Developing Locally Tailored Fertilizer Recommmendations for Inorganic, Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management of Wheat in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Developing Locally Tailored Fertilizer Recommmendations for Inorganic, Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management of Wheat in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Developing Locally Tailored Fertilizer Recommmendations for Inorganic, Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management of Wheat in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia Dugassa Negash, Assefa Abegaz, J.U Smith This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7885404/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Absence of locally tailored fertilizer recommendations is one of the critical challenges for low crop productivity in the Highlands of Ethiopia. This study aimed to identify the optimum rates of fertilizer applications for wheat production. The national blanket recommendation rates for nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the form of diammonium phosphate and urea was taken as the benchmark for the optimum rate determination test. Treatments with organic (bioslurry and bioslurry compost), inorganic fertilizer (diammonium phosphate and urea), and integrated organic and inorganic (bioslurry or bioslurry compost) were compared. The results show that yields of wheat increase linearly with increasing application rates of N and P for all treatments, with integrated application of bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizers outperforming all other treatments. The variations in yield responses both across fertilizer types and rates were found to be significant (P < 0.001). Therefore, integrated application of organic and inorganic fertilizers should be encouraged for better agronomic performance. This study indicated that the blanket recommendation rate was below the optimum level for wheat production at the trial site. Further experimentation is required to determine the optimum application rates for different fertilizer types in the different soil types found across the agroecological zones of Ethiopia. Bioslurry compost Blanket recommendation rate Inorganic fertilizer Total above-ground biomass Yield response Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction In Ethiopia, there has been low and stagnant rate of growth in grain yields averaging less than 2 tons per hectare ( 1 ). Though Ethiopia possesses one of the most considerable potential for wheat production among Sub-Saharan countries, the actual production amount has remained very low ( 2 ). The acreage wheat yield in Ethiopian Highlands is reportedly far below both the global and Sub-Saharan averages ( 2 ). The mean per hectare wheat yield from smallholder farm has remained below 2.7 tons compared to more than 5 tons at experimental stations ( 3 ). This wide yield gap implies that there is high potential for yield increment by optimizing fertilizer rate and applying proper farm management. The remarkably low yield response, particularly in heavily cultivated highland areas of Ethiopia, is primarily ascribed to depletion of nutrients in the soil and below optimal replenishment through fertilizer application by the smallholder farmers ( 4 , 5 ). As reported by Yokamo et al. ( 6 ), soil nutrient depletion and insufficient fertilizer input are the two most serious constraints for the prevailing low and declining wheat productivity. In the Ethiopian Highlands, inorganic fertilizer application rate is among the lowest compared to other developing countries and even compared to that of Sub-Saharan Africa ( 6 ). The other constraining factor of wheat productivity improvement is the decline in nutrient use efficiency i.e. slower increase in crop yield relative to increase in fertilizer amount applied to farmland. Although there has been 500% increase in the application of chemical fertilizers as of the third quarter of 20th century, cereal crop yields have only risen by 10% ( 7 ). This slow increase in crop yield per area despite fast rate of increase in the amount of inorganic fertilizer implies the need for reconsidering and revising the current fertilizer application rate. However, there has been an absence of locally tailored fertilizer recommendations for wheat production in the Ethiopian Highlands ( 8 ). The only guidance for the amount of fertilizer to apply in Ethiopia has been the nationwide blanket recommendation rate of 64kg per hectare N and 46 kg per hectare P ( 9 ). This recommendation obviously does not consider crop type, soil nutrient stocks or differences in local agroecologies ( 10 ). The studies by ( 11 ) and ( 3 ) revealed that fertilizer optimization for wheat production requires strict consideration of soil nature and type of agroecology implying the need for capitalizing on site-specific fertilizer recommendation. This suggests the necessity for continual revision in fertilizer application rates so as to make appropriate adjustments to the local conditions ( 10 ). This is because both insufficient utilization and overuse of fertilizer can result in reduced profitability and degradation of soil health ( 12 ). Thus, this study spearheaded at identifying optimal application amounts for various fertilizer types to augment wheat yield in the Central Ethiopian Highlands. This research is also intended to provide insights that will contribute to increased yields while minimizing nutrient waste and environmental damage. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Location of the Experimental Sites Experimental plots for the on-farm trials were established in Walmara and Ada'a Districts, which are respectively situated to the west and southeast of Addis Ababa in Shawan Plateau of the Ethiopian Highlands. Walmara is positioned to the west of the Great East African Rift Valley, with geographical coordinates ranging from 8 0 52'45'' to 9 0 15'30'' N latitude and 38 0 25'24'' to 38 0 42'45'' E longitude. The Kumbursa wheat trial is found in Ada'a District which is also found in Shawan Plateau, along the Express Highway to Adama. In terms of absolute location, Ada'a District extends from 8 0 40'00'' to 8 0 42'30'' N latitude and 39 0 00'00'' to 39 0 02'30'' E longitude. The Town named Holata, which is situated at 35 kilometers from Addis Ababa, serves as administrative centre of Walmara District while Bishoftu, which is located at 47 kilometers from Addis Ababa, is the capital and the administrative center of Ada'a District. Doliyo Village field trial was set in Ganda Nano Genete (Ganda is the smallest administrative unit in Oromia National Regional State of Ethiopia) of Walmara District, while the other field trial was located in Kumbursa Village of Ganda Ude in Ada'a District (Fig. 1 ). Figure 1 Here The relief of Walmara District, where the Doliyo on-farm trial site is located is characterized by flat to undulating landscape with long history of smallholder mixed farming system. The altitude of Walmara District ranges from 2060 m above sea level (a.s.l.) to 3380 m above sea level (a.s.l.); and about 41% of the District is characterized by a cool temperate-like climate, locally referred to as Dega (Baddaa) , while 59% is categorized as warm temperate-like, Woina-Dega (Badda-Daree) . In terms of soil type, Walmara District is dominated by Eutric Nitosols and Vertisols ( 13 ). Soil acidity is one of the most serious crop production limiting factors in Walmara District ( 14 ). Kumbursa Village, which is one of the three Villages in Ganda Ude (is situated in Ada’a District of East Shoa Zone. The altitude of Kumbursa Village ranges between 1878m and 1892m above sea level with flat to slightly undulating topography covering a total area of nearly 1000 ha. The dominant soil type in Ada'a District is vertisol ( 15 ). 2.3. Climate of the On-Farm Trial Sites Walmara District is characterized by bimodal rainfall with minor rain occurring in the spring and major rain falling during summer. Annual rainfall of Walmara District is 1063 mm with mean monthly maximum temperature of 24.6C 0 in May and minimum temperature of 2.3C 0 in November and December (Fig. 2 ). Figure 2 Here Ada'a District, where Kumbursa wheat field trial was established is dominantly characterized by warm weather-like Woina-Dega ( Badda-Daree ) type of agroecology while smaller proportion of the District has Cool Temperate-like Dega ( Baddaa ) type of agroecology. So with altitude ranging between 1888m and 1992m, Kumbursa Village is dominantly characterized by warmer temperate-like climate called Woina-Dega ( Badda-Daree ) type of agroecology. The rainfall distribution pattern of Ada'a District in general and Kumbursa Village in particular is unimodal with 74% of the mean annual precipitation occurring between June and September and a total annual average of 839 mm. The average monthly temperatures range from 17.2°C (in December) to 20.7°C (in May), with a mean annual record of 18.9°C. The highest maximum temperature in Kumbursa Village occurs in May (29C 0 ) and minimum in November (8C 0 ) with annual rainfall of 818 mm (Fig. 3 ). Figure 3 Here 2.4. Design of the on-farm trial experiment and determination of fertilizer rates The on-farm trial experiments were conducted on farm plot of a smallholder farmers. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used for assigning different treatments and fertilizer rates to the trial plots. Each plot was measured 3m x 3m totaling 9m 2 . The distance between blocks was set at 1m while the spacing between individual plots was 0.5m with a 3m buffer surrounding the fields. The trial plots were structured in a factorial arrangement, comprising 15 treatments derived from various fertilizer types with differing levels of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), alongside a control group with no N and P application (refer to Table 1 ). Table 1 Amounts of nitrogen & phosphorus applied to the experimental plots from the different types of fertilizer N o Nitrogen & Phosphorus doses (kg/ha) N o Nitrogen & Phosphorus doses (kg/ha) T1 N 32 P 23 from bioslurry only T9 N 96 P 69 from inorganic fertilizer only T2 N 64 P 46 from bioslurry only T10 N 32 P 23 from bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer T3 N 96 P 69 from bioslurry only T11 N 64 P 46 from bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer T4 N 32 P 23 from bioslurry compost only T12 N 96 P 69 from bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer T5 N 64 P 46 from bioslurry compost only T13 N 32 P 23 from bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer T6 N 96 P 69 from bioslurry compost only T14 N 64 P 46 from bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer T7 N 32 P 23 from inorganic fertilizer only T15 N 96 P 69 from bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer T8 N 64 P 46 from inorganic fertilizer only T16 N 0 P 0 (control) Note: subscripts denote the dose of each nutrient utilized and T = Treatment The fertilizers employed in the trials included bioslurry, bioslurry compost, inorganic fertilizer (DAP and urea), combinations of bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer, and combinations of bioslurry compost with inorganic fertilizer. Prior to application, samples of bioslurry and bioslurry compost underwent laboratory analysis for N and P contents. The nutrient content analysis was made for facilitating decision on equivalent nitrogen & phosphorus rates as applied in DAP and urea. Each fertilizer type was applied and administered at three distinct rates of N and P (32 kg/ha N and 23 kg/ha P (50% of the standardized recommendation), 64 kg/ha N and 46 kg/ha P (100% of the standardized rate); and 96 kg/ha N and 69 kg/ha P (150% of the standardized rate). The treatment plots were organized using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) replicating in triplicates. Table 1 Here Both bioslurry and bioslurry compost were applied three days before sowing. As demonstrated in Fig. 4 , seedbed preparation was made in rows spaced 30 cm apart and seed rate was determined at 100 kg/ha, following recommendation by ( 16 ). Sowing and fertilizer application were undertaken in rows, because such sowing method has been shown to be a more productive fertilizer application method as witnessed by the local Development Agents and as learned from experience of the model farmers. Improved wheat seed variety locally called Qaqqabaa , which thrives at mid altitude agroecology called Woina Dega/Badda-Daree , was used for experimentation in the trial field. The germination efficiency was tested and the result was 96%. The bioslurry and bioslurry compost were applied within the plough layer (20cm) depth. Figure 4 Here 2.5. Land preparation and oversight of the wheat trial field Traditional land plowing was undertaken with the help of oxen, as commonly practiced at the experimental locations. The crop calendar was set based on the usual sowing time as commonly practiced by the local farmers. The trial field in Doliyo was plowed six times while that Kumbursa was plowed four times prior to sowing based on the practices in the respective localities. Weeds were controlled manually by hand. Hence, chemicals were not used for weed and pest control. Figure 5 Here 2.6. Assessment methods of Agronomic Responses Wheat samples were harvested and taken from centre of each plot using metal quadrant of 1m 2 (Fig. 6 a). The samples were then carefully placed into labeled sacks (Fig. 6 b). The samples underwent sun drying which were weighted to confirm the amounts of total aboveground biomass. Then the samples were carefully threshed for separating grain from straw (Fig. 6 c). Finally, the grain samples were collected in plastic bags and labeled for grain yield determination (Fig. 6 d). Figure 6 Here Following the threshing process, the samples of wheat grain were weighed for comparison. After sampling, the remaining standing wheat was harvested entirely, ensuring no crop was left at borders. Then the harvested wheat was threshed separately to facilitate comparison with the samples collected using metal quadrant. Amount of residue was estimated based on the difference between grain yield mount and total aboveground biomass. 2.7. Statistical analysis First, the sampled total aboveground biomass and grain yields were determined for the area of 1m 2 for all treatments by weighing which were then converted in to Kg ha − 1 . Then the computed values were presented in tables and graphs. The bar graphs were used to visually compare the amounts of agronomic responses across various fertilizer rates and types. A One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed for evaluating the variations in mean agronomic responses across the different treatments. 3. Results and Discussions 3.1. Results The total aboveground biomass (TAGB) exhibited an increase with higher application rates of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), regardless of the type of fertilizer used (Fig. 7 ). The highest average total aboveground biomass (TAGB) was recorded in plots receiving bioslurry compost alongside inorganic fertilizer at 150% of the recommended application rate at both Doliyo and Kumbursa trial sites (Fig. 7 ). In contrast, the lowest biomass values, but significantly greater than those of blank plot, were observed in plots treated with bioslurry alone (Fig. 7 ). The maximum TAGB was obtained at 150% of the standardized national application rate. Generally, maximum average TAGB values of 12,459 (± 81) kg/ha and 11,941 (± 68) kg/ha were respectively recoded for Doliyo and Kumbursa for the plots receiving integrated bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer at the rate of 150% of the blanket recommendation (Fig. 7 a and 7 b). The minimum TAGB values (5350(± 117)) kg/ha and 5131(± 92)) kg/ha were respectively obtained from the control plots at Doliyo and Kumbursa sites (Fig. 7 ). The observed increase in TAGB yield up to 150% of the standardized application rate (96 kg/ha N and 69 kg/ha P) indicates that fertilizer recommendations should be revised upward. Figure 7 Here Similar to that of the total aboveground biomass, the highest wheat grain yield (GY) was achieved in plots that received bioslurry compost in integration with inorganic fertilizer (Fig. 8 ). The mean grain yields exhibited an increase with higher rates of nitrogen and phosphorus application across all the five fertilizer types (Fig. 8 ). The maximum average grain yields (5130(± 169) kg/ha and 4858(± 152) kg/ha respectively) were recorded in plots treated with 150% of the recommended rate. Conversely, the lowest grain yield was noted in the control plots, with mean grain yields of 1769 (± 154) kg/ha and 1724 (± 138) kg/ha) were obtained from Doliyo and Kumbursa trial fields respectively. Figure 8 Here 3.2. Discussion of results compared to previous research findings Both the total aboveground biomass and grain yields exhibited a linear increase with corresponding rising rates of application for all fertilizer types utilized in the on-farm trial experiment. The lowest average total aboveground biomass and grain yields, aside from the control plots, were recorded in the plots that received only bioslurry treatment. Superior wheat yields were achieved in plots treated with integrated application of compost and chemical fertilizer compared to their solo applications. Table 2 Here Table 2 Overview of the analysis of variations in total above-ground biomass and grain yields across plots treated with various fertilizer types, for the two field sites Field Site Agronomic Parameter (kg/ha) Fertilizer Type P value BSL BSLC INF BSL + INF BSLC + INF Doliyo Total above-ground biomass 9342 9953 9795 9450 10477 0.097 Grain yield 3299 3582 4010 3715 4106 0.004* Kumbursa Total above-ground biomass 9105 9561 9109 9019 10037 0.100 Grain yield 3150 3429 3708 3403 3933 0.003* Note: BSL stands for Bioslurry, BSLC for Bioslurry Compost, INF for Inorganic Fertilizer, *(indicates significant variation at P < 0.01) Note BSL stands for Bioslurry, BSLC for Bioslurry Compost, INF for Inorganic Fertilizer, *(indicates significant variation at P < 0.01) The total aboveground biomass and grain yields exhibited higher values for trial plots treated with integrated bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer application compared to the rest of fertilizer types used in the on-farm trial plots experiment (Table 2 ). Elias et al. ( 17 ) noted a similar trend in wheat yield when comparing integrated fertilizer applications to synthetic fertilizers. Additionally, ( 3 ) also found that the combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers led to increased barely yields in Southwestern Ethiopia. In line with the findings of this study, ( 18 ) reported appreciable wheat yield improvement in plots treated with a combination of organic and chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, research by Belay et al. ( 19 ) demonstrated that the full implementation of advanced wheat technologies, including increased fertilizer application rates, could enhance productivity by as much as 55%. The improved yield performance of bioslurry compost, in contrast to bioslurry alone, may be attributed to the greater nutrient availability in the bioslurry compost. Tana and Woldesenbet ( 20 ) also reported higher barely grain yield for the plots treated with farmyard manure in combination with chemical fertilizer as compared to plots that received equivalent amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from chemical fertilizer alone. The increasing grain yield up to 150% of the recommended rate for all five fertilizer types suggests that the fertilizer recommendation should be increased at this study site. This finding aligns with a study conducted in Ganda Ude of the Ada'a District in East Oromia, where wheat yield experienced an increase from 3,341 kg/ha to 3,996 kg/ha, as a result of a rise in nitrogen application from 23 kg/ha to 69 kg/ha ( 20 ). Additionally, Seifu et al. ( 10 ) reported a linear increase in crop yield in the Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia, noting that wheat yield rose from 1.6 to 4.3 tons per hectare for vertisols and from 2.5 to 5.4 tons per hectare for cambisols as the application rate of a new blended NPSznB rose from 50 to 175 kg/ha. In the Central Highlands of Ethiopia, a consistent increase in agronomic metrics of wheat, such as total aboveground biomass, was noted with elevated levels of nitrogen and phosphorus usage ( 21 ). Linear increase in all agronomic parameters of wheat including total aboveground biomass in the highlands of Ethiopia led to a notable rise in the rates applied both from nitrogen and phosphorus ( 21 ). A study conducted on food barely (Hordeum Vulgare L.) in nitosols of Hulla District in Southern Ethiopia revealed that total aboveground biomass increased by 1,263 kg/ha when 200 kg/ha of NPSB blended fertilizer was applied, in comparison to the control group ( 22 ). Given the variability in yield responses to the same type and rate of fertilizer across different regions, various studies have proposed different optimal application rates tailored to specific areas. For instance, Yokamo et al. ( 6 ) recommended an application of 100 kg/ha of nitrogen for optimal productivity of cereal crops, including wheat. Additionally, a study conducted by Zemichael et al. ( 23 ) in semi-arid Tigray Region revealed that wheat grain yield improved with nitrogen dose increase up to 69 kg/ha, after which a decrease in yield was observed. Molla ( 24 ) emphasized the importance of context-specific fertilizer application, suggesting rates of 200/50 and 225/150 kg/ha of DAP and Urea for more fertile and less fertile black soils respectively in the Central Ethiopia. A study by Molla ( 24 ) also indicated that wheat grain production amounts varied between 3407 kg/ha and 5001 kg/ha when utilizing 256/80 NP fertilizers, as influenced by different fertilizer types and preceding crops. An on-farm trial carried out by Belete et al. ( 25 ) in the Central highlands of Ethiopia indicated that an optimal nitrogen application rate of 240 kg/ha led to production of 6060 kg/ha wheat grain yield. These varying recommendations across different regions highlight the necessity for fertilizer application rates to be customized to local conditions rather than adhering to a single, uniform guideline for all of Ethiopia. 3.3. Policy Implications and Future Research Direction The superior agronomic outcomes in the trial plots receiving integrated bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizers indicate a pressing need to incorporate organic fertilizers into agricultural practices rather than solely depending on chemical fertilizers. This implies that agricultural extension workers, agricultural policymakers and other stakeholders should give equal attention to use of both compost and chemical fertilizers. This is because increased use of compost and other organic fertilizers helps the farmers to reduce expense on chemical fertilizers. Compost use is also advantageous in situation where there is delay in chemical fertilizer supply or in case of limited access which usually happens in many localities of the Ethiopian Highlands. Compost utilization provides affordable option for the poor smallholder farmers with low purchasing power of chemical fertilizer. Generally, compost can be used as supplementary or substitute for chemical fertilizer. Thus, through increased utilization of compost, the smallholder farmers can be benefitted from reduced expenditure on chemical fertilizer while gaining comparable harvest from their farm plots. Future researches should focus on determining optimum rates of fertilizer to be applied to different crops in different agroecologies. There is also an urgent need to conduct investigation on the benefits of compost to the achievement of sustainable crop productivity through improvement of soil quality and soil moisture holding capacity. 4. Conclusion This study assessed the impact of various types and rates of fertilizers on the biomass and grain yields of wheat through on-farm trial experiment. The findings indicated that the standardized recommendation rate (64 kg/ha N and 46 kg/ha P) was below the optimum level for wheat production at the trial location. Data from the on-farm trials demonstrated a linear increase in both total aboveground biomass and grain yields with higher application rates of nitrogen and phosphorus across all the treatments. The highest agronomic responses (total aboveground biomass and grain yield) were observed in plots that received a combination of bioslurry compost along with inorganic fertilizers (DAP and Urea). While the differences in total aboveground biomass among the various fertilizer types were not statistically significant, the variations in grain yields were significant (P < 0.01). The use of bioslurry compost yielded a superior response due to its enhanced stability and improved nutrient availability for plants compared to bioslurry alone. This suggests that application of organic matter to a farmland after undergoing composting leads to better crop yields than applying it without the composting process. Declarations Supplementary Information Available from the corresponding author upon request Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interest Ethics Approval (N/A) Consent to participate (N/A) Consent for publication (N/A) Funding This work was funded by the African Component of the ACP Research Programme for Sustainable Development (Ref: EuropeAid/132–331/M/ACT/ACP). Author Contribution Conceptualization N.D, A.A, J.S, On-farm experiment N.D, writing the original draft manuscript N.D, reviewing J.S, N.D, editing the manuscript J.S, A.A. Acknowledgement The authors wish to convey their heartfelt appreciation to Addis Ababa University and the AUC (African Union Commission) funded Afri-Frame Project (Which focuses on the adaptation of small-scale biogas digesters for rural households in Sub-Saharan Africa) for their invaluable financial support and collaboration. Additionally, gratitude is expressed to the personnel at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center for their help in analyzing the nutrient composition of bioslurry and bioslurry compost. The contributions of local Development Agent, Mr. Dinku Caalaa was so instrumental in the successful execution of the trial field experiment. Special thanks are due to Obbo Tulluu Badhaadhaa of Kumbursa Village for granting permission to utilize his agricultural land for the on-farm trial experiment and for taking proper care of the trial field. Availability of Data and Material Data used in this work are available from the corresponding authors upon request. Code availability (N/A) References Cochrane L, Bekele YW. (2018) Average crop yield (2001–2017) in Ethiopia: Trends at national, regional and zonal levels. Data in Brief. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.12.039 Anteneh A, Asrat D. 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Negash","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA0hsZoYKEMncQIqWMyCSkRQtjG0gioAWvhvpFz/++GOXx8+/+PHnwnm10fztQC0/Krbh1CJ5I6dYmrctuVhyxjMz6ZnbjufOOMzYwNhz5jZOLQY3chKkGRuYEzfcOGDGzLvtWG4DUAvQhXi1JP/88ac+cf+N458/8845ljufsJb0YxI8bIcTN/D3GEjzNtTkbiCkRfLMGzZr3rbjiTNu8JRJ8xw7kLsRqOUgPr/wHU9/fPPHn+rE/v7jmz/z1NTlzjt/+OCDHxW4tTAw8BhAaIkEEHkYzD6ARz0QsD+A0PxgdXX4FY+CUTAKRsGIBABAMGRQNLnzBQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Wollega University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dugassa","middleName":"","lastName":"Negash","suffix":""},{"id":545802340,"identity":"4441b9f3-0599-4dae-80b5-400c35084fde","order_by":1,"name":"Assefa Abegaz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Addis Ababa 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07:28:12","extension":"html","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":95021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/89e1e4abb6b80b8a5584b811.html"},{"id":96110179,"identity":"636321fa-8e2d-4bf2-8e44-93137be60df4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 17:05:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":397655,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap indicating the locations of the trial sites (Source: Erdas Imagine \u0026amp; ArcGIS 10)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/17615020a3cc0957d7f4c636.png"},{"id":96110178,"identity":"79d0ae34-99b4-4b2e-8986-d049a447b9cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 17:05:58","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42764,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly temperature and rainfall distributions of Doliyo Village (13, 14)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/51315c1d0dc19450b78e825a.png"},{"id":96110177,"identity":"d84567b2-1130-492b-a9a5-0b25712ace31","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 17:05:58","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly temperature and rainfall distributions of Kumbursa Village (14)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/e7e49e632993083ec09c0051.png"},{"id":96247171,"identity":"ab7b7002-de14-4cf5-8637-8c42ee1e46af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:27:14","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1017805,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDesign of the trial plots and row planted wheat after two weeks of germination\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/074ee98b43e7a68e3ab67053.png"},{"id":96248529,"identity":"c8a546f2-aebe-44ac-a532-71077e174f77","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:28:34","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1081871,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWheat plots under the different treatments during the grain filling time at 100% of the recommended N \u0026amp; P rates and the control\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/f99a0d118e2e00f0f451da85.png"},{"id":96249412,"identity":"5ff73b29-82f2-4c76-909b-a2f57a75369c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:33:28","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1168504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePutting 1m x1m metal quadrant in wheat plot (6a), putting the harvested crop sample in a labeled sack (6b), threshing (6c) and labeling wheat grain samples (6d)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/b271f88feef6bf283718cc83.png"},{"id":96110187,"identity":"64d661b5-d4cc-46eb-a99f-84fac729835a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 17:05:58","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41889,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean total above-ground biomass of wheat at Doliyo (7a) and Kumbursa (7b) trial plots for 0 to 150% of the recommended fertilizer application rates from the different fertilizer types\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e TAGB = Total Aboveground Biomass, BSL = Bioslurry, BSLC = Bioslurry Compost, INF = Inorganic fertilizer, BSL+INF = Combination of Bioslurry and Inorganic Fertilizer, and BSLC+INF = Combination of Bioslurry Compost and Inorganic Fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/a6665c2d9ac58144b7520260.png"},{"id":96250179,"identity":"250201e0-cc71-4449-b02d-62f65f0935cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:37:40","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36617,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage wheat grain yields at the Doliyo (8a) and Kumbursa (8b) trial sites for different application rates of nitrogen and phosphorus from various fertilizer types\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: BSL = Bioslurry; BSLC = Bioslurry Compost; GY = Grain Yield; INF = Inorganic Fertilizer; BSL + INF = combination of Bioslurry and Inorganic Fertilizer; BSLC + INF= Combination of Bioslurry Compost and Inorganic Fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/fc283e18e0bd6aea9e4356ef.png"},{"id":100239893,"identity":"954859a5-1a51-4c7a-8dc0-24b94e80d87a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 13:10:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5083888,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7885404/v1/e708a24d-c178-4aeb-944c-91fc04800877.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eDeveloping Locally Tailored Fertilizer Recommmendations for Inorganic, Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management of Wheat in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, there has been low and stagnant rate of growth in grain yields averaging less than 2 tons per hectare (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Though Ethiopia possesses one of the most considerable potential for wheat production among Sub-Saharan countries, the actual production amount has remained very low (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The acreage wheat yield in Ethiopian Highlands is reportedly far below both the global and Sub-Saharan averages (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The mean per hectare wheat yield from smallholder farm has remained below 2.7 tons compared to more than 5 tons at experimental stations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This wide yield gap implies that there is high potential for yield increment by optimizing fertilizer rate and applying proper farm management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe remarkably low yield response, particularly in heavily cultivated highland areas of Ethiopia, is primarily ascribed to depletion of nutrients in the soil and below optimal replenishment through fertilizer application by the smallholder farmers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). As reported by Yokamo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), soil nutrient depletion and insufficient fertilizer input are the two most serious constraints for the prevailing low and declining wheat productivity. In the Ethiopian Highlands, inorganic fertilizer application rate is among the lowest compared to other developing countries and even compared to that of Sub-Saharan Africa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe other constraining factor of wheat productivity improvement is the decline in nutrient use efficiency i.e. slower increase in crop yield relative to increase in fertilizer amount applied to farmland. Although there has been 500% increase in the application of chemical fertilizers as of the third quarter of 20th century, cereal crop yields have only risen by 10% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis slow increase in crop yield per area despite fast rate of increase in the amount of inorganic\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003efertilizer implies the need for reconsidering and revising the current fertilizer application rate. However, there has been an absence of locally tailored fertilizer recommendations for wheat production in the Ethiopian Highlands (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The only guidance for the amount of fertilizer to apply in Ethiopia has been the nationwide blanket recommendation rate of 64kg per hectare N and 46 kg per hectare P (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis recommendation obviously does not consider crop type, soil nutrient stocks or differences in local agroecologies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe studies by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that fertilizer optimization for wheat production requires strict consideration of soil nature and type of agroecology implying the need for capitalizing on site-specific fertilizer recommendation. This suggests the necessity for continual revision in fertilizer application rates so as to make appropriate adjustments to the local conditions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). This is because both insufficient utilization and overuse of fertilizer can result in reduced profitability and degradation of soil health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, this study spearheaded at identifying optimal application amounts for various fertilizer types to augment wheat yield in the Central Ethiopian Highlands. This research is also intended to provide insights that will contribute to increased yields while minimizing nutrient waste and environmental damage.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Location of the Experimental Sites\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental plots for the on-farm trials were established in Walmara and Ada'a Districts, which are respectively situated to the west and southeast of Addis Ababa in Shawan Plateau of the Ethiopian Highlands. Walmara is positioned to the west of the Great East African Rift Valley, with geographical coordinates ranging from 8\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e52'45'' to 9\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e15'30'' N latitude and 38\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e25'24'' to 38\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e42'45'' E longitude. The Kumbursa wheat trial is found in Ada'a District which is also found in Shawan Plateau, along the Express Highway to Adama. In terms of absolute location, Ada'a District extends from 8\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e40'00'' to 8\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e42'30'' N latitude and 39\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e00'00'' to 39\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e02'30'' E longitude.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Town named Holata, which is situated at 35 kilometers from Addis Ababa, serves as administrative centre of Walmara District while Bishoftu, which is located at 47 kilometers from Addis Ababa, is the capital and the administrative center of Ada'a District.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDoliyo Village field trial was set in \u003cem\u003eGanda Nano Genete (Ganda is the smallest administrative unit in Oromia National Regional State of Ethiopia)\u003c/em\u003e of Walmara District, while the other field trial was located in Kumbursa Village of \u003cem\u003eGanda Ude\u003c/em\u003e in Ada'a District (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe relief of Walmara District, where the Doliyo on-farm trial site is located is characterized by flat to undulating landscape with long history of smallholder mixed farming system. The altitude of Walmara District ranges from 2060 m above sea level (a.s.l.) to 3380 m above sea level (a.s.l.); and about 41% of the District is characterized by a cool temperate-like climate, locally referred to as \u003cem\u003eDega (Baddaa)\u003c/em\u003e, while 59% is categorized as warm temperate-like, \u003cem\u003eWoina-Dega (Badda-Daree)\u003c/em\u003e. In terms of soil type, Walmara District is dominated by Eutric Nitosols and Vertisols (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Soil acidity is one of the most serious crop production limiting factors in Walmara District (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKumbursa Village, which is one of the three Villages in \u003cem\u003eGanda\u003c/em\u003e Ude (is situated in Ada\u0026rsquo;a District of East Shoa Zone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe altitude of Kumbursa Village ranges between 1878m and 1892m above sea level with flat to slightly undulating topography covering a total area of nearly 1000 ha. The dominant soil type in Ada'a District is vertisol (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Climate of the On-Farm Trial Sites\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWalmara District is characterized by bimodal rainfall with minor rain occurring in the spring and major rain falling during summer. Annual rainfall of Walmara District is 1063 mm with mean monthly maximum temperature of 24.6C\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e in May and minimum temperature of 2.3C\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e in November and December (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAda'a District, where Kumbursa wheat field trial was established is dominantly characterized by warm weather-like \u003cem\u003eWoina-Dega\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eBadda-Daree\u003c/em\u003e) type of agroecology while smaller proportion of the District has Cool Temperate-like Dega (\u003cem\u003eBaddaa\u003c/em\u003e) type of agroecology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSo with altitude ranging between 1888m and 1992m, Kumbursa Village is dominantly characterized by warmer temperate-like climate called \u003cem\u003eWoina-Dega\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eBadda-Daree\u003c/em\u003e) type of agroecology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rainfall distribution pattern of Ada'a District in general and Kumbursa Village in particular is unimodal with 74% of the mean annual precipitation occurring between June and September and a total annual average of 839 mm. The average monthly temperatures range from 17.2\u0026deg;C (in December) to 20.7\u0026deg;C (in May), with a mean annual record of 18.9\u0026deg;C. The highest maximum temperature in Kumbursa Village occurs in May (29C\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e) and minimum in November (8C\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e) with annual rainfall of 818 mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Design of the on-farm trial experiment and determination of fertilizer rates\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe on-farm trial experiments were conducted on farm plot of a smallholder farmers. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used for assigning different treatments and fertilizer rates to the trial plots. Each plot was measured 3m x 3m totaling 9m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The distance between blocks was set at 1m while the spacing between individual plots was 0.5m with a 3m buffer surrounding the fields.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe trial plots were structured in a factorial arrangement, comprising 15 treatments derived from various fertilizer types with differing levels of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), alongside a control group with no N and P application (refer to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmounts of nitrogen \u0026amp; phosphorus applied to the experimental plots from the different types of fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eo\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNitrogen \u0026amp; Phosphorus doses (kg/ha)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eo\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNitrogen \u0026amp; Phosphorus doses (kg/ha)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e96\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e69\u003c/sub\u003e from inorganic fertilizer only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e64\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e46\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e96\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e69\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e64\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e46\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry compost only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e96\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e69\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e64\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e46\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry compost only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e96\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e69\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry compost only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e64\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e46\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e32\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e from inorganic fertilizer only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e96\u003c/sub\u003e P\u003csub\u003e69\u003c/sub\u003e from bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e64\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e46\u003c/sub\u003e from inorganic fertilizer only\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003eP\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e (control)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote: subscripts denote the dose of each nutrient utilized and T\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Treatment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fertilizers employed in the trials included bioslurry, bioslurry compost, inorganic fertilizer (DAP and urea), combinations of bioslurry and inorganic fertilizer, and combinations of bioslurry compost with inorganic fertilizer. Prior to application, samples of bioslurry and bioslurry compost underwent laboratory analysis for N and P contents. The nutrient content analysis was made for facilitating decision on equivalent nitrogen \u0026amp; phosphorus rates as applied in DAP and urea. Each fertilizer type was applied and administered at three distinct rates of N and P (32 kg/ha N and 23 kg/ha P (50% of the standardized recommendation), 64 kg/ha N and 46 kg/ha P (100% of the standardized rate); and 96 kg/ha N and 69 kg/ha P (150% of the standardized rate). The treatment plots were organized using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) replicating in triplicates.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth bioslurry and bioslurry compost were applied three days before sowing. As demonstrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, seedbed preparation was made in rows spaced 30 cm apart and seed rate was determined at 100 kg/ha, following recommendation by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Sowing and fertilizer application were undertaken in rows, because such sowing method has been shown to be a more productive fertilizer application method as witnessed by the local Development Agents and as learned from experience of the model farmers. Improved wheat seed variety locally called \u003cem\u003eQaqqabaa\u003c/em\u003e, which thrives at mid altitude agroecology called \u003cem\u003eWoina Dega/Badda-Daree\u003c/em\u003e, was used for experimentation in the trial field. The germination efficiency was tested and the result was 96%. The bioslurry and bioslurry compost were applied within the plough layer (20cm) depth.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Land preparation and oversight of the wheat trial field\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTraditional land plowing was undertaken with the help of oxen, as commonly practiced at the experimental locations. The crop calendar was set based on the usual sowing time as commonly practiced by the local farmers. The trial field in Doliyo was plowed six times while that Kumbursa was plowed four times prior to sowing based on the practices in the respective localities. Weeds were controlled manually by hand. Hence, chemicals were not used for weed and pest control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6. Assessment methods of Agronomic Responses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWheat samples were harvested and taken from centre of each plot using metal quadrant of 1m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea). The samples were then carefully placed into labeled sacks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb). The samples underwent sun drying which were weighted to confirm the amounts of total aboveground biomass. Then the samples were carefully threshed for separating grain from straw (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec). Finally, the grain samples were collected in plastic bags and labeled for grain yield determination (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ed).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the threshing process, the samples of wheat grain were weighed for comparison. After sampling, the remaining standing wheat was harvested entirely, ensuring no crop was left at borders. Then the harvested wheat was threshed separately to facilitate comparison with the samples collected using metal quadrant. Amount of residue was estimated based on the difference between grain yield mount and total aboveground biomass.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, the sampled total aboveground biomass and grain yields were determined for the area of 1m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e for all treatments by weighing which were then converted in to Kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThen the computed values were presented in tables and graphs. The bar graphs were used to visually compare the amounts of agronomic responses across various fertilizer rates and types.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed for evaluating the variations in mean agronomic responses across the different treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Results\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe total aboveground biomass (TAGB) exhibited an increase with higher application rates of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), regardless of the type of fertilizer used (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe highest average total aboveground biomass (TAGB) was recorded in plots receiving bioslurry compost alongside inorganic fertilizer at 150% of the recommended application rate at both Doliyo and Kumbursa trial sites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the lowest biomass values, but significantly greater than those of blank plot, were observed in plots treated with bioslurry alone (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The maximum TAGB was obtained at 150% of the standardized national application rate. Generally, maximum average TAGB values of 12,459 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;81) kg/ha and 11,941 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;68) kg/ha were respectively recoded for Doliyo and Kumbursa for the plots receiving integrated bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer at the rate of 150% of the blanket recommendation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb). The minimum TAGB values (5350(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;117)) kg/ha and 5131(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;92)) kg/ha were respectively obtained from the control plots at Doliyo and Kumbursa sites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The observed increase in TAGB yield up to 150% of the standardized application rate (96 kg/ha N and 69 kg/ha P) indicates that fertilizer recommendations should be revised upward.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to that of the total aboveground biomass, the highest wheat grain yield (GY) was achieved in plots that received bioslurry compost in integration with inorganic fertilizer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The mean grain yields exhibited an increase with higher rates of nitrogen and phosphorus application across all the five fertilizer types (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The maximum average grain yields (5130(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;169) kg/ha and 4858(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;152) kg/ha respectively) were recorded in plots treated with 150% of the recommended rate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, the lowest grain yield was noted in the control plots, with mean grain yields of 1769 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;154) kg/ha and 1724 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;138) kg/ha) were obtained from Doliyo and Kumbursa trial fields respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Discussion of results compared to previous research findings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth the total aboveground biomass and grain yields exhibited a linear increase with corresponding rising rates of application for all fertilizer types utilized in the on-farm trial experiment. The lowest average total aboveground biomass and grain yields, aside from the control plots, were recorded in the plots that received only bioslurry treatment. Superior wheat yields were achieved in plots treated with integrated application of compost and chemical fertilizer compared to their solo applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eHere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverview of the analysis of variations in total above-ground biomass and grain yields across plots treated with various fertilizer types, for the two field sites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Site\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgronomic Parameter (kg/ha)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilizer Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBSL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBSLC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eINF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBSL\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;INF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBSLC\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;INF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDoliyo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal above-ground biomass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9342\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9953\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9450\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10477\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain yield\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3299\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3582\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3715\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKumbursa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal above-ground biomass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9561\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9109\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10037\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain yield\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3429\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3708\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3403\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3933\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: BSL stands for Bioslurry, BSLC for Bioslurry Compost, INF for Inorganic Fertilizer, *(indicates significant variation at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBSL stands for Bioslurry, BSLC for Bioslurry Compost, INF for Inorganic Fertilizer, *(indicates significant variation at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe total aboveground biomass and grain yields exhibited higher values for trial plots treated with integrated bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizer application compared to the rest of fertilizer types used in the on-farm trial plots experiment (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Elias et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e) noted a similar trend in wheat yield when comparing integrated fertilizer applications to synthetic fertilizers. Additionally, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) also found that the combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers led to increased barely yields in Southwestern Ethiopia. In line with the findings of this study, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e) reported appreciable wheat yield improvement in plots treated with a combination of organic and chemical fertilizers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, research by Belay et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that the full implementation of advanced wheat technologies, including increased fertilizer application rates, could enhance productivity by as much as 55%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe improved yield performance of bioslurry compost, in contrast to bioslurry alone, may be attributed to the greater nutrient availability in the bioslurry compost. Tana and Woldesenbet (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e) also reported higher barely grain yield for the plots treated with farmyard manure in combination with chemical fertilizer as compared to plots that received equivalent amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from chemical fertilizer alone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe increasing grain yield up to 150% of the recommended rate for all five fertilizer types suggests that the fertilizer recommendation should be increased at this study site. This finding aligns with a study conducted in \u003cem\u003eGanda\u003c/em\u003e Ude of the Ada'a District in East Oromia, where wheat yield experienced an increase from 3,341 kg/ha to 3,996 kg/ha, as a result of a rise in nitrogen application from 23 kg/ha to 69 kg/ha (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Seifu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) reported a linear increase in crop yield in the Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia, noting that wheat yield rose from 1.6 to 4.3 tons per hectare for vertisols and from 2.5 to 5.4 tons per hectare for cambisols as the application rate of a new blended NPSznB rose from 50 to 175 kg/ha. In the Central Highlands of Ethiopia, a consistent increase in agronomic metrics of wheat, such as total aboveground biomass, was noted with elevated levels of nitrogen and phosphorus usage (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinear increase in all agronomic parameters of wheat including total aboveground biomass in the highlands of Ethiopia led to a notable rise in the rates applied both from nitrogen and phosphorus (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). A study conducted on food barely (Hordeum Vulgare L.) in nitosols of Hulla District in Southern Ethiopia revealed that total aboveground biomass increased by 1,263 kg/ha when 200 kg/ha of NPSB blended fertilizer was applied, in comparison to the control group (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the variability in yield responses to the same type and rate of fertilizer across different regions, various studies have proposed different optimal application rates tailored to specific areas. For instance, Yokamo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) recommended an application of 100 kg/ha of nitrogen for optimal productivity of cereal crops, including wheat. Additionally, a study conducted by Zemichael et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e) in semi-arid Tigray Region revealed that wheat grain yield improved with nitrogen dose increase up to 69 kg/ha, after which a decrease in yield was observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMolla (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the importance of context-specific fertilizer application, suggesting rates of 200/50 and 225/150 kg/ha of DAP and Urea for more fertile and less fertile black soils respectively in the Central Ethiopia. A study by Molla (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e) also indicated that wheat grain production amounts varied between 3407 kg/ha and 5001 kg/ha when utilizing 256/80 NP fertilizers, as influenced by different fertilizer types and preceding crops. An on-farm trial carried out by Belete et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e) in the Central highlands of Ethiopia indicated that an optimal nitrogen application rate of 240 kg/ha led to production of 6060 kg/ha wheat grain yield. These varying recommendations across different regions highlight the necessity for fertilizer application rates to be customized to local conditions rather than adhering to a single, uniform guideline for all of Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Policy Implications and Future Research Direction\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe superior agronomic outcomes in the trial plots receiving integrated bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizers indicate a pressing need to incorporate organic fertilizers into agricultural practices rather than solely depending on chemical fertilizers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis implies that agricultural extension workers, agricultural policymakers and other stakeholders should give equal attention to use of both compost and chemical fertilizers. This is because increased use of compost and other organic fertilizers helps the farmers to reduce expense on chemical fertilizers. Compost use is also advantageous in situation where there is delay in chemical fertilizer supply or in case of limited access which usually happens in many localities of the Ethiopian Highlands. Compost utilization provides affordable option for the poor smallholder farmers with low purchasing power of chemical fertilizer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGenerally, compost can be used as supplementary or substitute for chemical fertilizer. Thus, through increased utilization of compost, the smallholder farmers can be benefitted from reduced expenditure on chemical fertilizer while gaining comparable harvest from their farm plots.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuture researches should focus on determining optimum rates of fertilizer to be applied to different crops in different agroecologies. There is also an urgent need to conduct investigation on the benefits of compost to the achievement of sustainable crop productivity through improvement of soil quality and soil moisture holding capacity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the impact of various types and rates of fertilizers on the biomass and grain yields of wheat through on-farm trial experiment. The findings indicated that the standardized recommendation rate (64 kg/ha N and 46 kg/ha P) was below the optimum level for wheat production at the trial location. Data from the on-farm trials demonstrated a linear increase in both total aboveground biomass and grain yields with higher application rates of nitrogen and phosphorus across all the treatments. The highest agronomic responses (total aboveground biomass and grain yield) were observed in plots that received a combination of bioslurry compost along with inorganic fertilizers (DAP and Urea). While the differences in total aboveground biomass among the various fertilizer types were not statistically significant, the variations in grain yields were significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). The use of bioslurry compost yielded a superior response due to its enhanced stability and improved nutrient availability for plants compared to bioslurry alone. This suggests that application of organic matter to a farmland after undergoing composting leads to better crop yields than applying it without the composting process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSupplementary Information\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvailable from the corresponding author upon request\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e(N/A)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e(N/A)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e(N/A)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work was funded by the African Component of the ACP Research Programme for Sustainable Development (Ref: EuropeAid/132\u0026ndash;331/M/ACT/ACP).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualization N.D, A.A, J.S, On-farm experiment N.D, writing the original draft manuscript N.D, reviewing J.S, N.D, editing the manuscript J.S, A.A.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to convey their heartfelt appreciation to Addis Ababa University and the AUC (African Union Commission) funded Afri-Frame Project (Which focuses on the adaptation of small-scale biogas digesters for rural households in Sub-Saharan Africa) for their invaluable financial support and collaboration. Additionally, gratitude is expressed to the personnel at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center for their help in analyzing the nutrient composition of bioslurry and bioslurry compost. The contributions of local Development Agent, Mr. Dinku Caalaa was so instrumental in the successful execution of the trial field experiment. Special thanks are due to Obbo Tulluu Badhaadhaa of Kumbursa Village for granting permission to utilize his agricultural land for the on-farm trial experiment and for taking proper care of the trial field.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of Data and Material\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData used in this work are available from the corresponding authors upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCode availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e(N/A)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCochrane L, Bekele YW. 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(2018) Effect of split application of different N rates on productivity and nitrogen use efficiency of bread wheat (triticum aestivum L.). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0242-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s40066-018-0242-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bioslurry compost, Blanket recommendation rate, Inorganic fertilizer, Total above-ground biomass, Yield response","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7885404/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7885404/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAbsence of locally tailored fertilizer recommendations is one of the critical challenges for low crop productivity in the Highlands of Ethiopia. This study aimed to identify the optimum rates of fertilizer applications for wheat production. The national blanket recommendation rates for nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the form of diammonium phosphate and urea was taken as the benchmark for the optimum rate determination test. Treatments with organic (bioslurry and bioslurry compost), inorganic fertilizer (diammonium phosphate and urea), and integrated organic and inorganic (bioslurry or bioslurry compost) were compared. The results show that yields of wheat increase linearly with increasing application rates of N and P for all treatments, with integrated application of bioslurry compost and inorganic fertilizers outperforming all other treatments. The variations in yield responses both across fertilizer types and rates were found to be significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Therefore, integrated application of organic and inorganic fertilizers should be encouraged for better agronomic performance. This study indicated that the blanket recommendation rate was below the optimum level for wheat production at the trial site. Further experimentation is required to determine the optimum application rates for different fertilizer types in the different soil types found across the agroecological zones of Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Developing Locally Tailored Fertilizer Recommmendations for Inorganic, Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management of Wheat in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-17 17:05:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7885404/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dd22c40e-aa34-4d08-bf1e-48defc64d380","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-14T13:09:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-17 17:05:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7885404","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7885404","identity":"rs-7885404","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}