Sustainable hub depot location strategies for empty containers using Particle Swarm Optimization: a case study from Slovenia

Sustainable hub depot location strategies for empty containers using Particle Swarm Optimization: a case study from Slovenia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Sustainable hub depot location strategies for empty containers using Particle Swarm Optimization: a case study from Slovenia Danijela Tuljak-Suban This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6541241/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Containers account for 16% of all tonnage transported by sea. Therefore, the efficient repositioning of empty containers is a necessary, albeit often unprofitable, activity. This process supports both the local and global efficiency of container transport, especially given the significant imbalance in container flows from Asia to Europe. The transport sector is responsible for 21.2% of total CO2 emissions, making Empty Container Repositioning (ECR) crucial from an environmental perspective. Efficient repositioning and the identification of an optimal location for an empty container depot are crucial problems that can be effectively solved within a hub system. The aim is to find solutions that minimise the overall impact on the environment while reducing holding and travel costs. This paper proposes a robust and feasible method for determining the optimal location for an inland empty container depot that can be applied to large-scale problems with extensive data. The proposed method takes into account both the economic costs and the emissions generated during the repositioning process and aims to select a hub location that minimises these factors. The optimisation is performed using a heuristic approach, Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO), which requires fewer constraints and assumptions compared to traditional linear optimisation techniques. This method takes advantage of the behaviour of swarms and their ability to find optimal solutions to complex problems. In contrast to classical approaches such as linear programming, which require considerable effort to formulate and solve, this method simplifies the process and efficiently identifies optimal solutions. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology Physical sciences/Mathematics and computing Particle Swarm Optimization Empty Container Repositioning Hub depot Optimization Minimizing CO2 emissions Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 08 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 24 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jun, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 30 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 30 May, 2025 Editor invited by journal 13 May, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 13 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 27 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6541241","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":465232522,"identity":"5e1eab2d-9165-429c-9ddd-8972479b2a46","order_by":0,"name":"Danijela Tuljak-Suban","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ljubljana","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Danijela","middleName":"","lastName":"Tuljak-Suban","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-27 15:08:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6541241/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6541241/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-26064-3","type":"published","date":"2025-11-26T15:57:51+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97178393,"identity":"620645dd-6453-4086-aa0f-6a9b6778a3ff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:09:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":787473,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PaperwithFig1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6541241/v1_covered_749f7461-3fe1-4ad7-a92a-bd7b62ff200c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Sustainable hub depot location strategies for empty containers using Particle Swarm Optimization: a case study from Slovenia","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Particle Swarm Optimization, Empty Container Repositioning, Hub depot, Optimization, Minimizing CO2 emissions","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6541241/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6541241/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eContainers account for 16% of all tonnage transported by sea. 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