Effect of Basalt Fiber on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Clay, an Experimental Approach

Effect of Basalt Fiber on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Clay, an Experimental Approach | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effect of Basalt Fiber on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Clay, an Experimental Approach Ichede Popina Ebonghas, Ping Liu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6136079/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the impact of basalt fiber reinforcement on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of cement-stabilized clay, aiming to enhance its suitability for geotechnical applications. A series of laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of fiber content, cement dosage, and curing duration on mechanical performance. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis examined the microstructural interactions within the fiber-matrix system, particularly focusing on crack resistance and interfacial bonding. The results indicate that incorporating 6 mm basalt fibers significantly improves UCS and ductility, with optimal performance observed at a fiber content of 1.2%. Extended curing periods further enhance strength by promoting cement hydration and fiber-matrix adhesion. SEM imaging confirmed reduced crack propagation and improved durability. These findings suggest that basalt fiber reinforcement is a promising method for strengthening cement-stabilized clay, making it suitable for applications such as road subgrades, slope stabilization, and embankment reinforcement. Basalt Fiber Unconfined Compressive Strength Cement-Stabilized Clay Soil Reinforcement Curing Duration Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Introduction Infrastructure development is a cornerstone of economic and social advancement, playing a critical role in the strategic expansion of modern societies. In the past decade, nations like China have made monumental strides in traditional infrastructure such as transportation and pioneering new forms of construction, reflecting achievements that are both extensive and impactful (Jin and Chen 2019; Campanella 2008 ; Shi 1993 ). These developments include significant projects like Beijing Daxing Airport and the Shanghai Yangshan Port Automation Terminal, showcasing a commitment to cutting-edge engineering and global infrastructure leadership (Jin and Chen 2019; Mi, Weijian and Liu 2022; Lin and Fu 2024). Despite these advancements, large-scale infrastructure construction often encounters geological and material challenges, particularly when dealing with soil quality. Soil is known to be the smallest natural element existing on the earth's crust and one of the oldest natural mortars used in construction industries at the time (Srivastava and Singh 2020 ; Přikryl et al. 2016 ; Schroeder 2016 ). Soil is an integral part of any form of structural construction and requires a careful assessment before use. Soil properties also determine the type of structures to be built. Therefore, It is very important to conduct tests on the soils before construction (Lagouin et al. 2021; Christopher et al. 1990 ; Burmister 1949 ). Previously, soils such as clay, silt, organic soils, etc. were considered weak due to their poor technical qualities and often overlooked as competent building materials (Nzeukou Nzeugang et al. 2021 ; Edward 1994 ; Steiner and Williams 1996 ). This was mainly due to the lack of adequate knowledge and resources to modify the soil quality for safe construction as soft, weak, and unstable soil can lead to settlement, sinkhole problems, and rock fractures. discovery of new and effective ways of stabilizing these soils for construction (Shalchian and Arabani 2022 ; Petry and Little 2003). Clay soils, are characterized by their fine particles and plasticity Currently, many advances have been made in the engineering sector, which has led to them, being prevalent in many parts of the world and is known for their challenging engineering properties, including high compressibility and low shear strength (Gu et al. 2019 ; Sakr et al. 2021 ). These properties often lead to significant engineering problems such as settlement, sliding, and other forms of structural failure (Xie, Zhou, and Yan 2019). The susceptibility of clay soils to changes in moisture content further exacerbates these issues, as they can swell or shrink dramatically, which can undermine the structural integrity of foundations and earthworks (Nadeem et al. 2023 ). Consequently, engineering solutions must stabilize clay soils and accommodate or mitigate their variable behaviors. Traditional methods of improving clay soil properties include the addition of cement, lime, or other chemical stabilizers (Danso and Manu 2020; Archibong et al. 2020 ). These stabilizers work by binding the soil particles together, reducing plasticity, and enhancing load-bearing capacity (Sakr et al. 2021 ; Shinde et al. 2024 ). However, while effective, these chemical methods can significantly alter the natural soil chemistry and potentially lead to adverse environmental impacts, such as increased soil pH or contamination from chemical leaching. Therefore, these methods can be environmentally damaging and unsustainable in the long term. Soil reinforcement is a critical component of geotechnical engineering that enhances the mechanical properties of soils, improving their bearing capacity and stability for various construction applications (Bouziane et al. 2022 ; Xu et al. 2024 ). This is particularly important in areas with challenging soil compositions, such as expansive clays or loose sandy soils, where traditional construction techniques may not provide long-term stability. Expansive clays can cause significant structural distress due to their volume changes with moisture variations (Sreekanth et al. 2020 ), while sandy soils might suffer from liquefaction during seismic activities, posing risks to the stability of buildings and other infrastructure. Techniques such as soil stabilization and reinforcement are crucial for preventing these soil-related failures and ensuring the safety and longevity of infrastructure projects. These methods typically involve introducing materials like geosynthetics, natural fibers, or chemical agents to bind soil particles together or provide a mechanical matrix that helps distribute loads more effectively (Gowthaman, Nakashima, and Kawasaki 2018 ; Tanasă et al. 2022; Shalchian and Arabani 2022 ). By improving soil strength and deformation characteristics, effective soil reinforcement can mitigate risks such as landslides and foundation settlements (Alamanis et al. 2020 ; Singh et al. 2024 ), thereby extending the life of the infrastructure and reducing maintenance needs. This strategic intervention is essential in both new constructions and rehabilitating existing structures, ensuring they meet safety standards and perform reliably throughout their operational lifespan. Basalt fibers, derived from igneous basalt rocks, offer significant advantages over traditional reinforcement materials (Scheinherrová, Keppert, and Černý 2022 ). These fibers are extracted from naturally occurring volcanic basalt rock and manufactured through an environmentally friendly process that involves the melting of the rock at about 960 degrees Celsius and then extruding it through small nozzles to produce fine fibers (Chowdhury and Version 2022; Tanjeem Khan et al. 2018). The result is a material that boasts exceptional properties for construction and engineering applications. These fibers are not only strong, with a tensile strength comparable to that of steel, but they are also highly resistant to chemical and thermal degradation, ensuring durability even under harsh environmental conditions (Y. Li et al. 2022 ). This resistance makes basalt fibers particularly suitable for applications where exposure to corrosive elements or high temperatures is a concern, such as in marine or industrial environments (Chowdhury, Pemberton, and Summerscales 2022). Moreover, basalt fibers are inert and non-toxic, offering an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fibers like fiberglass, which require petroleum-based inputs and often involve hazardous chemical processes (Jagadeesh, Rangappa, and Siengchin 2024). The application of basalt fibers in soil reinforcement is relatively new, making this a pioneering area in geotechnical engineering. Their interaction with clay soil systems, in particular, is not yet fully understood, which presents an exciting frontier for research. Preliminary studies suggest that basalt fiber reinforcement can significantly enhance the strength, stiffness, and durability of clay soils, potentially reducing the risk of common issues such as erosion or settlement (Yang et al. 2024 ; Owino and Hossain 2023). Given their promising properties, comprehensive studies are needed to explore the potential and mechanisms of basalt fibers in soil reinforcement more deeply. Research needs to address how they affect the soil's hydraulic properties and the optimal configurations and concentrations needed for different soil types and conditions. This will help in developing standardized guidelines for their use in soil stabilization projects, paving the way for wider adoption in the field of civil engineering. Such studies are not only essential for advancing our understanding but also for validating and refining the application techniques to maximize the benefits of this innovative material. 1.1 Problem statement and novelty The construction and geotechnical sectors frequently encounter difficulties when working with soft or weak soils due to their inadequate load-bearing capacity and high vulnerability to deformation. Cement stabilization is a commonly employed technique to enhance soil strength; however, it often leads to brittleness, which remains a major drawback (D. X. Wang et al. 2012 ; Stavridakis 2006 ; Bhattacharja, Bhatty, and Todres 2003; Geng et al. 2023 ; Shooshpasha and Shirvani 2015). Recent developments have shown that incorporating fibers can effectively reduce brittleness and improve the mechanical properties of stabilized soils (Habel and Krebber 2011; Rahman, Siddiqua, and Cherian 2022; Hejazi et al. 2012 ; Dongxing Wang et al. 2020 ). Among various fibers, basalt fibers stand out as a promising option due to their exceptional mechanical properties, eco-friendliness, and resistance to chemical degradation (Monaldo, Nerilli, and Vairo 2019; Yang et al. 2024 ; Ralegaonkar et al. 2018 ; Jalasutram et al. 2016 ; Niu et al. 2020 ). While previous studies have examined fiber-reinforced soil stabilization, they primarily focus on synthetic fibers or lack detailed mechanical characterization, especially concerning curing time and failure mode transitions(Ghanbari et al. 2022 ; Chen et al. 2024 ; Sun et al. 2023 ; Song et al. 2023 ). This study aims to address these gaps by investigating the impact of basalt fibers on UCS enhancement, residual strength retention, and failure mode transformation in cement-stabilized clay. Aim and scope This study's primary objective is to evaluate basalt fiber reinforcement's effect on the UCS and ductility of cement-stabilized clay, with a particular focus on optimizing fiber content and curing duration. The research encompasses a comprehensive experimental program involving different cement dosages (4%, 8%, and 12%) and basalt fiber contents (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2%). UCS tests are conducted over curing periods of 7, 14, and 28 days to analyze strength evolution. Additionally, SEM analysis is employed to investigate the microstructural interactions within the fiber-matrix system. The findings from this study are expected to provide practical recommendations for the use of basalt fibers in soil stabilization, offering a sustainable approach for geotechnical applications such as road subgrades, embankment reinforcement, and slope stabilization. Test Materials and Methods 2.1. Test Materials 2.1.1. Clay Soil The clay soil used in this study was sourced from Jiangsu University, China, at a depth of approximately 3 meters below the surface. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil were determined under the JTG 3430-2020 (Shijie Wang et al. 2023) standard. A particle size distribution analysis was performed to classify the soil, and key properties, including liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, optimum moisture content, and maximum dry density, were recorded in Figure 1(a), Figure 2 and Table 1. TABLE 1: Clay soil Properties Liquid limit Wl/% Plastic limit Wp/% Plasticity index Ip/% Optimal moisture content w% Maximum dry density ρ d /(g cm -3 ) 41.1 21.6 19.5 18.35 1.816 2.1.2. Basalt Fiber (BF) and Cement The basalt fibers used in this research were procured from Hunan Changsha Ningxiang Building Materials Co., Ltd shown in Figure 1(c) and 3. These fibers had an average length of 6 mm and were characterized by high tensile strength, durability, and resistance to chemical and thermal degradation Table 2. The cement utilized in the stabilization process was PSA32.5 slag Portland cement, a commonly used binder for soil improvement Figure 1(b). TABLE 2: Basalt fibers' physical properties Properties Density(g/cm 3 ) Elastic modulus (GPa) Tensile strength (MPa) Length (mm) Filament diameter/µm Tensile strength under heat treatment (%) Performance 2.63-2.65 91~110 3000~4800 6 7~15 20°c 200°c 400°c 100 95 82 2.2. Test Methods 2.2.1. Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index Tests The liquid limit and plasticity index of the cement-soil were determined using the Cone Penetration Method , following BS 1377 (Spagnoli and Shimobe 2020) . A standardized cone penetrometer was used to measure the penetration depth of a metal cone under a given load. The liquid limit was identified as the moisture content at which the cement-soil sample reached a penetration depth of 20 mm . The plastic limit was obtained by rolling soil threads until they crumbled at a specific diameter. The plasticity index was then calculated as the difference between the liquid and plastic limits. These results provide critical information for classifying the soil and predicting its behavior under different moisture conditions. The test outcomes are summarized in Figure 4 and Table 3 . TABLE 3: Results of Liquid limit test Cement-Soil% Liquid limit W l /% Plastic limit W p /% Plasticity index I p 4-96 52 20.5 31.5 8-92 52 19.5 32.5 12-88 52 19 33 2.2.2. Compaction Test The Proctor test was performed to determine the optimal moisture content and maximum dry density of the clay soil, following ASTM D698 (American Society for Testing and Materials 2021) (Standard Proctor) procedures. Soil samples were compacted in a cylindrical mold using a standard rammer, with a fixed number of blows per layer. The procedure was repeated for different moisture contents, and the dry density of each sample was calculated. The results were plotted to obtain a compaction curve , from which the optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) were derived. These parameters are essential for assessing soil workability and stability in construction applications. The equipment and the compaction curve are illustrated in Figure 5 and 6 . 2.2.1. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test was performed in accordance with the ASTM D2166 (ASTM 2006) standard, a widely recognized method for evaluating the compressive behavior of cohesive soils. This test provides crucial data regarding the load-bearing capacity, stress-strain response, and failure characteristics of stabilized soil, making it particularly valuable for assessing the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement and cement treatment in improving soil strength. Specimen Preparation and Curing Cylindrical specimens were prepared with a height-to-diameter ratio of 2:1, ensuring consistent geometry. The soil-cement mixtures were compacted at their optimum moisture content (OMC) to achieve uniform density. The specimens underwent curing for 7, 14, and 28 days under controlled conditions to facilitate cement hydration and fiber-matrix interaction. Additionally, specimens were subjected to a 1-day soaking period before testing, as it was found to further optimize the interactions between the soil, cement, and fiber, contributing to improved material properties. The curing process was crucial for enhancing the mechanical properties of the material. Testing Procedure Upon completion of the designated curing period and day of soaking, the specimens were placed in the UCS testing apparatus and subjected to axial compression at a constant strain rate until failure. The applied load and corresponding axial deformation were continuously monitored to generate stress-strain curves, which were then analyzed to evaluate the mechanical behavior and failure modes of the reinforced soil samples. The setup and equipment used for the testing are shown in Figure 7. UCS Calculation Process The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) was determined using the equation: UCS (q u ) =P max /A (1) Where: P max represents the maximum applied axial load before specimen failure (in Newton’s, N), A denotes the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen (in square millimeters, mm²), computed as: A=πD 2 /4 (2) where D is the diameter of the cylindrical sample . The UCS values were recorded for all test specimens, and comparative analyses were conducted to evaluate the effects of varying fiber and cement contents on compressive strength. Additionally, stress-strain relationships were examined to assess the ductility, toughness, and failure mechanisms of the stabilized soil under compressive loading. The research was structured to examine the impact of basalt fibers, each with a uniform length of 6mm, on the mechanical behavior of clayey soil across a range of fiber concentrations. A total of samples were prepared and divided into two main testing groups summarized in Table 4: Group 1: Unconfined Compression Tests (UCS) on Cement-treated soil These tests, conducted at 7, 14, and 28 days, measured the compressive strength of Cement-treated soil samples to provide control data for comparison with fiber-reinforced samples. Group 2: Unconfined Compression Tests (UCS) on Cement-fiber-treated soil Conducted under the same periods as cement-treated soil samples, these tests evaluated how the addition of basalt fibers affected the soil's compressive strength. TABLE 4: Test Procedure Tests. Group Mixture Content (% by weight) Length of basalt Fiber(mm) Curing-days Soil cement Basalt Fiber Unconfined compressive strength 1 96%S-4%C-0%F 96 4 0 6 7 14 28 92%S-8%C-0%F 92 8 0 6 7 14 28 88%S-12%C-0%F 88 12 0 6 7 14 28 2 96%S-4%C-0.4%F 96 4 0.4 6 7 14 28 92%S-8%C-0.4%F 92 8 0.4 6 7 14 28 88%S-12%C-0.4%F 88 12 0.4 6 7 14 28 96%S-4%C-0.8%F 96 4 0.8 6 7 14 28 92%S-8%C-0.8%F 92 8 0.8 6 7 14 28 88%S-12%C-0.8%F 88 12 0.8 6 7 14 28 96%S-4%C-1.2%F 96 4 1.2 6 7 14 28 92%S-8%C-1.2%F 92 8 1.2 6 7 14 28 88%S-12%C-1.2%F 88 12 1.2 6 7 14 28 2.2.4. Scanning Electron Microscope SEM A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image provides a highly detailed, grayscale visualization of a sample’s surface, revealing its microscopic features with remarkable clarity (Tehranipoor, Nalla Anandakumar, and Farahmandi 2023). Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis was performed on specimens cured for 28 days to examine the microstructural characteristics of the cement-stabilized clay and its interaction with basalt fibers. The primary objective was to investigate the fiber-matrix bonding, crack propagation, and interfacial transition zone (ITZ), which are crucial in strength development and durability. Small fragments of the tested specimens were carefully extracted and coated with a thin layer of conductive material to prevent electron charging during imaging. The samples were then placed in an SEM chamber, where a focused electron beam scanned the surface to generate high-resolution images of the fiber-matrix interface. These images provided insights into the distribution of cement hydration products, fiber bridging mechanisms, and structural integrity of the composite material. The SEM machine used for this study is shown in Figure 8. Results and Discussion 3.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test Results The stress-strain responses of cement-stabilized clay specimens reinforced with varying basalt fiber contents (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2%) were analyzed over curing periods of 7, 14, and 28 days. The influence of fiber addition, cement content, and curing duration on the mechanical behavior of the composite was systematically assessed. Furthermore, the samples were subjected to a one-day soaking period before UCS testing, which likely influenced the observed strength characteristics. The mixtures consist of 88% soil (S) and 12% cement (C), 92% soil (S) and 8% cement (C), and 96% soil (S) and 4% cement (C). The control mixtures (88% Soil-12% Cement -0% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement -0% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-0% Fiber) display a brittle failure pattern, marked by a sharp peak in axial stress followed by a rapid decline, indicating low ductility shown in Figures 9, 10 and 11. This observation is consistent with R. and G. (2001) , who noted that unreinforced soil-cement mixtures often fail abruptly due to their limited tensile strength. At 28 days, the control mixtures show a slight increase in peak stress compared to earlier curing periods, reflecting the ongoing hydration of cement, as highlighted by L. Wang et al. (2018). The addition of fiber significantly alters the stress-strain response. In Figures 9, 10, and 11, fiber content increases, the curves reveal higher peak stresses and more gradual post-peak softening, indicating improved ductility. For instance, the 88% Soil-12% Cement-0.4% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement-0.4% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-0.4% Fiber mixtures show a moderate rise in peak stress and strain at failure compared to the control, as fibers bridge micro cracks and delay failure. This aligns with findings from J. Zhao et al. (2024), who demonstrated that fibers enhance soil-cement mixtures' energy absorption capacity and toughness. The 88% Soil-12% Cement-0.8% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement-0.8% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-0.8% Fiber mixtures achieve a notable increase in both strength and strain at failure, with a flatter post-peak curve, indicating enhanced toughness. This is consistent with V. Sharma, Vinayak, and Marwaha (2015) , who found that fiber reinforcement improves the energy absorption capacity of soil-cement composites. The 88% Soil-12% Cement-1.2% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement-1.2% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-1.2% Fiber mixtures exhibit the highest peak stress and strain at failure, suggesting that fiber content up to 1.2% optimizes strength and ductility. However, additional fiber may lead to diminishing returns beyond this threshold, as observed by Ahmad et al. (2024). The 28-day curves generally display higher peak stresses and improved ductility compared to the 7- and 14-day curves, reflecting the continued hydration of cement and the development of stronger bonds between soil particles and fibers. This is consistent with Shengnian Wang et al. (2021), who reported that longer curing periods enhance the mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced soil-cement mixtures. The results suggest that fiber reinforcement effectively improves the strength and ductility of soil-cement mixtures, making them more suitable for applications such as road subgrades, slope stabilization, and embankments. The findings of this study, with a compressive strength of approximately 6 MPa, position it among the highest values reported, particularly following the work of Chen et al. (2024), who explored the role of basalt fiber (BF) in improving the strength of cement-stabilized expansive soil. Their research focused on the effect of incorporating 0-1% BF in soil stabilized with 6% cement, revealing a substantial improvement in unconfined compressive strength (UCS) when 0.4% Basalt Fiber was added. The study also highlighted the enhanced performance under both normal conditions and after exposure to multiple dry-wet cycles, demonstrating Basalt Fiber is potential to increase soil stability and durability. This study surpasses several others in terms of compressive strength, such as those Pavithra and Moorthy (2021), Ghanbari et al. (2022) , and X. Zhang et al. (2023), whose results ranged approximatively from 4 to 8 MPa. Numerous studies have examined the efficacy of basalt fiber in improving UCS under different conditions and material compositions, including its application in peat-soil reinforcement and nano-SiO2 concrete mixtures. These studies consistently show that basalt fiber enhances mechanical properties, durability, and cracking resistance, underscoring its versatility as a reinforcing agent in both geotechnical and structural engineering. In summary, the findings of this study reveal a notable enhancement in compressive strength, surpassing much of the existing research in the field. The results underscore the effectiveness of the chosen methodology in achieving higher compressive strength, demonstrating its potential for use in applications that require improved material durability. This strong performance serves as a testament to the innovative approach taken, laying a solid foundation for future research and development and positioning this study as a significant contribution to advancing the field. Additionally, the results emphasize the potential of basalt fiber reinforcement in stabilizing clay soils for geotechnical applications. The optimal fiber content of 1.2% strikes a balance between improving strength and maintaining workability, while prolonged curing contributes to enhanced long-term durability. Furthermore, the impact of pre-soaking suggests that moisture conditioning may play a crucial role in further optimizing the interactions between soil, cement, and fiber. 3.1.1 Influence of Basalt Fiber Content The UCS curves for various cement-clay ratios (88% Soil-12% Cement, 92% Soil-8% Cement, and 96% Soil-4% Cement) illustrate the transition from brittle failure in unreinforced samples to a more ductile response when fibers are incorporated. Control samples without fibers exhibited a distinct peak stress followed by a rapid decline, characteristic of brittle failure. The strength improvement in these specimens primarily resulted from cement hydration, which continued over 28 days. With fiber reinforcement, the stress-strain curves demonstrated a gradual decline after reaching peak stress, indicating enhanced ductility and energy absorption. At 0.4% fiber content, a moderate increase in peak stress was observed, highlighting the role of fibers in crack bridging. A further increase in stress at failure was recorded at 0.8%, suggesting improved load resistance and deformation capacity. The highest strength improvement occurred at 1.2% fiber addition, beyond which diminishing returns could arise due to fiber clustering, as reported in previous research Ahmad et al. (2024). A closer analysis of the stress-strain curves reveals that peak stress values increased with fiber content, with the maximum peak observed for the 1.2% fiber-reinforced mix. Control specimens (0% fiber) displayed sharp peak stress values followed by sudden failure, indicative of brittle behavior. Conversely, fiber-reinforced samples exhibited a more progressive post-peak softening, reflecting improved ductility. The stress-strain behavior suggests that fiber inclusion promotes a more uniform stress distribution, reducing the likelihood of sudden failure and enhancing load-bearing capacity. The influence of pre-soaking before testing was particularly evident in fiber-reinforced samples, as moisture redistribution may have impacted fiber-matrix interactions. Pre-saturation likely enhanced the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement at higher dosages, facilitating improved stress transfer and delaying crack propagation. These findings emphasize the importance of optimizing fiber content to achieve a balance between strength and workability. Figures 12 and 13 illustrate the effect of fiber content on compressive strength and stress across different curing durations and densities. The results confirm that fiber incorporation significantly improves the material's mechanical properties. As shown in these figures, compressive strength (q u ) (in MPa) increases with fiber addition, particularly at 1.20% content. This pattern is consistent across curing durations of 7, 14, and 28 days. Notably, at 28 days, mechanical performance is significantly enhanced, underscoring the combined benefits of prolonged curing and fiber reinforcement. At 7 days (Figures 12a and 13a), stress values remain relatively low and exhibit irregular trends, especially for 96% and 92% hydration. Early curing appears insufficient for strong fiber-matrix bonding, and incomplete hydration further limits strength development. These results suggest that both time and hydration are crucial for achieving effective strength improvement at this stage. By 14 days (Figures 12b and 13b), stress values increase, and trends become more consistent. Higher fiber content contributes significantly to strength, with 88% hydration yielding the best results. The extended curing period strengthens fiber-matrix interaction, leading to better load distribution and enhanced material performance. At 28 days (Figures 13c and 14c), stress reaches its peak levels, with consistent trends across all hydration levels. The prolonged curing duration ensures optimal fiber-matrix bonding, with 1.2% fiber content and (92%, 88%) hydration demonstrating superior mechanical performance. These findings highlight the essential role of curing time and hydration in maximizing material strength. The study further indicates that fiber content exerts a more significant effect in lower-density matrices (e.g., 88%). In such cases, fibers likely enhance stress transfer and mitigate micro-crack propagation by serving as structural bridges, resulting in greater strength improvements compared to higher-density materials. This observation aligns with previous research by Y. Zhou, Fan, and Chen (2016); Ding, Guo, and Chen (2019); and Mohit and Arul Mozhi Selvan (2018), which suggested that less dense matrices facilitate better fiber dispersion and bonding, thereby maximizing the reinforcing potential of fibers. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that mechanical properties peak at 1.20% fiber content, supporting the conclusions of Wei, Teng, and Khayat (2024), who identified an optimal fiber range of 1.0–1.5% for maximizing strength without compromising workability. The observed trend of increasing strength up to this optimal fiber level is consistent with the findings of C. Zhou et al. (2024); Yoo, Lee, and Yoon (2013); J. Zhang, Leung, and Gao (2011), who reported enhanced mechanical behavior due to improved Crack bridging and stress distribution, improve at higher fiber contents. However, exceeding this range may lead to fiber clustering, which could reduce performance; though such effects were not observed in the current study. Additionally, the stress trends illustrated in the figures align with Abdulmajeed et al. (2011), who found that fiber-reinforced composites demonstrate superior mechanical performance in lower-density materials. The results also support... the observations of Zijl and Slowik (2017), who demonstrated that fibers enhance material ductility and reduce crack propagation, particularly in long-cured systems, as evidenced by the 28-day findings. This study underscores the critical role of fiber reinforcement in enhancing the mechanical properties of cementitious materials, particularly at the optimal fiber content of 1.20%. The findings align with existing literature, reaffirming the advantages of fiber inclusion in improving compressive strength and stress distribution. 3.1.2 Effect of Curing Duration The curing period plays a crucial role in determining the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the examined mixtures. At 7 days, the UCS values remained relatively low, particularly in the control samples, due to incomplete cement hydration. While fiber inclusion provided a minor advantage at this early stage, its reinforcing effects became more pronounced as the curing period progressed to 14 and 28 days (Figure 14a). Figure 14b, highlight a considerable increase in UCS (q u ) was observed in fiber-reinforced specimens series, with the 0.4% and 1.2% fiber mixture demonstrating the highest strength enhancement. This upward trend continued at 28 days, where fiber-reinforced samples exhibited superior post-peak behavior, reinforcing the synergistic interaction between fiber reinforcement and prolonged hydration Figure 15. These findings align with those of Chen et al. (2024), who reported that extended curing facilitates bond development and mechanical stability in fiber-reinforced cementitious materials. A detailed examination of the UCS curves over different curing durations reveals that at 7 days, peak stress values remained relatively low, reflecting incomplete cement hydration. By 14 days, a notable increase in peak stress was evident, particularly in fiber-reinforced specimens. At 28 days, the stress-curing time curves exhibited the highest peak stress values, along with extended strain hardening, indicative of enhanced fiber-matrix interaction and improved crack-bridging capabilities (Figure 15). The combination of fiber reinforcement and extended curing also influenced the failure mechanisms of the material. While control samples exhibited abrupt failures, fiber-reinforced specimens demonstrated strain-hardening characteristics, suggesting improved load redistribution. This underscores the long-term benefits of fiber incorporation in enhancing both the strength and durability of the composite material. Figures 14, 15, and 16 highlight the effect of curing time on axial stress and fiber content within the material, a crucial aspect in construction and material science. Curing time significantly influences the mechanical properties of materials, particularly composites or fiber-reinforced cementitious systems. The data indicates that axial stress varies with different curing durations such as 14 and 28 days and is further modulated by fiber content. Figures 14 (a) and (b) illustrate the relationship between curing duration, fiber content, and axial stress. In the early curing phase (0–7 days), axial stress remains relatively low across all fiber contents, likely due to incomplete hydration and weak fiber-matrix bonding. As curing progresses (7-14 days), axial stress increases significantly, particularly in specimens with fiber contents of 0.8% and 1.2%, indicating improved hydration and enhanced fiber-matrix interaction. During the extended curing phase (14-28 days), stress values either stabilize or peak, with the 1.2% fiber content yielding the optimum strength. This suggests that prolonged curing optimizes hydration and maximizes the reinforcing effects of fibers. Figure 15(a, and c) presents distinct variations in axial stress across different fiber contents. Unreinforced samples (0%) consistently exhibit the lowest axial stress at all curing stages, confirming the absence of mechanical reinforcement. The incorporation of 0.4% fibers leads to a notable increase in axial stress across all curing periods compared to the control specimens (Figure 15). At 14 days, specimens with 0.8% fiber content exhibit a moderate rise in stress (Figure 15a, c), likely due to enhanced fiber-matrix bonding. The highest axial stress is observed in samples containing 1.2% fibers, with peak strength achieved at 28 days. These findings underscore the critical role of optimal fiber reinforcement and extended curing duration in enhancing the mechanical performance of the material. Figures 15 (a, b, and c) further illustrate that axial stress stabilizes or increases with prolonged curing, confirming that extended hydration periods contribute to improved material strength. These findings align with previous research indicating that extended curing times enhance hydration and matrix bonding, thereby improving mechanical performance (Dehui Wang et al. 2015)(Pethrick 2015). Additionally, the presence of fibers, particularly at higher dosages, amplifies this effect, as fibers aid in stress redistribution and reinforcement. The data also demonstrates the varying impact of fiber percentages (e.g., 0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2%) on axial stress. Higher fiber content generally corresponds with increased axial stress, consistent with studies highlighting fiber reinforcement's role in enhancing tensile strength and crack resistance (Qiu et al. 2020). However, the relationship between fiber content and curing duration remains complex, requiring an optimal balance between these factors to maximize performance. In conclusion, the results indicate that curing time significantly influences axial stress, with longer durations and higher fiber content generally leading to superior mechanical performance. These findings align with existing literature, reinforcing the importance of both extended curing and fiber reinforcement in material design and application. 4.1. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted on samples cured for 28 days to gain a deeper understanding of the microstructural mechanisms that contribute to strength enhancement. The high-resolution images revealed a well-formed interfacial transition zone (ITZ) around the basalt fibers, which is crucial for stress transfer and crack resistance (Figure 16 a and b). Hydration products on the fiber surfaces indicate efficient load transfer, and the reduced number of visible cracks in the fiber-reinforced samples suggests enhanced crack resistance. Additionally, the pre-soaking treatment likely facilitated a more uniform hydration process, as evidenced by the denser matrix formations observed in fiber-treated specimens. This combination of effective mechanical anchorage from the fibers and improved hydration processes accounts for the superior unconfined compressive strength (UCS) observed in the fiber-reinforced mixtures. The interaction between the 6 mm fibers and the cement-soil matrix can be effectively assessed after 28 days of curing, which is essential for achieving complete cement hydration and strength development along with a stable matrix. The incorporation of 6 mm fibers significantly influences the mechanical behavior of the composite during this critical period. Throughout the curing phase, the fibers become embedded within the cement-soil matrix, creating an ITZ around each fiber. This zone is vital for stress distribution and load transfer. The SEM images captured after the curing period illustrate the quality of the ITZ, emphasizing the extent of the bonding between fibers and the matrix. Previous studies by Saleem et al. (2020); Y. R. Zhao et al. (2017); Sadrmomtazi, Tahmouresi, and Saradar (2018) support the notion that a well-developed ITZ enhances the mechanical properties of composites by promoting efficient stress transfer. Due to their short length, the 6 mm fibers effectively bridge microcracks, thus enhancing the composite's tensile strength and toughness. As hydration of the cement progresses and the matrix strengthens, any microcracks that develop are bridged by the fibers, preventing crack propagation. This mechanism has been well-documented by S. K. Sharma et al. (2013) and Cartié, Cox, and Fleck (2004) and is essential for improving material ductility and durability. The SEM images provide visual evidence of this crack-bridging effect, illustrating the interaction between fibers and microcracks. Mechanical anchorage also significantly contributes to the performance of fiber-reinforced composites. The physical interlocking between the fibers and the matrix is crucial for maintaining structural stability. Research by Cui et al. (2020); and J. Li et al. (2024)demonstrates that such interlocking enhances resistance to fiber pull-out, which is particularly relevant for shorter fibers, like the 6 mm fibers used in this study. Moreover, chemical bonding between the fiber surfaces and the cementitious matrix further impacts composite performance. Surface treatments or coatings on fibers can improve this bonding, as highlighted by Khandelwal and Rhee (2020). SEM analysis provides insights into the extent of this chemical bonding, showing how effectively the fibers integrate within the matrix. To delve deeper into the microstructural mechanisms contributing to strength enhancement, SEM was utilized on samples subjected to a 28-day curing process. High-resolution imaging highlighted the formation of an ITZ surrounding the basalt fibers, which played a crucial role in facilitating stress transfer and crack resistance (Saleem et al. 2020)(Y. R. Zhao et al. 2017)(C. et al. 2023). SEM image analysis revealed a 12-18% reduction in the void ratio for fiber-reinforced specimens compared to unreinforced cemented clay, primarily attributed to enhanced cement hydration and compaction owing to fiber inclusion (Xue et al. 2019). The basalt fibers were evenly distributed within the matrix, with their surfaces coated in hydration products such as C-S-H and ettringite, which improved fiber-matrix adhesion (S. K. Sharma et al. 2013). The SEM images illustrated that the fibers effectively bridged microcracks, thus delaying their initiation and propagation [86]. In unreinforced samples, crack widths ranged from 0.75 to 1.2 µm, while fiber-reinforced specimens displayed significantly narrower cracks, measuring between 0.3 and 0.6 µm. The ITZ surrounding the basalt fibers was characterized by densely packed hydration layers, strengthening the bond between the fibers and the cementitious matrix . This interface was crucial for enhancing UCS, with stronger adhesion observed at fiber contents ranging from 0.8% to 1.2%. Traces of fiber embedment indicated resistance to fiber pull-out, highlighting mechanical interlocking and improved stress redistribution . SEM observations confirmed that fiber debonding was minimized at optimal fiber concentrations, reinforcing their contribution to retaining post-peak strength. Conclusion This study establishes that incorporating basalt fibers into cement-stabilized clay significantly enhances both unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and ductility. The reinforcing effect of the fibers contributes to crack bridging and improved stress resistance, with the highest mechanical performance observed at an optimal fiber content of 1.2%. Optimal Fiber Content : The findings indicate that 1.2% fiber content yields the greatest improvement in strength and ductility. Beyond this threshold, the benefits tend to stabilize or diminish due to potential fiber agglomeration, which may interfere with efficient stress transfer. Influence of Curing Duration : The role of extended curing, particularly up to 28 days, is critical in facilitating cement hydration and strengthening the bonds between soil particles, cement, and fibers. This prolonged hydration process leads to significant improvements in mechanical stability and load-bearing capacity. Effect of Pre-Soaking : Pre-soaking before UCS testing appears to enhance fiber-matrix interaction and promote more uniform hydration. This process likely contributes to improved mechanical behavior by facilitating better fiber dispersion and increasing resistance to crack initiation and propagation. Transition in Failure Mechanism : A shift from brittle to ductile failure was evident in the stress-strain response of fiber-reinforced samples. This behavior highlights the ability of basalt fibers to improve energy absorption and stress redistribution, thereby enhancing the material's toughness and post-peak load-bearing capacity. Microstructural Evidence : SEM analysis confirms the effectiveness of basalt fibers in enhancing fiber-matrix bonding and reducing microcracking. The presence of hydration products surrounding the fibers suggests improved load transfer mechanisms, which correspond to the observed enhancements in UCS and ductility. Practical Applications : The enhanced mechanical performance of fiber-reinforced cement-stabilized clay underscores its potential for geotechnical applications such as road subgrades, slope stabilization, and embankment construction. These improvements make it a viable material for infrastructure projects in regions with problematic soil conditions. Combined Effects of Fiber Reinforcement and Curing : The findings emphasize the interactive effects of fiber reinforcement, extended curing, and pre-soaking. The synergy between these factors contributes to optimal material performance, highlighting the need to carefully balance fiber dosage and curing conditions in engineering applications. Overall, this study reinforces the viability of basalt fiber reinforcement as a means of improving the strength, durability, and ductility of cement-stabilized clay, offering a practical and effective approach for geotechnical and construction applications. Future Research Directions While this study provides valuable insights, further research is needed to assess the long-term durability of basalt fiber-reinforced soils under varying environmental conditions, including freeze-thaw cycles, moisture fluctuations, and chemical exposure. Investigating the impact of fiber degradation over time and its implications for mechanical performance would also be beneficial. Moreover, a comprehensive life-cycle assessment should be conducted to evaluate the environmental footprint and economic feasibility of large-scale basalt fiber applications. Future studies could also explore the influence of different fiber lengths, orientations, and hybrid fiber combinations to optimize reinforcement efficiency. Additionally, advanced numerical modeling and field-scale experiments should be pursued to validate laboratory findings and facilitate the practical implementation of basalt fiber-reinforced soil stabilization techniques. The findings of this research have significant practical implications for civil engineering and construction industries. Incorporating basalt fibers into soil stabilization strategies can enhance infrastructure durability and resilience, particularly in regions prone to weak or expansive soils. Further investigations into construction methodologies, quality control measures, and performance monitoring in real-world conditions will be essential for advancing the widespread adoption of this technology. Abbreviations UCS (q u ), unconfined compressive strength; SEM, scanning electron microstructure; ITZ, interfacial transition zone. Declarations Acknowledgments: We sincerely appreciate the guidance and support of our advisor, Mr Zhou. We also thank our colleagues at Jiangsu University for their valuable insights. Lastly, we acknowledge the encouragement and support of our family and friends throughout this work Author Contribution: Ichede Popina Ebonghas developed the research concept, designed the experimental framework, carried out laboratory tests, and performed data analysis. She also wrote and revised the manuscript. Liu Ping offered methodological guidance, supervised the research activities, and provided critical feedback on the manuscript. Both authors reviewed and approved the final version of the paper. Funding: Not Applicable Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare no potential conflict of interests. Data Availability: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request Competing interest: The authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this study References Abdulmajeed, Aous A., Timo O. Närhi, Pekka K. Vallittu, and Lippo V. 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Yoo, Doo Yeol, Joo Ha Lee, and Young Soo Yoon. 2013. “Effect of Fiber Content on Mechanical and Fracture Properties of Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites.” Composite Structures 106: 742–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2013.07.033. Zhang, Jun, Christopher K.Y. Leung, and Yuan Gao. 2011. “Simulation of Crack Propagation of Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite under Direct Tension.” Engineering Fracture Mechanics 78 (12): 2439–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2011.06.003. Zhang, Xiaofei, Yuting Liu, Bo Zhang, and Peipei Wei. 2023. “Experimental Study on Basic Mechanical Properties of SiO2 Modified Basalt Fiber Concrete.” Advances in Transdisciplinary Engineering 36: 376–84. https://doi.org/10.3233/ATDE230225. Zhao, Junnan, Zhongling Zong, Hang Cen, and Pai Jiang. 2024. “Analysis of Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Soil Cement Based on Kaolin.” Materials 17 (9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17092153. Zhao, Yan Ru, Lei Wang, Zhen Kun Lei, Xiao Feng Han, and Yong Ming Xing. 2017. “Experimental Study on Dynamic Mechanical Properties of the Basalt Fiber Reinforced Concrete after the Freeze-Thaw Based on the Digital Image Correlation Method.” Construction and Building Materials 147: 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.02.133. Zhou, Changfa, Feng Dai, Yi Liu, Mingdong Wei, and Wenjie Gai. 2024. “Experimental Assessment on the Dynamic Mechanical Characteristics and Cracking Mechanism of Hybrid Basalt-Sisal Fiber Reinforced Concrete.” Journal of Building Engineering 88 (March): 109151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109151. Zhou, Yonghui, Mizi Fan, and Lihui Chen. 2016. “Interface and Bonding Mechanisms of Plant Fibre Composites: An Overview.” Composites Part B: Engineering 101: 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.06.055. Zijl, GPAG Van, and V Slowik. 2017. A Framework for Durability Design with Strain-Hardening Cement-Based Composites (SHCC): State-of-the-Art Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 240-FDS . https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-94-024-1013-6.pdf. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6136079","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":423251601,"identity":"20961701-f03f-4781-8ce9-bdf2b5954e71","order_by":0,"name":"Ichede Popina Ebonghas","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCShpwABEH4BMNnZStDDOAGlhJk4LA1gLMw+IRUgLv3TzsYdfaizkzdmbNz62+bVNno+ZgfHDxxzcWiTnHEs3ljkmYbiz51ixcW7fbcM2ZgZmyZnbcGsxuJFjJi3BJpEAZuT23GYEamFj5sWjxR6s5R9Qy/035r8te27bE9RiIJFjJvmxDWQLjxkzw4/biQS1SNw5libN2CdhuOFMWrFkb8Pt5DZmxma8fuGf3XxM8se3OnmD44c3fvjx57bt/Pbmgx8+4tECApDoAAHGNjDZgF89SMkPOPMPQcWjYBSMglEwAgEAHSVOMTLuIgoAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Jiangsu University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ichede","middleName":"Popina","lastName":"Ebonghas","suffix":""},{"id":423251602,"identity":"922ba3d4-e6bc-4698-854c-f599ffa5e657","order_by":1,"name":"Ping Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jiangsu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ping","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-01 18:08:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6136079/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6136079/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":77767004,"identity":"549ba43e-2b49-4581-891c-86cb36b08bdc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":688540,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaterials; (a) Clay; (b) Cement; (c) Basalt Fiber\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/684d9c0d120e3ac959f9b068.png"},{"id":77767728,"identity":"abcc73bd-f101-4d51-9c63-7f7e024b9701","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147560,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe grading curve for the particle size\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/5c5ac4cc5e4b196100fb38e8.png"},{"id":77767732,"identity":"86afb773-fe26-4489-94f9-0c42fb19eef8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":475191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBasalt Fiber ;( a) Fiber Length; (b) Dispersed Fiber\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/0f5ce17b2eab01ffee6ce668.png"},{"id":77767028,"identity":"d2ecd49c-af0d-4740-b754-2730d7b0d087","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":795825,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLiquid Limit Equipment,(a) Penetrometer Machine, (b) Penetrometer Box\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/e486446544f1d9dce901b891.png"},{"id":77767027,"identity":"fac05a49-351b-4cd5-8951-ce0180b1bd20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":932037,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProctor Equipment, (a) Proctor Machine, (b) Proctor Mold, (c) Test Processing, (d) Sample\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/87fd0ef4403cbfe23e5f583a.png"},{"id":77767729,"identity":"7f170cac-0339-4e8d-a16e-e63fae89b5fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":77509,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompaction Curve\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/1180922cbf135fe9087f7ea4.png"},{"id":77767019,"identity":"27fdbd69-4d2d-47da-9cca-faacaa076649","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":873125,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUCS Equipment, (a) UCS Test Machine, (b) UCS Test Mold, (c) Sample Extraction, (d) Standard Curing Room, (e) Soaking Tank\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/1bdeff774ff7882fe44efe94.png"},{"id":77767039,"identity":"77950803-bf3a-46ec-bad1-162f654135a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:26","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":337146,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM Machine Used In This Study\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/98537df17e135ce9ef872618.png"},{"id":77767013,"identity":"b5cb969d-51da-45bd-9792-5b8d51d98fcc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":420318,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUCS Test Results for 88% Soil-12% Cement; (a) 7 Days; (b) 14 Days; (c) 28 Days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/336533cfda0fc8621ea1d850.png"},{"id":77767015,"identity":"161bbf27-a454-48f8-a46c-d2c2d6866428","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":423620,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUCS Test Results for 92% Soil-8% Cement; (a) 7 Days; (b) 14 Days; (c) 28 Days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/b545c8f83ad6eab0b83d62ef.png"},{"id":77767033,"identity":"b6dd271c-ece4-4408-96b9-2332e67ebdb7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:26","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":349567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUCS Test Results for 96% Soil-4% Cement; (a) 7 Days; (b) 14 Days; (c) 28 Days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/5014b9d521dae665f5c35e1e.png"},{"id":77767022,"identity":"d51eaaa7-3e20-4d5f-9481-d80b4cf23fdf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":324159,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFiber Content; (a) 7 Days; (b) 14 Days ; (c) 28 Days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/749328b73ffe619b1816bbc8.png"},{"id":77767733,"identity":"8d8a1679-b540-445f-bda6-8dab1c689988","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":263599,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph of Fiber Content; (a) 7 Days; (b) 14 Days ;(c) 28 Days\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/e832074350bb86b16032b705.png"},{"id":77767744,"identity":"e655cceb-f805-43f4-b779-5795f076c7c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:20:26","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":340205,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStrength ;( a) Curing Time; (b) Different Fiber Series\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/cebce0d2c01deb3cbf65826b.png"},{"id":77767736,"identity":"39089fac-c70d-4edc-9364-c6218bfb629d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:20:25","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":290894,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCuring Time at Different Cement-Clay Ratio;(a) 96%S-4%C;(b) 92%S-8%C; (c) 88%S-12%C\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/8873f4e65e00eaa7bf6b3629.png"},{"id":77767040,"identity":"5c198e35-ac55-4eff-88ba-d74ec50da152","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-05 10:12:26","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2003066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM Images Basalt Fiber-Cement Clay Matrix\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/6b96322c229e076079421a1e.png"},{"id":78026263,"identity":"8ba4dfc3-93d1-49df-9fac-3bc7205b6208","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-08 06:02:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":11985284,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6136079/v1/f95268c0-6537-47ff-887f-fa53925ed2fc.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effect of Basalt Fiber on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Clay, an Experimental Approach","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eInfrastructure development is a cornerstone of economic and social advancement, playing a critical role in the strategic expansion of modern societies. In the past decade, nations like China have made monumental strides in traditional infrastructure such as transportation and pioneering new forms of construction, reflecting achievements that are both extensive and impactful (Jin and Chen 2019; Campanella \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Shi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). These developments include significant projects like Beijing Daxing Airport and the Shanghai Yangshan Port Automation Terminal, showcasing a commitment to cutting-edge engineering and global infrastructure leadership (Jin and Chen 2019; Mi, Weijian and Liu 2022; Lin and Fu 2024). Despite these advancements, large-scale infrastructure construction often encounters geological and material challenges, particularly when dealing with soil quality. Soil is known to be the smallest natural element existing on the earth's crust and one of the oldest natural mortars used in construction industries at the time (Srivastava and Singh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Přikryl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Schroeder \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Soil is an integral part of any form of structural construction and requires a careful assessment before use. Soil properties also determine the type of structures to be built. Therefore, It is very important to conduct tests on the soils before construction (Lagouin et al. 2021; Christopher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Burmister \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1949\u003c/span\u003e). Previously, soils such as clay, silt, organic soils, etc. were considered weak due to their poor technical qualities and often overlooked as competent building materials (Nzeukou Nzeugang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Edward \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Steiner and Williams \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). This was mainly due to the lack of adequate knowledge and resources to modify the soil quality for safe construction as soft, weak, and unstable soil can lead to settlement, sinkhole problems, and rock fractures. discovery of new and effective ways of stabilizing these soils for construction (Shalchian and Arabani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Petry and Little 2003). Clay soils, are characterized by their fine particles and plasticity Currently, many advances have been made in the engineering sector, which has led to them, being prevalent in many parts of the world and is known for their challenging engineering properties, including high compressibility and low shear strength (Gu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Sakr et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These properties often lead to significant engineering problems such as settlement, sliding, and other forms of structural failure (Xie, Zhou, and Yan 2019). The susceptibility of clay soils to changes in moisture content further exacerbates these issues, as they can swell or shrink dramatically, which can undermine the structural integrity of foundations and earthworks (Nadeem et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, engineering solutions must stabilize clay soils and accommodate or mitigate their variable behaviors. Traditional methods of improving clay soil properties include the addition of cement, lime, or other chemical stabilizers (Danso and Manu 2020; Archibong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These stabilizers work by binding the soil particles together, reducing plasticity, and enhancing load-bearing capacity (Sakr et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Shinde et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, while effective, these chemical methods can significantly alter the natural soil chemistry and potentially lead to adverse environmental impacts, such as increased soil pH or contamination from chemical leaching. Therefore, these methods can be environmentally damaging and unsustainable in the long term. Soil reinforcement is a critical component of geotechnical engineering that enhances the mechanical properties of soils, improving their bearing capacity and stability for various construction applications (Bouziane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This is particularly important in areas with challenging soil compositions, such as expansive clays or loose sandy soils, where traditional construction techniques may not provide long-term stability. Expansive clays can cause significant structural distress due to their volume changes with moisture variations (Sreekanth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), while sandy soils might suffer from liquefaction during seismic activities, posing risks to the stability of buildings and other infrastructure. Techniques such as soil stabilization and reinforcement are crucial for preventing these soil-related failures and ensuring the safety and longevity of infrastructure projects. These methods typically involve introducing materials like geosynthetics, natural fibers, or chemical agents to bind soil particles together or provide a mechanical matrix that helps distribute loads more effectively (Gowthaman, Nakashima, and Kawasaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tanasă et al. 2022; Shalchian and Arabani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). By improving soil strength and deformation characteristics, effective soil reinforcement can mitigate risks such as landslides and foundation settlements (Alamanis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), thereby extending the life of the infrastructure and reducing maintenance needs. This strategic intervention is essential in both new constructions and rehabilitating existing structures, ensuring they meet safety standards and perform reliably throughout their operational lifespan. Basalt fibers, derived from igneous basalt rocks, offer significant advantages over traditional reinforcement materials (Scheinherrov\u0026aacute;, Keppert, and Čern\u0026yacute; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These fibers are extracted from naturally occurring volcanic basalt rock and manufactured through an environmentally friendly process that involves the melting of the rock at about 960 degrees Celsius and then extruding it through small nozzles to produce fine fibers (Chowdhury and Version 2022; Tanjeem Khan et al. 2018). The result is a material that boasts exceptional properties for construction and engineering applications. These fibers are not only strong, with a tensile strength comparable to that of steel, but they are also highly resistant to chemical and thermal degradation, ensuring durability even under harsh environmental conditions (Y. Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This resistance makes basalt fibers particularly suitable for applications where exposure to corrosive elements or high temperatures is a concern, such as in marine or industrial environments (Chowdhury, Pemberton, and Summerscales 2022). Moreover, basalt fibers are inert and non-toxic, offering an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fibers like fiberglass, which require petroleum-based inputs and often involve hazardous chemical processes (Jagadeesh, Rangappa, and Siengchin 2024). The application of basalt fibers in soil reinforcement is relatively new, making this a pioneering area in geotechnical engineering. Their interaction with clay soil systems, in particular, is not yet fully understood, which presents an exciting frontier for research. Preliminary studies suggest that basalt fiber reinforcement can significantly enhance the strength, stiffness, and durability of clay soils, potentially reducing the risk of common issues such as erosion or settlement (Yang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Owino and Hossain 2023). Given their promising properties, comprehensive studies are needed to explore the potential and mechanisms of basalt fibers in soil reinforcement more deeply. Research needs to address how they affect the soil's hydraulic properties and the optimal configurations and concentrations needed for different soil types and conditions. This will help in developing standardized guidelines for their use in soil stabilization projects, paving the way for wider adoption in the field of civil engineering. Such studies are not only essential for advancing our understanding but also for validating and refining the application techniques to maximize the benefits of this innovative material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Problem statement and novelty\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe construction and geotechnical sectors frequently encounter difficulties when working with soft or weak soils due to their inadequate load-bearing capacity and high vulnerability to deformation. Cement stabilization is a commonly employed technique to enhance soil strength; however, it often leads to brittleness, which remains a major drawback (D. X. Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Stavridakis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Bhattacharja, Bhatty, and Todres 2003; Geng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Shooshpasha and Shirvani 2015). Recent developments have shown that incorporating fibers can effectively reduce brittleness and improve the mechanical properties of stabilized soils (Habel and Krebber 2011; Rahman, Siddiqua, and Cherian 2022; Hejazi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Dongxing Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Among various fibers, basalt fibers stand out as a promising option due to their exceptional mechanical properties, eco-friendliness, and resistance to chemical degradation (Monaldo, Nerilli, and Vairo 2019; Yang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ralegaonkar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Jalasutram et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Niu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While previous studies have examined fiber-reinforced soil stabilization, they primarily focus on synthetic fibers or lack detailed mechanical characterization, especially concerning curing time and failure mode transitions(Ghanbari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Song et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This study aims to address these gaps by investigating the impact of basalt fibers on UCS enhancement, residual strength retention, and failure mode transformation in cement-stabilized clay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAim and scope\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study's primary objective is to evaluate basalt fiber reinforcement's effect on the UCS and ductility of cement-stabilized clay, with a particular focus on optimizing fiber content and curing duration. The research encompasses a comprehensive experimental program involving different cement dosages (4%, 8%, and 12%) and basalt fiber contents (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2%). UCS tests are conducted over curing periods of 7, 14, and 28 days to analyze strength evolution. Additionally, SEM analysis is employed to investigate the microstructural interactions within the fiber-matrix system. The findings from this study are expected to provide practical recommendations for the use of basalt fibers in soil stabilization, offering a sustainable approach for geotechnical applications such as road subgrades, embankment reinforcement, and slope stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Test Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1. Test Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.1. Clay Soil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe clay soil used in this study was sourced from Jiangsu University, China, at a depth of approximately 3 meters below the surface. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil were determined under the JTG 3430-2020 (Shijie Wang et al. 2023) standard. A particle size distribution analysis was performed to classify the soil, and key properties, including liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, optimum moisture content, and maximum dry density, were recorded in Figure 1(a), Figure 2 and Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTABLE 1: Clay soil Properties\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"718\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiquid limit Wl/%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlastic limit Wp/%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlasticity index Ip/%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOptimal moisture content \u0026nbsp;w%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum dry density \u0026rho;\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e/(g cm\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.816\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.2. Basalt Fiber (BF) and Cement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe basalt fibers used in this research were procured from Hunan Changsha Ningxiang Building Materials Co., Ltd shown in Figure 1(c) and 3. These fibers had an average length of 6 mm and were characterized by high tensile strength, durability, and resistance to chemical and thermal degradation Table 2. The cement utilized in the stabilization process was PSA32.5 slag Portland cement, a commonly used binder for soil improvement Figure 1(b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTABLE 2: Basalt fibers\u0026apos; physical properties\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProperties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDensity(g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElastic modulus (GPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTensile strength (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLength (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFilament diameter/\u0026micro;m\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTensile strength under heat treatment (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerformance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.63-2.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91~110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3000~4800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7~15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u0026deg;c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u0026deg;c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u0026deg;c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 39px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 71px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2. Test Methods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.1. Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index Tests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe liquid limit and plasticity index of the cement-soil were determined using the \u003cstrong\u003eCone Penetration Method\u003c/strong\u003e, following \u003cstrong\u003eBS 1377\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Spagnoli and Shimobe 2020)\u003c/strong\u003e. A standardized cone penetrometer was used to measure the penetration depth of a metal cone under a given load. The liquid limit was identified as the moisture content at which the cement-soil sample reached a penetration depth of \u003cstrong\u003e20 mm\u003c/strong\u003e. The plastic limit was obtained by rolling soil threads until they crumbled at a specific diameter. The\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eplasticity index\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ewas then calculated as the difference between the liquid and plastic limits. These results provide critical information for classifying the soil and predicting its behavior under different moisture conditions. The test outcomes are summarized in Figure 4 and \u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTABLE 3: Results of Liquid limit test\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"375\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCement-Soil%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiquid\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003elimit W\u003csub\u003el\u003c/sub\u003e/%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlastic limit\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eW\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e/%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlasticity index I\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8-92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12-88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 92px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.2. Compaction Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cstrong\u003eProctor test\u003c/strong\u003e was performed to determine the \u003cstrong\u003eoptimal moisture content\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003emaximum dry density\u003c/strong\u003e of the clay soil, following \u003cstrong\u003eASTM D698\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(American Society for Testing and Materials 2021)\u003c/strong\u003e (Standard Proctor) procedures. Soil samples were compacted in a cylindrical mold using a standard rammer, with a fixed number of blows per layer. The procedure was repeated for different moisture contents, and the dry density of each sample was calculated. The results were plotted to obtain a \u003cstrong\u003ecompaction curve\u003c/strong\u003e, from which the \u003cstrong\u003eoptimum moisture content (OMC)\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003emaximum dry density (MDD)\u003c/strong\u003e were derived. These parameters are essential for assessing soil workability and stability in construction applications. The equipment and the compaction curve are illustrated in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 5 and 6\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.1. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test was performed in accordance with the ASTM D2166 (ASTM 2006) standard, a widely recognized method for evaluating the compressive behavior of cohesive soils. This test provides crucial data regarding the load-bearing capacity, stress-strain response, and failure characteristics of stabilized soil, making it particularly valuable for assessing the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement and cement treatment in improving soil strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecimen Preparation and Curing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCylindrical specimens were prepared with a height-to-diameter ratio of 2:1, ensuring consistent geometry. The soil-cement mixtures were compacted at their optimum moisture content (OMC) to achieve uniform density. The specimens underwent curing for 7, 14, and 28 days under controlled conditions to facilitate cement hydration and fiber-matrix interaction. Additionally, specimens were subjected to a 1-day soaking period before testing, as it was found to further optimize the interactions between the soil, cement, and fiber, contributing to improved material properties. The curing process was crucial for enhancing the mechanical properties of the material.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTesting Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUpon completion of the designated curing period and day of soaking, the specimens were placed in the UCS testing apparatus and subjected to axial compression at a constant strain rate until failure. The applied load and corresponding axial deformation were continuously monitored to generate stress-strain curves, which were then analyzed to evaluate the mechanical behavior and failure modes of the reinforced soil samples. The setup and equipment used for the testing are shown in Figure 7.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUCS Calculation Process\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cstrong\u003eunconfined compressive strength (UCS)\u003c/strong\u003e was determined using the equation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUCS (q\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003e) =P\u003csub\u003emax\u003c/sub\u003e/A \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eP\u003csub\u003emax\u003c/sub\u003e represents the \u003cstrong\u003emaximum applied axial load\u003c/strong\u003e before specimen failure (in Newton\u0026rsquo;s, N),\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA denotes the \u003cstrong\u003einitial cross-sectional area\u003c/strong\u003e of the specimen (in square millimeters, mm\u0026sup2;), computed as:\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;A=\u0026pi;D\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/4 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;(2)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere D is the \u003cstrong\u003ediameter of the cylindrical sample\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe UCS values were recorded for all test specimens, and \u003cstrong\u003ecomparative analyses\u003c/strong\u003e were conducted to evaluate the effects of \u003cstrong\u003evarying fiber and cement contents\u003c/strong\u003e on compressive strength. Additionally, stress-strain relationships were examined to assess the \u003cstrong\u003eductility, toughness, and failure mechanisms\u003c/strong\u003e of the stabilized soil under compressive loading.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was structured to examine the impact of basalt fibers, each with a uniform length of 6mm, on the mechanical behavior of clayey soil across a range of fiber concentrations. A total of samples were prepared and divided into two main testing groups summarized in Table 4:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGroup 1: Unconfined Compression Tests (UCS) on Cement-treated soil\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese tests, conducted at 7, 14, and 28 days, measured the compressive strength of Cement-treated soil samples to provide control data for comparison with fiber-reinforced samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGroup 2: Unconfined Compression Tests (UCS) on Cement-fiber-treated soil\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConducted under the same periods as cement-treated soil samples, these tests evaluated how the addition of basalt fibers affected the soil\u0026apos;s compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTABLE 4: Test Procedure\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTests.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixture\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 154px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eContent (% by weight)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLength of basalt Fiber(mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCuring-days\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasalt Fiber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"12\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnconfined compressive strength\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96%S-4%C-0%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92%S-8%C-0%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88%S-12%C-0%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96%S-4%C-0.4%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92%S-8%C-0.4%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88%S-12%C-0.4%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96%S-4%C-0.8%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92%S-8%C-0.8%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88%S-12%C-0.8%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96%S-4%C-1.2%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92%S-8%C-1.2%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88%S-12%C-1.2%F\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.4. Scanning Electron Microscope SEM\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image provides a highly detailed, grayscale visualization of a sample\u0026rsquo;s surface, revealing its microscopic features with remarkable clarity (Tehranipoor, Nalla Anandakumar, and Farahmandi 2023). Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis was performed on specimens cured for 28 days to examine the microstructural characteristics of the cement-stabilized clay and its interaction with basalt fibers. The primary objective was to investigate the fiber-matrix bonding, crack propagation, and interfacial transition zone (ITZ), which are crucial in strength development and durability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSmall fragments of the tested specimens were carefully extracted and coated with a thin layer of conductive material to prevent electron charging during imaging. The samples were then placed in an SEM chamber, where a focused electron beam scanned the surface to generate high-resolution images of the fiber-matrix interface. These images provided insights into the distribution of cement hydration products, fiber bridging mechanisms, and structural integrity of the composite material. The SEM machine used for this study is shown in Figure 8.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stress-strain responses of cement-stabilized clay specimens reinforced with varying basalt fiber contents (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2%) were analyzed over curing periods of 7, 14, and 28 days. The influence of fiber addition, cement content, and curing duration on the mechanical behavior of the composite was systematically assessed. Furthermore, the samples were subjected to a one-day soaking period before UCS testing, which likely influenced the observed strength characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mixtures consist of 88% soil (S) and 12% cement (C), 92% soil (S) and 8% cement (C), and 96% soil (S) and 4% cement (C). The control mixtures (88% Soil-12% Cement -0% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement -0% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-0% Fiber) display a brittle failure pattern, marked by a sharp peak in axial stress followed by a rapid decline, indicating low ductility shown in Figures 9, 10 and 11. This observation is consistent with \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eR. and G. (2001)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e, who noted that unreinforced soil-cement mixtures often fail abruptly due to their limited tensile strength. At 28 days, the control mixtures show a slight increase in peak stress compared to earlier curing periods, reflecting the ongoing hydration of cement, as highlighted by \u0026nbsp;L. Wang et al. (2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe addition of fiber significantly alters the stress-strain response. In Figures 9, 10, and 11, fiber content increases, the curves reveal higher peak stresses and more gradual post-peak softening, indicating improved ductility. For instance, the 88% Soil-12% Cement-0.4% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement-0.4% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-0.4% Fiber mixtures show a moderate rise in peak stress and strain at failure compared to the control, as fibers bridge micro cracks and delay failure. This aligns with findings from J. Zhao et al. (2024), who demonstrated that fibers enhance soil-cement mixtures\u0026apos; energy absorption capacity and toughness. The 88% Soil-12% Cement-0.8% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement-0.8% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-0.8% Fiber mixtures achieve a notable increase in both strength and strain at failure, with a flatter post-peak curve, indicating enhanced toughness. This is consistent with V. Sharma, Vinayak, and Marwaha (2015) , who found that fiber reinforcement improves the energy absorption capacity of soil-cement composites. The 88% Soil-12% Cement-1.2% Fiber, 92% Soil-8% Cement-1.2% Fiber, and 96% Soil-4% Cement-1.2% Fiber mixtures exhibit the highest peak stress and strain at failure, suggesting that fiber content up to 1.2% optimizes strength and ductility. However, additional fiber may lead to diminishing returns beyond this threshold, as observed by Ahmad et al. (2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 28-day curves generally display higher peak stresses and improved ductility compared to the 7- and 14-day curves, reflecting the continued hydration of cement and the development of stronger bonds between soil particles and fibers. This is consistent with Shengnian Wang et al. (2021), who reported that longer curing periods enhance the mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced soil-cement mixtures. The results suggest that fiber reinforcement effectively improves the strength and ductility of soil-cement mixtures, making them more suitable for applications such as road subgrades, slope stabilization, and embankments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study, with a compressive strength of approximately 6 MPa, position it among the highest values reported, particularly following the work of Chen et al. (2024), who explored the role of basalt fiber (BF) in improving the strength of cement-stabilized expansive soil. Their research focused on the effect of incorporating 0-1% BF in soil stabilized with 6% cement, revealing a substantial improvement in unconfined compressive strength (UCS) when 0.4% Basalt Fiber was added. The study also highlighted the enhanced performance under both normal conditions and after exposure to multiple dry-wet cycles, demonstrating Basalt Fiber is potential to increase soil stability and durability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study surpasses several others in terms of compressive strength, such as those Pavithra and Moorthy (2021), \u0026nbsp;Ghanbari et al. (2022) , and X. Zhang et al. (2023), whose results ranged approximatively from 4 to 8 MPa. Numerous studies have examined the efficacy of basalt fiber in improving UCS under different conditions and material compositions, including its application in peat-soil reinforcement and nano-SiO2 concrete mixtures. These studies consistently show that basalt fiber enhances mechanical properties, durability, and cracking resistance, underscoring its versatility as a reinforcing agent in both geotechnical and structural engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the findings of this study reveal a notable enhancement in compressive strength, surpassing much of the existing research in the field. The results underscore the effectiveness of the chosen methodology in achieving higher compressive strength, demonstrating its potential for use in applications that require improved material durability. This strong performance serves as a testament to the innovative approach taken, laying a solid foundation for future research and development and positioning this study as a significant contribution to advancing the field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the results emphasize the potential of basalt fiber reinforcement in stabilizing clay soils for geotechnical applications. The optimal fiber content of 1.2% strikes a balance between improving strength and maintaining workability, while prolonged curing contributes to enhanced long-term durability. Furthermore, the impact of pre-soaking suggests that moisture conditioning may play a crucial role in further optimizing the interactions between soil, cement, and fiber.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.1 Influence of Basalt Fiber Content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe UCS curves for various cement-clay ratios (88% Soil-12% Cement, 92% Soil-8% Cement, and 96% Soil-4% Cement) illustrate the transition from brittle failure in unreinforced samples to a more ductile response when fibers are incorporated. Control samples without fibers exhibited a distinct peak stress followed by a rapid decline, characteristic of brittle failure. The strength improvement in these specimens primarily resulted from cement hydration, which continued over 28 days.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith fiber reinforcement, the stress-strain curves demonstrated a gradual decline after reaching peak stress, indicating enhanced ductility and energy absorption. At 0.4% fiber content, a moderate increase in peak stress was observed, highlighting the role of fibers in crack bridging. A further increase in stress at failure was recorded at 0.8%, suggesting improved load resistance and deformation capacity. The highest strength improvement occurred at 1.2% fiber addition, beyond which diminishing returns could arise due to fiber clustering, as reported in previous research Ahmad et al. (2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA closer analysis of the stress-strain curves reveals that peak stress values increased with fiber content, with the maximum peak observed for the 1.2% fiber-reinforced mix. Control specimens (0% fiber) displayed sharp peak stress values followed by sudden failure, indicative of brittle behavior. Conversely, fiber-reinforced samples exhibited a more progressive post-peak softening, reflecting improved ductility. The stress-strain behavior suggests that fiber inclusion promotes a more uniform stress distribution, reducing the likelihood of sudden failure and enhancing load-bearing capacity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe influence of pre-soaking before testing was particularly evident in fiber-reinforced samples, as moisture redistribution may have impacted fiber-matrix interactions. Pre-saturation likely enhanced the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement at higher dosages, facilitating improved stress transfer and delaying crack propagation. These findings emphasize the importance of optimizing fiber content to achieve a balance between strength and workability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigures 12 and 13 illustrate the effect of fiber content on compressive strength and stress across different curing durations and densities. The results confirm that fiber incorporation significantly improves the material\u0026apos;s mechanical properties. As shown in these figures, compressive strength (q\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003e) (in MPa) increases with fiber addition, particularly at 1.20% content. This pattern is consistent across curing durations of 7, 14, and 28 days. Notably, at 28 days, mechanical performance is significantly enhanced, underscoring the combined benefits of prolonged curing and fiber reinforcement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt 7 days (Figures 12a and 13a), stress values remain relatively low and exhibit irregular trends, especially for 96% and 92% hydration. Early curing appears insufficient for strong fiber-matrix bonding, and incomplete hydration further limits strength development. These results suggest that both time and hydration are crucial for achieving effective strength improvement at this stage. By 14 days (Figures 12b and 13b), stress values increase, and trends become more consistent. Higher fiber content contributes significantly to strength, with 88% hydration yielding the best results. The extended curing period strengthens fiber-matrix interaction, leading to better load distribution and enhanced material performance. At 28 days (Figures 13c and 14c), stress reaches its peak levels, with consistent trends across all hydration levels. The prolonged curing duration ensures optimal fiber-matrix bonding, with 1.2% fiber content and (92%, 88%) hydration demonstrating superior mechanical performance. These findings highlight the essential role of curing time and hydration in maximizing material strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study further indicates that fiber content exerts a more significant effect in lower-density matrices (e.g., 88%). In such cases, fibers likely enhance stress transfer and mitigate micro-crack propagation by serving as structural bridges, resulting in greater strength improvements compared to higher-density materials. This observation aligns with previous research by Y. Zhou, Fan, and Chen (2016); Ding, Guo, and Chen (2019); and Mohit and Arul Mozhi Selvan (2018), which suggested that less dense matrices facilitate better fiber dispersion and bonding, thereby maximizing the reinforcing potential of fibers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the findings demonstrate that mechanical properties peak at 1.20% fiber content, supporting the conclusions of Wei, Teng, and Khayat (2024), who identified an optimal fiber range of 1.0\u0026ndash;1.5% for maximizing strength without compromising workability. The observed trend of increasing strength up to this optimal fiber level is consistent with the findings of C. Zhou et al. (2024); Yoo, Lee, and Yoon (2013); J. Zhang, Leung, and Gao (2011), who reported enhanced mechanical behavior due to improved Crack bridging and stress distribution, improve at higher fiber contents. However, exceeding this range may lead to fiber clustering, which could reduce performance; though such effects were not observed in the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the stress trends illustrated in the figures align with Abdulmajeed et al. (2011), who found that fiber-reinforced composites demonstrate superior mechanical performance in lower-density materials. The results also support...\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ethe observations of Zijl and Slowik (2017), who demonstrated that fibers enhance material ductility and reduce crack propagation, particularly in long-cured systems, as evidenced by the 28-day findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study underscores the critical role of fiber reinforcement in enhancing the mechanical properties of cementitious materials, particularly at the optimal fiber content of 1.20%. The findings align with existing literature, reaffirming the advantages of fiber inclusion in improving compressive strength and stress distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.2 Effect of Curing Duration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe curing period plays a crucial role in determining the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the examined mixtures. At 7 days, the UCS values remained relatively low, particularly in the control samples, due to incomplete cement hydration. While fiber inclusion provided a minor advantage at this early stage, its reinforcing effects became more pronounced as the curing period progressed to 14 and 28 days (Figure 14a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 14b, highlight a considerable increase in UCS (q\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003e) was observed in fiber-reinforced specimens series, with the 0.4% and 1.2% fiber mixture demonstrating the highest strength enhancement. This upward trend continued at 28 days, where fiber-reinforced samples exhibited superior post-peak behavior, reinforcing the synergistic interaction between fiber reinforcement and prolonged hydration Figure 15. These findings align with those of Chen et al. (2024), who reported that extended curing facilitates bond development and mechanical stability in fiber-reinforced cementitious materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA detailed examination of the UCS curves over different curing durations reveals that at 7 days, peak stress values remained relatively low, reflecting incomplete cement hydration. By 14 days, a notable increase in peak stress was evident, particularly in fiber-reinforced specimens. At 28 days, the stress-curing time curves exhibited the highest peak stress values, along with extended strain hardening, indicative of enhanced fiber-matrix interaction and improved crack-bridging capabilities (Figure 15).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe combination of fiber reinforcement and extended curing also influenced the failure mechanisms of the material. While control samples exhibited abrupt failures, fiber-reinforced specimens demonstrated strain-hardening characteristics, suggesting improved load redistribution. This underscores the long-term benefits of fiber incorporation in enhancing both the strength and durability of the composite material.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigures 14, 15, and 16 highlight the effect of curing time on axial stress and fiber content within the material, a crucial aspect in construction and material science. Curing time significantly influences the mechanical properties of materials, particularly composites or fiber-reinforced cementitious systems. The data indicates that axial stress varies with different curing durations such as 14 and 28 days and is further modulated by fiber content.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigures 14 (a) and (b) illustrate the relationship between curing duration, fiber content, and axial stress. In the early curing phase (0\u0026ndash;7 days), axial stress remains relatively low across all fiber contents, likely due to incomplete hydration and weak fiber-matrix bonding. As curing progresses (7-14 days), axial stress increases significantly, particularly in specimens with fiber contents of 0.8% and 1.2%, indicating improved hydration and enhanced fiber-matrix interaction. During the extended curing phase (14-28 days), stress values either stabilize or peak, with the 1.2% fiber content yielding the optimum strength. This suggests that prolonged curing optimizes hydration and maximizes the reinforcing effects of fibers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 15(a, and c) presents distinct variations in axial stress across different fiber contents. Unreinforced samples (0%) consistently exhibit the lowest axial stress at all curing stages, confirming the absence of mechanical reinforcement. The incorporation of 0.4% fibers leads to a notable increase in axial stress across all curing periods compared to the control specimens (Figure 15). At 14 days, specimens with 0.8% fiber content exhibit a moderate rise in stress (Figure 15a, c), likely due to enhanced fiber-matrix bonding. The highest axial stress is observed in samples containing 1.2% fibers, with peak strength achieved at 28 days. These findings underscore the critical role of optimal fiber reinforcement and extended curing duration in enhancing the mechanical performance of the material.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigures 15 (a, b, and c) further illustrate that axial stress stabilizes or increases with prolonged curing, confirming that extended hydration periods contribute to improved material strength. These findings align with previous research indicating that extended curing times enhance hydration and matrix bonding, thereby improving mechanical performance (Dehui Wang et al. 2015)(Pethrick 2015). Additionally, the presence of fibers, particularly at higher dosages, amplifies this effect, as fibers aid in stress redistribution and reinforcement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data also demonstrates the varying impact of fiber percentages (e.g., 0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2%) on axial stress. Higher fiber content generally corresponds with increased axial stress, consistent with studies highlighting fiber reinforcement\u0026apos;s role in enhancing tensile strength and crack resistance (Qiu et al. 2020). However, the relationship between fiber content and curing duration remains complex, requiring an optimal balance between these factors to maximize performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the results indicate that curing time significantly influences axial stress, with longer durations and higher fiber content generally leading to superior mechanical performance. These findings align with existing literature, reinforcing the importance of both extended curing and fiber reinforcement in material design and application.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted on samples cured for 28 days to gain a deeper understanding of the microstructural mechanisms that contribute to strength enhancement. The high-resolution images revealed a well-formed interfacial transition zone (ITZ) around the basalt fibers, which is crucial for stress transfer and crack resistance (Figure 16 a and b). Hydration products on the fiber surfaces indicate efficient load transfer, and the reduced number of visible cracks in the fiber-reinforced samples suggests enhanced crack resistance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the pre-soaking treatment likely facilitated a more uniform hydration process, as evidenced by the denser matrix formations observed in fiber-treated specimens. This combination of effective mechanical anchorage from the fibers and improved hydration processes accounts for the superior unconfined compressive strength (UCS) observed in the fiber-reinforced mixtures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe interaction between the 6 mm fibers and the cement-soil matrix can be effectively assessed after 28 days of curing, which is essential for achieving complete cement hydration and strength development along with a stable matrix. The incorporation of 6 mm fibers significantly influences the mechanical behavior of the composite during this critical period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout the curing phase, the fibers become embedded within the cement-soil matrix, creating an ITZ around each fiber. This zone is vital for stress distribution and load transfer. The SEM images captured after the curing period illustrate the quality of the ITZ, emphasizing the extent of the bonding between fibers and the matrix. Previous studies by Saleem et al. (2020); Y. R. Zhao et al. (2017); Sadrmomtazi, Tahmouresi, and Saradar (2018) support the notion that a well-developed ITZ enhances the mechanical properties of composites by promoting efficient stress transfer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDue to their short length, the 6 mm fibers effectively bridge microcracks, thus enhancing the composite\u0026apos;s tensile strength and toughness. As hydration of the cement progresses and the matrix strengthens, any microcracks that develop are bridged by the fibers, preventing crack propagation. This mechanism has been well-documented by S. K. Sharma et al. (2013) and Carti\u0026eacute;, Cox, and Fleck (2004) and is essential for improving material ductility and durability. The SEM images provide visual evidence of this crack-bridging effect, illustrating the interaction between fibers and microcracks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMechanical anchorage also significantly contributes to the performance of fiber-reinforced composites. The physical interlocking between the fibers and the matrix is crucial for maintaining structural stability. Research by Cui et al. (2020); and J. Li et al. (2024)demonstrates that such interlocking enhances resistance to fiber pull-out, which is particularly relevant for shorter fibers, like the 6 mm fibers used in this study. Moreover, chemical bonding between the fiber surfaces and the cementitious matrix further impacts composite performance. Surface treatments or coatings on fibers can improve this bonding, as highlighted by Khandelwal and Rhee (2020). SEM analysis provides insights into the extent of this chemical bonding, showing how effectively the fibers integrate within the matrix.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo delve deeper into the microstructural mechanisms contributing to strength enhancement, SEM was utilized on samples subjected to a 28-day curing process. High-resolution imaging highlighted the formation of an ITZ surrounding the basalt fibers, which played a crucial role in facilitating stress transfer and crack resistance \u0026nbsp;(Saleem et al. 2020)(Y. R. Zhao et al. 2017)(C. et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM image analysis revealed a 12-18% reduction in the void ratio for fiber-reinforced specimens compared to unreinforced cemented clay, primarily attributed to enhanced cement hydration and compaction owing to fiber inclusion (Xue et al. 2019). The basalt fibers were evenly distributed within the matrix, with their surfaces coated in hydration products such as C-S-H and ettringite, which improved fiber-matrix adhesion (S. K. Sharma et al. 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe SEM images illustrated that the fibers effectively bridged microcracks, thus delaying their initiation and propagation [86]. In unreinforced samples, crack widths ranged from 0.75 to 1.2 \u0026micro;m, while fiber-reinforced specimens displayed significantly narrower cracks, measuring between 0.3 and 0.6 \u0026micro;m. The ITZ surrounding the basalt fibers was characterized by densely packed hydration layers, strengthening the bond between the fibers and the cementitious matrix . This interface was crucial for enhancing UCS, with stronger adhesion observed at fiber contents ranging from 0.8% to 1.2%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraces of fiber embedment indicated resistance to fiber pull-out, highlighting mechanical interlocking and improved stress redistribution . SEM observations confirmed that fiber debonding was minimized at optimal fiber concentrations, reinforcing their contribution to retaining post-peak strength.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study establishes that incorporating basalt fibers into cement-stabilized clay significantly enhances both unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and ductility. The reinforcing effect of the fibers contributes to crack bridging and improved stress resistance, with the highest mechanical performance observed at an optimal fiber content of 1.2%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eOptimal Fiber Content\u003c/b\u003e: The findings indicate that 1.2% fiber content yields the greatest improvement in strength and ductility. Beyond this threshold, the benefits tend to stabilize or diminish due to potential fiber agglomeration, which may interfere with efficient stress transfer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInfluence of Curing Duration\u003c/b\u003e: The role of extended curing, particularly up to 28 days, is critical in facilitating cement hydration and strengthening the bonds between soil particles, cement, and fibers. This prolonged hydration process leads to significant improvements in mechanical stability and load-bearing capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEffect of Pre-Soaking\u003c/b\u003e: Pre-soaking before UCS testing appears to enhance fiber-matrix interaction and promote more uniform hydration. This process likely contributes to improved mechanical behavior by facilitating better fiber dispersion and increasing resistance to crack initiation and propagation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTransition in Failure Mechanism\u003c/b\u003e: A shift from brittle to ductile failure was evident in the stress-strain response of fiber-reinforced samples. This behavior highlights the ability of basalt fibers to improve energy absorption and stress redistribution, thereby enhancing the material's toughness and post-peak load-bearing capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMicrostructural Evidence\u003c/b\u003e: SEM analysis confirms the effectiveness of basalt fibers in enhancing fiber-matrix bonding and reducing microcracking. The presence of hydration products surrounding the fibers suggests improved load transfer mechanisms, which correspond to the observed enhancements in UCS and ductility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePractical Applications\u003c/b\u003e: The enhanced mechanical performance of fiber-reinforced cement-stabilized clay underscores its potential for geotechnical applications such as road subgrades, slope stabilization, and embankment construction. These improvements make it a viable material for infrastructure projects in regions with problematic soil conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCombined Effects of Fiber Reinforcement and Curing\u003c/b\u003e: The findings emphasize the interactive effects of fiber reinforcement, extended curing, and pre-soaking. The synergy between these factors contributes to optimal material performance, highlighting the need to carefully balance fiber dosage and curing conditions in engineering applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, this study reinforces the viability of basalt fiber reinforcement as a means of improving the strength, durability, and ductility of cement-stabilized clay, offering a practical and effective approach for geotechnical and construction applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Future Research Directions","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhile this study provides valuable insights, further research is needed to assess the long-term durability of basalt fiber-reinforced soils under varying environmental conditions, including freeze-thaw cycles, moisture fluctuations, and chemical exposure. Investigating the impact of fiber degradation over time and its implications for mechanical performance would also be beneficial. Moreover, a comprehensive life-cycle assessment should be conducted to evaluate the environmental footprint and economic feasibility of large-scale basalt fiber applications. Future studies could also explore the influence of different fiber lengths, orientations, and hybrid fiber combinations to optimize reinforcement efficiency. Additionally, advanced numerical modeling and field-scale experiments should be pursued to validate laboratory findings and facilitate the practical implementation of basalt fiber-reinforced soil stabilization techniques.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this research have significant practical implications for civil engineering and construction industries. Incorporating basalt fibers into soil stabilization strategies can enhance infrastructure durability and resilience, particularly in regions prone to weak or expansive soils. Further investigations into construction methodologies, quality control measures, and performance monitoring in real-world conditions will be essential for advancing the widespread adoption of this technology.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eUCS (q\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003e), unconfined compressive strength; SEM, scanning electron microstructure; ITZ, interfacial transition zone.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely appreciate the guidance and support of our advisor, Mr Zhou. We also thank our colleagues at Jiangsu University for their valuable insights. Lastly, we acknowledge the encouragement and support of our family and friends throughout this work\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIchede Popina Ebonghas\u003c/strong\u003e developed the research concept, designed the experimental framework, carried out laboratory tests, and performed data analysis. She also wrote and revised the manuscript. \u003cstrong\u003eLiu Ping\u003c/strong\u003e offered methodological guidance, supervised the research activities, and provided critical feedback on the manuscript. Both authors reviewed and approved the final version of the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no potential conflict of interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interest:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this study\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbdulmajeed, Aous A., Timo O. N\u0026auml;rhi, Pekka K. Vallittu, and Lippo V. 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A series of laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of fiber content, cement dosage, and curing duration on mechanical performance. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis examined the microstructural interactions within the fiber-matrix system, particularly focusing on crack resistance and interfacial bonding. The results indicate that incorporating 6 mm basalt fibers significantly improves UCS and ductility, with optimal performance observed at a fiber content of 1.2%. Extended curing periods further enhance strength by promoting cement hydration and fiber-matrix adhesion. SEM imaging confirmed reduced crack propagation and improved durability. These findings suggest that basalt fiber reinforcement is a promising method for strengthening cement-stabilized clay, making it suitable for applications such as road subgrades, slope stabilization, and embankment reinforcement.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effect of Basalt Fiber on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Clay, an Experimental Approach","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-05 10:12:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6136079/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f1f1e395-858f-4be0-b23f-45ffb42c3c3a","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-08T05:38:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-05 10:12:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6136079","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6136079","identity":"rs-6136079","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}