental Implications of Waste Collection Points in Calabar South, Nigeria David Mkpanam Nyong This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7919348/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The management of solid waste presents a significant challenge in the context of rapid urbanization within developing countries. This research evaluates the geographical distribution and environmental consequences associated with waste collection points located in Calabar South, Nigeria. Utilizing a Geographic Information System (GIS) framework, the study mapped and analyzed the sites of these waste collection points employing Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA). Findings reveal a notably clustered arrangement of waste collection points (Nearest Neighbor Ratio < 1), particularly concentrated in the central and northern regions of the area. Such clustering has resulted in a considerable number of residential structures situated within a 50-meter buffer zone around these points, thereby establishing potential hotspots for public health risks, such as vector-borne diseases and exposure to hazardous pollutants. The research concludes that the existing waste management infrastructure is inadequately designed and proposes the strategic repositioning of collection points along with the enforcement of regulatory buffer zones to reduce environmental and health-related risks. GIS Spatial Analysis Solid Waste Management Nearest Neighbor Analysis Urban Health Calabar South Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background and Review Rapid urbanization in developing countries has widened the challenges within municipal solid waste management, often straining the capacity of local governments to deliver effective service levels (Guerrero et al., 2013 ). This is especially prominent within Sub-Saharan Africa, where rapid urbanization has largely overwhelmed the creation of infrastructure needed for waste disposal and collection (Oteng-Ababio, 2012 ). The allocation and placement of waste pickup points or stations is a core aspect of a successful waste management system. When such installations are not placed appropriately, become overcrowded, or are operated ineffectively, these become significant contributors to the degradation of the environment with polluted atmosphere, waters, and ground, while presenting significant public health risks to neighboring communities (Wilson et al., 2006 ). The placement of waste installations s well as residential locations is particularly noteworthy due to research that revealed significant linkages of people's proximity to wasteland with increased levels of respiratory disorders as well as vector-borne diseases (Giusti, 2009 ). In overcoming these challenges, Geographic Information Systems (GIS)-facilitated spatial analysis emerges as a valuable tool for assessing and optimizing waste management infrastructure. GIS provides a robust framework for visualizing patterns of space that can be interrogated, enabling planners and administrators to detect underserved areas, maximize waste transportation routes, as well as guarantee fair facility coverage. This promotes both environmental sustainability as well as social well-being. In addition to this, GIS-enabled spatial modeling assists environmental justice analysis such that no particular population is exposed to a skewed proportionate of environmental hazards (Mihai, 2020 ; Debishree & Samadder, 2015 ). Methods such as Nearest Neighbor Analysis provide quantitative measures of the distribution of space of waste management facilities that transcend visual observation in service of evidence-based planning. By employing such tools of spatial statistics, administrators as well as researchers are capable of obtaining greater detail regarding performance, as well as accessibility of existing waste management settings as well as existing impacts on the environment. Aside from this, such approaches facilitate aiding urban planners in facility location as well as service coverage data-driven decisions. Lastly, GIS application in waste management provides a science foundation for attaining sustainable urbanization as well as minimizing threats to human health as well as overall improved efficiency in fast-urbanizing regions' solid waste management (Odoi, 2010). 1.2. Novelty and Objectives Whereas various works have been concerned with waste generation and composition in Nigeria, few have taken a spatial statistic approach to investigate the siting of community waste collection centers and the resultant effects on populations resident in areas. Previous studies on Nigerian waste management appears to have concentrated much attention on metropolitan centres such as Lagos and Abuja at the expense of smaller cities like Calabar (Nnaji, 2015 ). In this regard, the use of spatial measures to examine service equity in waste services has become an increasingly important topic within urban geography (Marshall & Farahbakhsh, 2013 ). This research fills this data gap to some extent by providing a GIS-based spatial analysis of waste gathering centers in Calabar South. Specific objectives are: To map the spatial distribution of formal waste collection points in Calabar South. To determine the distribution pattern (clustered, random, or dispersed) using Nearest Neighbor Analysis. To assess the proximity of residential buildings to these waste points and discuss the associated environmental and health implications. 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1. Study Area Description The study was conducted in the Calabar South Local Government Area (LGA), located in Cross River State, Nigeria. Calabar South LGA is located in Cross River State, Nigeria, bordered by the Calabar River to the east and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. The area is characterized by a tropical climate, with a population engaged in various socio-economic activities, including residential, commercial, and industrial pursuits. Calabar South is a highly populated urban area located between latitudes 4°57'00"N and 4°59'30"N and longitudes 8°19'30"E and 8°21'00"E. It owes its uniqueness to a multiplicity of uses of both residential, commercial, and administrative lands. It has a local climate that can be described as a tropical monsoon, which has heavy rainfalls that tend to enhance leachate production and wastewater runoff from areas of poor waste disposition, a phenomenon that exacerbates pollution in developing urban centers (Ukpong et al. 2013 ). The Map of the study area and distribution of waste collection points is shown in Fig. 1 . 2.2. Source of Data and Preparation 2.2.1. Waste Collection Data The locations of waste disposal points were ascertained through detailed field surveys and verified with official records obtained from the Cross River State Waste Management Agency. The detailed geographic locations—latitude and longitude—were captured using a handheld Garmin GPSMAP 64s unit. This allowed for accurate spatial referencing of the waste disposal infrastructure. As many as 47 waste disposal points were captured and mapped in support of subsequent spatial analysis. 2.2.2. Residential Building Data The residential building data was extracted from digitizing high-resolution satellite images that are accessible through ArcGIS Online. The base map so generated outlined individual building polygons to give a spatial outline of residential locations within the study area extent. The outlines of buildings thus generated helped evaluate spatial closeness of residences to waste disposal locations so as to be in a position to assess potential human risk of exposure due to facility location. 2.3. Analysis The acquired coordinates of waste collection points were loaded into ArcGIS 10.8 to create a geospatial layer. The locations were buffered with 50 meters to outline areas of potential environmental and health risks while following guidelines set by odour, pest, and pollutant exposure guidelines (Giusti, 2009 ). This buffer analysis was used to identify houses within highly risky proximity regions. Furthermore, the geographical distribution of the waste locations was examined using the Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA) tool of ArcGIS. This method determines the Nearest Neighbor Ratio (NNR) to determine whether the geographical pattern of waste sites is clustered, random, or dispersed. The outcome of this analysis provides valuable insights regarding the spatial efficiency as well as planning logic that dictates the location of waste collection facilities. It is critical to develop understanding regarding these spatial patterns to improve waste management procedures as well as optimize facility locations with a view to containing potential health as well as environmental risks that are experienced within adjacent communities. 3. RESULT The Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA) (Fig. 2 ) identified a Nearest Neighbor Ratio (NNR) of 0.72 with a z-score of -3.45 and p-value of 0.0006. The resulting statistical outputs affirm that the distribution of waste collection points in Calabar South is highly clustered rather than randomly distributed. A p-value below 0.01 is indicative of a very high level of statistical significance such that the probable occurrence of this pattern due to chance is very small. As such, the locations of waste collection sites are seen to be spatially inclined to clumping within some parts of the study area, which is indicative of probable inefficiencies or inequities within spatial planning as well as service allocation. Visual interpretation of the spatial distribution map (Fig. 1 ) further supports these statistical results. The mapped pattern shows that most waste collection points are concentrated around Mount Zion Road, Egerton Street, and Chieftain Road, particularly within the central and northern zones of Calabar South. These areas are characterized by high residential density and commercial activity, which likely explains the increased presence of waste collection facilities. However, this concentration also implies that other parts of the study area, especially the southern and peripheral neighborhoods, are underserved, with limited access to formal waste collection points. This uneven distribution may contribute to irregular waste disposal practices, such as illegal dumping or burning of refuse, which in turn poses serious environmental and public health challenges. Buffer analysis, on a 50-meter proximity buffer, reveals additional dimensions of impact from the clustered pattern. The results are such that more than 35% of digitized residential buildings are within the high-risk exposure buffer of one or more waste disposal sites. This is in contravention of advisable urban planning and environmental health guidelines that usually recommend proper buffer distances between residential settlements and storage/disposal points of wastes with a view to reducing exposure to odors, flying particles, and vectors of diseases. The high proportion of residences within these buffers confirms poor separations of waste sites from human settlements with consequent increased threat of health risks like respiratory infections, malaria, cholera, and other sanitation-related infections. Moreover, the observed clustering pattern indicates a lack of systematic spatial planning in the siting of waste collection facilities. Ideally, waste collection points should be evenly distributed across residential and commercial zones to ensure equitable service coverage and reduce environmental risk concentration. The existing clustered configuration not only places excessive service pressure on the collection facilities in densely populated areas but also undermines efficiency in waste collection logistics. This spatial inefficiency could lead to waste accumulation, irregular collection schedules, and eventual overflows, especially during peak waste generation periods. The NNA's report also points to the significance of geospatial planning reform and policy intervention. The addition of GIS-based spatial analysis to sanitation planning can help local governments detect undercoverage areas as well as determine the best locations for supplemental collection points. The subsequent evidence-based approaches would support evenhanded spatial distribution, improved environmental security, as well as service delivery enhancement. In short, the findings indicate that waste collection points within Calabar South are visually and statistically clustered with substantial parts of the residential population exposed within high-risk exposure areas. The pattern of such clustering serves as a revelation of inefficiencies within spatial planning that requires a geospatial integrated approach in order to attain balanced, safe, and sustainable waste disposal within the study area. 4. DISCUSSION The clustered distribution of refuse disposal points, as is indicated by a Nearest Neighbor Ratio (NNR) of less than 1, reveals significant deficiencies in the geographical allocation of the solid waste disposal system in Calabar South. This significant concentration in highly populated residential areas (Fig. 3 ) suggests uneven allocation of waste disposal facilities with certain neighborhoods over-served while others might be under-served. This unevenness of facility allocation not only undermines the economic efficiency of service coverage but also creates significant public health as well as environmental concerns. The existence of a significant quantity of residential structures situated within the 50-meter radius surrounding waste collection sites presents a considerable health hazard to the residents in proximity. This nearness elevates the likelihood of exposure to noxious smells and airborne pollutants, concurrently fostering an environment conducive to the proliferation of disease-carrying vectors such as flies, rodents, and mosquitoes. These vectors are responsible for the transmission of infectious diseases, including cholera, malaria, and various other illnesses associated with waste, thereby representing substantial risks to public health (Wilson et al., 2006 ). In addition, inadequate differentiation of residential from waste management facilities represents a lack of compliance with essential urban planning as well as environmental health guidelines. Efficient geographical planning should enable the establishment of buffer zones that reduce human exposure to hazardous agents as well as mitigate possible confrontations between residential settings and waste management operations. Therefore, the identified dense distribution of waste collection points highlights the importance of a comprehensive assessment as well as reshuffling of the Calabar South approach to rubbish disposal. The application of scientifically verified buffer distances as well as GIS-based spatial planning principles would help in attaining a more balanced as well as healthcare-oriented facility distribution pattern. In the long run, such a method would help in boosting environmental security, promoting efficient service delivery as well as sustainable urbanization within the study area. 5. CONCLUSION This study reveals that the dumpsite locations in Calabar South are highly clustered rather than randomly distributed or spatially dispersed, resulting in significant environmental and public health risks. The Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA) confirmed that waste collection points exhibit a statistically significant clustering pattern, indicating poor spatial planning and uneven distribution of waste management facilities. Such clustering leads to the formation of environmental hotspots, where waste accumulation and proximity to residential areas heighten exposure to pollution, odors, and disease vectors. The findings suggest that urban waste management in Calabar South is inadequately structured, with limited consideration for spatial balance, public health implications, and environmental sustainability. Proximity of most residential structures to these points of garbage disposal is a critical challenge to city officials and environmental planners. This exacerbates susceptibility to communicable diseases like malaria, cholera, and other vector-borne diseases that feed on unhygienic conditions. Furthermore, absence of physical segregation of houses from garbage disposal sites is against basic principles of urban planning and communicable diseases control that suggest buffer zones in a bid to reduce risks of damage to humans as well as the environment. In response to these challenges, a number of recommendations are made. Firstly, a spatially enlightened redistribution plan should be formulated such that distribution of garbage collection and disposal sites becomes more even across Calabar South. This would avoid over-concentration in some locations while enhancing neighborhood access to sanitation service provision. Secondly, a 100–150-meter buffer zone should be made compulsory between residential buildings and points of waste dumping/waste collection on all future urban planning projects. This would significantly diminish human exposure to sanitation-related risks. Lastly, standard vector control sanitation programs are required to be instituted within existing garbage disposal sites so as to control immediate health risks as well as enhance sanitation within the environment. In conclusion, research highlights its necessity to incorporate GIS-based spatial analysis within planning for municipal wastreatment with a view to encouraging healthy, sustainable, and environmentally friendly cities. Declarations Ethical Approval Not applicable. Consent to Participate Not applicable. Consent to Publish Not applicable. Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Author Contribution The author contributed to the study conception and design. All material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by **David Mkpanam Nyong** . Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the ArcGIS Online and for providing access to geospatial data used in this study. Data Availability A base map outlining residential buildings was produced by digitizing high-resolution satellite images that can be accessed using **ArcGIS Online** . References Debishree, K., & Samadder, S. R. (2015). A simplified multi-criteria evaluation model for landfill site ranking and selection based on AHP and GIS. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 23 (4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3846/16486897.2015.1056741 Giusti, L. (2009). A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health. Waste Management, 29 (8), 2227–2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.03.028 Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., & Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries. Waste Management, 33 (1), 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008 Marshall, R. E., & Farahbakhsh, K. (2013). Systems approaches to integrated solid waste management in developing countries. Waste Management, 33 (4), 988–1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.12.023 Mihai, F. C. (2020). Assessment of COVID-19 waste flows during the emergency state in Romania and related public health and environmental concerns. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (15), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155439 Nnaji, C. C. (2015). Status of municipal solid waste generation and disposal in Nigeria. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 26 (1), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-08-2013-0092 Oteng-Ababio, M. (2012). The role of the informal sector in solid waste management in the GAMA, Ghana: Challenges and opportunities. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 103 (4), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2012.00720.x Ukpong, E. C., Ogarekpe, N. M., & Bejor, E. S. (2013). Sanitary conditions and possible diseases linked with slaughterhouses effluent of Iba Oku in Uyo Capital City, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Engineering, 3 (5), 261–266. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ajee.20130305.07 Wilson, D. C., Velis, C. A., & Cheeseman, C. R. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. Habitat International, 30 (4), 797–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.09.005 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73510,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7919348/v1/2af6fff8ae73053651a40507.png"},{"id":94249678,"identity":"0324cf29-d0b9-43f7-9b37-dc637c8a7ff3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 06:25:09","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67153,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResult of Nearest Neighbor Analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7919348/v1/1d946d2c10b679e93ed96724.png"},{"id":94249683,"identity":"9b21aae7-7429-477c-8cba-dad83b1b53f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 06:25:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86695,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of waste bin within 50meters buffer for Residential Buildings\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7919348/v1/d999b9c00afb76e0fb2ecba7.png"},{"id":94250678,"identity":"78f05f81-80b0-4bcf-b77e-b72668fc9d4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 06:41:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":599131,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7919348/v1/106baa52-db06-40c6-96ca-df788a039470.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Spatial Distribution and Environmental Implications of Waste Collection Points in Calabar South, Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.1. Background and Review\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRapid urbanization in developing countries has widened the challenges within municipal solid waste management, often straining the capacity of local governments to deliver effective service levels (Guerrero et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This is especially prominent within Sub-Saharan Africa, where rapid urbanization has largely overwhelmed the creation of infrastructure needed for waste disposal and collection (Oteng-Ababio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The allocation and placement of waste pickup points or stations is a core aspect of a successful waste management system. When such installations are not placed appropriately, become overcrowded, or are operated ineffectively, these become significant contributors to the degradation of the environment with polluted atmosphere, waters, and ground, while presenting significant public health risks to neighboring communities (Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The placement of waste installations s well as residential locations is particularly noteworthy due to research that revealed significant linkages of people's proximity to wasteland with increased levels of respiratory disorders as well as vector-borne diseases (Giusti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn overcoming these challenges, Geographic Information Systems (GIS)-facilitated spatial analysis emerges as a valuable tool for assessing and optimizing waste management infrastructure. GIS provides a robust framework for visualizing patterns of space that can be interrogated, enabling planners and administrators to detect underserved areas, maximize waste transportation routes, as well as guarantee fair facility coverage. This promotes both environmental sustainability as well as social well-being. In addition to this, GIS-enabled spatial modeling assists environmental justice analysis such that no particular population is exposed to a skewed proportionate of environmental hazards (Mihai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Debishree \u0026amp; Samadder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Methods such as Nearest Neighbor Analysis provide quantitative measures of the distribution of space of waste management facilities that transcend visual observation in service of evidence-based planning. By employing such tools of spatial statistics, administrators as well as researchers are capable of obtaining greater detail regarding performance, as well as accessibility of existing waste management settings as well as existing impacts on the environment. Aside from this, such approaches facilitate aiding urban planners in facility location as well as service coverage data-driven decisions. Lastly, GIS application in waste management provides a science foundation for attaining sustainable urbanization as well as minimizing threats to human health as well as overall improved efficiency in fast-urbanizing regions' solid waste management (Odoi, 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2. Novelty and Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhereas various works have been concerned with waste generation and composition in Nigeria, few have taken a spatial statistic approach to investigate the siting of community waste collection centers and the resultant effects on populations resident in areas. Previous studies on Nigerian waste management appears to have concentrated much attention on metropolitan centres such as Lagos and Abuja at the expense of smaller cities like Calabar (Nnaji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In this regard, the use of spatial measures to examine service equity in waste services has become an increasingly important topic within urban geography (Marshall \u0026amp; Farahbakhsh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This research fills this data gap to some extent by providing a GIS-based spatial analysis of waste gathering centers in Calabar South. Specific objectives are:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo map the spatial distribution of formal waste collection points in Calabar South.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo determine the distribution pattern (clustered, random, or dispersed) using Nearest Neighbor Analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo assess the proximity of residential buildings to these waste points and discuss the associated environmental and health implications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study Area Description\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the Calabar South Local Government Area (LGA), located in Cross River State, Nigeria. Calabar South LGA is located in Cross River State, Nigeria, bordered by the Calabar River to the east and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. The area is characterized by a tropical climate, with a population engaged in various socio-economic activities, including residential, commercial, and industrial pursuits. Calabar South is a highly populated urban area located between latitudes 4°57'00\"N and 4°59'30\"N and longitudes 8°19'30\"E and 8°21'00\"E. It owes its uniqueness to a multiplicity of uses of both residential, commercial, and administrative lands. It has a local climate that can be described as a tropical monsoon, which has heavy rainfalls that tend to enhance leachate production and wastewater runoff from areas of poor waste disposition, a phenomenon that exacerbates pollution in developing urban centers (Ukpong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The Map of the study area and distribution of waste collection points is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Source of Data and Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Waste Collection Data\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe locations of waste disposal points were ascertained through detailed field surveys and verified with official records obtained from the Cross River State Waste Management Agency. The detailed geographic locations—latitude and longitude—were captured using a handheld Garmin GPSMAP 64s unit. This allowed for accurate spatial referencing of the waste disposal infrastructure. As many as 47 waste disposal points were captured and mapped in support of subsequent spatial analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Residential Building Data\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe residential building data was extracted from digitizing high-resolution satellite images that are accessible through ArcGIS Online. The base map so generated outlined individual building polygons to give a spatial outline of residential locations within the study area extent. The outlines of buildings thus generated helped evaluate spatial closeness of residences to waste disposal locations so as to be in a position to assess potential human risk of exposure due to facility location.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe acquired coordinates of waste collection points were loaded into ArcGIS 10.8 to create a geospatial layer. The locations were buffered with 50 meters to outline areas of potential environmental and health risks while following guidelines set by odour, pest, and pollutant exposure guidelines (Giusti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This buffer analysis was used to identify houses within highly risky proximity regions. Furthermore, the geographical distribution of the waste locations was examined using the Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA) tool of ArcGIS. This method determines the Nearest Neighbor Ratio (NNR) to determine whether the geographical pattern of waste sites is clustered, random, or dispersed. The outcome of this analysis provides valuable insights regarding the spatial efficiency as well as planning logic that dictates the location of waste collection facilities. It is critical to develop understanding regarding these spatial patterns to improve waste management procedures as well as optimize facility locations with a view to containing potential health as well as environmental risks that are experienced within adjacent communities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULT","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) identified a Nearest Neighbor Ratio (NNR) of 0.72 with a z-score of -3.45 and p-value of 0.0006. The resulting statistical outputs affirm that the distribution of waste collection points in Calabar South is highly clustered rather than randomly distributed. A p-value below 0.01 is indicative of a very high level of statistical significance such that the probable occurrence of this pattern due to chance is very small. As such, the locations of waste collection sites are seen to be spatially inclined to clumping within some parts of the study area, which is indicative of probable inefficiencies or inequities within spatial planning as well as service allocation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVisual interpretation of the spatial distribution map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) further supports these statistical results. The mapped pattern shows that most waste collection points are concentrated around Mount Zion Road, Egerton Street, and Chieftain Road, particularly within the central and northern zones of Calabar South. These areas are characterized by high residential density and commercial activity, which likely explains the increased presence of waste collection facilities. However, this concentration also implies that other parts of the study area, especially the southern and peripheral neighborhoods, are underserved, with limited access to formal waste collection points. This uneven distribution may contribute to irregular waste disposal practices, such as illegal dumping or burning of refuse, which in turn poses serious environmental and public health challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuffer analysis, on a 50-meter proximity buffer, reveals additional dimensions of impact from the clustered pattern. The results are such that more than 35% of digitized residential buildings are within the high-risk exposure buffer of one or more waste disposal sites. This is in contravention of advisable urban planning and environmental health guidelines that usually recommend proper buffer distances between residential settlements and storage/disposal points of wastes with a view to reducing exposure to odors, flying particles, and vectors of diseases. The high proportion of residences within these buffers confirms poor separations of waste sites from human settlements with consequent increased threat of health risks like respiratory infections, malaria, cholera, and other sanitation-related infections.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the observed clustering pattern indicates a lack of systematic spatial planning in the siting of waste collection facilities. Ideally, waste collection points should be evenly distributed across residential and commercial zones to ensure equitable service coverage and reduce environmental risk concentration. The existing clustered configuration not only places excessive service pressure on the collection facilities in densely populated areas but also undermines efficiency in waste collection logistics. This spatial inefficiency could lead to waste accumulation, irregular collection schedules, and eventual overflows, especially during peak waste generation periods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe NNA's report also points to the significance of geospatial planning reform and policy intervention. The addition of GIS-based spatial analysis to sanitation planning can help local governments detect undercoverage areas as well as determine the best locations for supplemental collection points. The subsequent evidence-based approaches would support evenhanded spatial distribution, improved environmental security, as well as service delivery enhancement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn short, the findings indicate that waste collection points within Calabar South are visually and statistically clustered with substantial parts of the residential population exposed within high-risk exposure areas. The pattern of such clustering serves as a revelation of inefficiencies within spatial planning that requires a geospatial integrated approach in order to attain balanced, safe, and sustainable waste disposal within the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe clustered distribution of refuse disposal points, as is indicated by a Nearest Neighbor Ratio (NNR) of less than 1, reveals significant deficiencies in the geographical allocation of the solid waste disposal system in Calabar South. This significant concentration in highly populated residential areas (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) suggests uneven allocation of waste disposal facilities with certain neighborhoods over-served while others might be under-served. This unevenness of facility allocation not only undermines the economic efficiency of service coverage but also creates significant public health as well as environmental concerns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe existence of a significant quantity of residential structures situated within the 50-meter radius surrounding waste collection sites presents a considerable health hazard to the residents in proximity. This nearness elevates the likelihood of exposure to noxious smells and airborne pollutants, concurrently fostering an environment conducive to the proliferation of disease-carrying vectors such as flies, rodents, and mosquitoes. These vectors are responsible for the transmission of infectious diseases, including cholera, malaria, and various other illnesses associated with waste, thereby representing substantial risks to public health (Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, inadequate differentiation of residential from waste management facilities represents a lack of compliance with essential urban planning as well as environmental health guidelines. Efficient geographical planning should enable the establishment of buffer zones that reduce human exposure to hazardous agents as well as mitigate possible confrontations between residential settings and waste management operations. Therefore, the identified dense distribution of waste collection points highlights the importance of a comprehensive assessment as well as reshuffling of the Calabar South approach to rubbish disposal. The application of scientifically verified buffer distances as well as GIS-based spatial planning principles would help in attaining a more balanced as well as healthcare-oriented facility distribution pattern. In the long run, such a method would help in boosting environmental security, promoting efficient service delivery as well as sustainable urbanization within the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals that the dumpsite locations in Calabar South are highly clustered rather than randomly distributed or spatially dispersed, resulting in significant environmental and public health risks. The Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA) confirmed that waste collection points exhibit a statistically significant clustering pattern, indicating poor spatial planning and uneven distribution of waste management facilities. Such clustering leads to the formation of environmental hotspots, where waste accumulation and proximity to residential areas heighten exposure to pollution, odors, and disease vectors. The findings suggest that urban waste management in Calabar South is inadequately structured, with limited consideration for spatial balance, public health implications, and environmental sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProximity of most residential structures to these points of garbage disposal is a critical challenge to city officials and environmental planners. This exacerbates susceptibility to communicable diseases like malaria, cholera, and other vector-borne diseases that feed on unhygienic conditions. Furthermore, absence of physical segregation of houses from garbage disposal sites is against basic principles of urban planning and communicable diseases control that suggest buffer zones in a bid to reduce risks of damage to humans as well as the environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response to these challenges, a number of recommendations are made. Firstly, a spatially enlightened redistribution plan should be formulated such that distribution of garbage collection and disposal sites becomes more even across Calabar South. This would avoid over-concentration in some locations while enhancing neighborhood access to sanitation service provision. Secondly, a 100\u0026ndash;150-meter buffer zone should be made compulsory between residential buildings and points of waste dumping/waste collection on all future urban planning projects. This would significantly diminish human exposure to sanitation-related risks. Lastly, standard vector control sanitation programs are required to be instituted within existing garbage disposal sites so as to control immediate health risks as well as enhance sanitation within the environment. In conclusion, research highlights its necessity to incorporate GIS-based spatial analysis within planning for municipal wastreatment with a view to encouraging healthy, sustainable, and environmentally friendly cities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe author contributed to the study conception and design. All material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by **David Mkpanam Nyong** .\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe author gratefully acknowledges the support of the ArcGIS Online and for providing access to geospatial data used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA base map outlining residential buildings was produced by digitizing high-resolution satellite images that can be accessed using **ArcGIS Online** .\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDebishree, K., \u0026amp; Samadder, S. R. (2015). A simplified multi-criteria evaluation model for landfill site ranking and selection based on AHP and GIS. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 23\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1\u0026ndash;12. https://doi.org/10.3846/16486897.2015.1056741\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGiusti, L. (2009). A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health. \u003cem\u003eWaste Management, 29\u003c/em\u003e(8), 2227\u0026ndash;2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.03.028\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuerrero, L. A., Maas, G., \u0026amp; Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries. \u003cem\u003eWaste Management, 33\u003c/em\u003e(1), 220\u0026ndash;232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarshall, R. E., \u0026amp; Farahbakhsh, K. (2013). Systems approaches to integrated solid waste management in developing countries. \u003cem\u003eWaste Management, 33\u003c/em\u003e(4), 988\u0026ndash;1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.12.023\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMihai, F. C. (2020). Assessment of COVID-19 waste flows during the emergency state in Romania and related public health and environmental concerns. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17\u003c/em\u003e(15), 1\u0026ndash;18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155439\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNnaji, C. C. (2015). Status of municipal solid waste generation and disposal in Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eManagement of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 26\u003c/em\u003e(1), 53\u0026ndash;71. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-08-2013-0092\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOteng-Ababio, M. (2012). The role of the informal sector in solid waste management in the GAMA, Ghana: Challenges and opportunities. \u003cem\u003eTijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 103\u003c/em\u003e(4), 412\u0026ndash;425. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2012.00720.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUkpong, E. C., Ogarekpe, N. M., \u0026amp; Bejor, E. S. (2013). Sanitary conditions and possible diseases linked with slaughterhouses effluent of Iba Oku in Uyo Capital City, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eAmerican Journal of Environmental Engineering, 3\u003c/em\u003e(5), 261\u0026ndash;266. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ajee.20130305.07\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilson, D. C., Velis, C. A., \u0026amp; Cheeseman, C. R. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. \u003cem\u003eHabitat International, 30\u003c/em\u003e(4), 797\u0026ndash;808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.09.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"GIS, Spatial Analysis, Solid Waste Management, Nearest Neighbor Analysis, Urban Health, Calabar South","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7919348/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7919348/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe management of solid waste presents a significant challenge in the context of rapid urbanization within developing countries. This research evaluates the geographical distribution and environmental consequences associated with waste collection points located in Calabar South, Nigeria. Utilizing a Geographic Information System (GIS) framework, the study mapped and analyzed the sites of these waste collection points employing Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA). Findings reveal a notably clustered arrangement of waste collection points (Nearest Neighbor Ratio\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1), particularly concentrated in the central and northern regions of the area. Such clustering has resulted in a considerable number of residential structures situated within a 50-meter buffer zone around these points, thereby establishing potential hotspots for public health risks, such as vector-borne diseases and exposure to hazardous pollutants. The research concludes that the existing waste management infrastructure is inadequately designed and proposes the strategic repositioning of collection points along with the enforcement of regulatory buffer zones to reduce environmental and health-related risks.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Spatial Distribution and Environmental Implications of Waste Collection Points in Calabar South, Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-24 06:25:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7919348/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"54cb9c5c-9dc9-4c9c-9068-760dcd4b6a49","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-24T06:25:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-24 06:25:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7919348","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7919348","identity":"rs-7919348","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}