The quality of LED light alters the biometrics, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomy of in vitro micropropagated pitaya

The quality of LED light alters the biometrics, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomy of in vitro micropropagated pitaya | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The quality of LED light alters the biometrics, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomy of in vitro micropropagated pitaya Evens Clairvil, Marcelo De Almeida Guimarães, Mirian do Nascimento Mário, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8099833/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Light quality is a crucial environmental factor regulating plant physiology, serving as both an energy source for photosynthesis and a signal for growth and development through photoreceptor activation. This study evaluated biometric, physiological, biochemical, elemental, and anatomical responses of in vitro micropropagated Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus cladodes grown under different LED light qualities (white, blue, purple, and red) for 65 days on MS medium. Measurements included growth parameters, photosynthetic pigments, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomical traits. S. undatus showed superior biometric performance compared with H. polyrhizus, particularly in cladode diameter, shoot length, and fresh and dry masses, with notable responses under purple and red light. H. polyrhizus exhibited higher pigment accumulation, especially under white light. Raman spectral profiling revealed that blue light enhanced carotenoid biosynthesis in S. undatus, whereas H. polyrhizus responded more strongly to purple and white light. Elemental analyses indicated potassium as the predominant element in both species; S. undatus accumulated more Mg, P, Cl, and Zn, while H. polyrhizus had higher K, Ca, S, Fe, and Na. Principal component analysis indicated that red light promotes potassium accumulation but may induce osmotic stress, while blue light stimulates redox-related elements. The results demonstrate that species-specific lighting strategies can significantly optimize pitaya micropropagation, with purple or red light recommended for S. undatus and white or blue light for H. polyrhizus. Hylocereus polyrhizus Selenicereus undatus Photomorphogenesis Plant tissue culture Vascular anatomy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Key Message LED light quality differentially modulates Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus physiology and anatomy, optimizing micropropagation according to species-specific responses for growth and pigmentation. INTRODUCTION The current scenario of large-scale plant production faces significant limitations imposed by regional and environmental constraints, hindering the commercial availability of high-value medicinal species (Anuruddi et al., 2023). Traditional cultivation, characterized by long development periods that can exceed three years, represents an additional barrier to the commercial availability of plants (Tian et al., 2021). In this context, in vitro cultivation techniques emerge as viable technological alternatives, providing rapid and consistent production of plant biomass, a particularly relevant aspect considering that more than 60% of anticancer drugs are derived from plants (Garcia-Oliveira et al., 2021; Wawrosch & Zotchev, 2021; Sarropoulou et al., 2023). Among the species of high nutraceutical and pharmacological value, the pitaya species Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus , both threatened with extinction, possess important specific qualities that make them plants of global interest (Nishikito et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024). S. undatus is recognized as a “superfruit” due to its nutraceutical properties, whereas H. polyrhizus stands out for its therapeutic potential in the prevention of diabetes, obesity, and cancer (Ravichandran et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2024). Considering that the traditional cultivation of these species from seeds requires up to three years to reach commercial maturity (Oo et al., 2023), there in vitro multiplication may represent an efficient biotechnological solution, with optimization potential through strategies based on light quality (Suman et al., 2017; Fan et al., 2022). Light radiation, or light quality, is one of the most decisive environmental factors in regulating plant physiology, performing complementary functions throughout the plant life cycle. Light acts as an energy source for carbon assimilation processes during photosynthesis and, simultaneously, plays a crucial signaling role in regulating growth and developmental mechanisms through the activation of specific photoreceptors (Paradiso & Proietti, 2022). This functional duality establishes light as a central modulator of both primary and secondary metabolism, directly influencing immediate morphogenic responses and the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites (Hashim et al., 2021). The implementation of Light-Emitting Diode (LED) technologies has revolutionized spectral quality control in cultivation systems. This technology enables the emission of wavelength ranges tailored to the specific physiological needs of plants, making it possible to induce targeted morphogenic responses (Dou et al., 2019; Hashim et al., 2021). In in vitro cultivation environments, the modulation of light quality assumes great importance, since different spectra trigger specific metabolic activities, optimizing both vegetative growth and the production of bioactive compounds (Manivannan et al., 2021). Scientific evidence indicates that strategic spectral combinations significantly enhance the in vitro development of multiple plant species (Ali et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2020). The physiological characterization of light qualities reveals distinct functional specificities. White light, characterized by its broad and balanced spectrum, is effective in root development, shoot proliferation, aerial biomass accumulation, and carotenoid pigment synthesis in species such as Vanilla planifolia and Saccharum officinarum (Bello-Bello et al., 2016; De Araújo Silva et al., 2016; Cavallaro et al., 2022). Red light, recognized as the light quality with the highest photosynthetic efficiency, is widely used to optimize in vitro survival and enhance the production of secondary metabolites, acting as an efficient elicitor in the biosynthesis of pharmacologically active compounds (Hogewoning et al., 2010). Blue light plays regulatory roles in stomatal opening and transpiration and helps prevent morphological disorders associated with the “red light syndrome” (Lee et al., 2007; Davis & Burns, 2016). Combined light spectra, particularly purple light, resulting from the combination of blue and red wavelengths, have shown superior effectiveness in the cultivation of plants with pharmacological properties (Cuong et al., 2019; Nadeem et al., 2019). This combination of different LED light qualities contributes to an increase in net photosynthetic rate and dry biomass accumulation and is widely applied in the controlled cultivation of species such as potato ( Solanum tuberosum ), Brazilian ginseng ( Pfaffia glomerata ), and Brassica chinensis (Hogewoning et al., 2010; Ani et al., 2015; Luz et al., 2015). Despite the established advances in light quality modulation to enhance growth efficiency and phytochemical production, significant gaps still, remain in the understanding of aspects related to cladodes of in vitro cultivated pitaya species. Thus, this study aims to evaluate biometric parameters, photosynthetic pigments, bioactive compounds, the percentage of chemical elements, and anatomical characteristics of cladodes from pitaya species Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus , in vitro micropropagated under different LED light qualities. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was conducted at the Laboratório de Cultura de Tecidos of the Departamento de Agricultura, Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA), in Lavras, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Plant material and in vitro culture Cladodes of Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus , approximately 1.5 cm in length, were cultured in vitro in 250 mL glass flasks containing 50 mL of MS culture medium (Murashige & Skoog, 1962), supplemented with 30 g L⁻¹ sucrose and 5.6 g L⁻¹ agar (Agargel Indústria e Comércio Ltda). The pH of the medium was adjusted to 6.0 ± 0.2 before autoclaving, which was carried out at 121 °C and 1.2 atm for 20 minutes. Five cladodes were aseptically inoculated in each flask under sterile conditions, using a laminar flow chamber (VECO®, model HLFS-12). The flasks were maintained in a growth room at 25 ± 2 °C for 65 days, under a 16-hour photoperiod. LED lamps (Empalux® FT8 HO, 36 W /6400 K) with different spectral compositions provided illumination: white light (WL), blue light (BL), purple light (PL) and red light (RL). The estimation of the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was obtained from illuminance (lux) measurements taken with a digital lux meter (Politerm®, model POL-10B). Readings were taken at three distinct points (left, center, and right) on the surface of the culture shelves (1.29 m²), positioned 21 cm below the lamps and approximately 3 cm above the top of the flasks. The mean illuminance values were converted into PPFD (μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) using specific conversion factors for each light spectrum, based on studies that correlated lux measurements with quantum sensor readings of photosynthetically active radiation (Yeh & Chung, 2009; Hernández & Kubota, 2016). The following conversion factors per 1000 lux were used for each light quality: white (6400 K), 15–18 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; blue (~450 nm), 13–14 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; red (~650 nm), 19–20 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; and purple (a combination of blue and red, with peaks at 450 and 650 nm), ~16–17 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Based on this conversion, the estimated PPFD values were as follows: white light (WL), 2.41 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; blue light (BL), 3.07 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; purple light (PL), 2.16 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and red light (RL), 1.99 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Biometric characteristics Biometric parameters, such as cladode diameter, shoot length, and fresh and dry mass of the shoot and root of the cladodes, were measured in five randomly selected plants from each treatment, 65 days after inoculation. Cladode diameter and shoot length were measured using a millimeter ruler. The dry masses of the shoot and root were determined after drying the fresh material in a forced-air oven at 65 °C for 72 hours. Dry mass measurement was performed after thermal stabilization of the materials in a styrofoam box. Fresh and dry masses were measured using an analytical balance (OHAUS, model PR224BR) with four decimal places. Photosynthetic pigments The analysis of photosynthetic pigments was performed using cladodes (± 0.050 g) from five plants of Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus , randomly selected from each treatment after 65 days of in vitro cultivation. The cladodes were transferred to test tubes containing 5 mL of 80% acetone for the extraction of chlorophylls and carotenoids. The tubes were wrapped in aluminum foil to prevent chlorophyll degradation. Twenty-four hours after storage in a refrigerator at ± 4 °C, the absorbance of the samples was measured using a Multiskan GO spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) at wavelengths of 470 nm (Abs₄₇₀), 647 nm (Abs₆₄₇), and 663 nm (Abs₆₆₃) (Scopel et al., 2011). The contents of chlorophyll ‘ a’ , chlorophyll ‘ b’ , total chlorophylls, and carotenoids were calculated based on equations (Lichtenthaler & Wellburn, 1983 and Lichtenthaler & Babani, 2021). Absorbance measurements were performed in five replicates per treatment, with each replicate evaluated in hexaplicate. The analysis was performed using SkanIt Software 5.0 for Microplate Readers, version 5.0.0.42. Raman spectroscopic analysis Raman microscopy (RM) was performed to evaluate the preservation of bioactive compounds, particularly at the peaks and characteristic bands associated with the presence of betacyanins (1000–1200 cm⁻¹), phenolic compounds (1400–1600 cm⁻¹), and antioxidant agents (1000–1600 cm⁻¹) in fresh cladodes of Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus cultured in vitro under different LED light qualities. Due to logistical limitations in sample collection and handling, the analyses were performed on representative cladodes from each treatment, without replication. Thus, cladodes of these species were randomly collected 65 days after inoculation and analyzed using a Confocal Raman Microscopy system (Alpha300 model, Witec) equipped with a 785 nm laser and 10× and 50× objective lenses. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) EDX (Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) mapping analyses were performed using a scanning electron microscope (TESCAN-CLARA model, manufactured in the Czech Republic) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray detector (Bruker – Quantax EDX, XFlash Detector 6|60 model). Due to logistical limitations in sample collection and handling, it was not possible to perform replicates; therefore, representative cladodes from each treatment were selected for the analyses. Thus, fresh samples of cladodes from in vitro cultivated plants of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus , grown under different LED light qualities, were collected and mounted on aluminum stubs using double-sided carbon tape (HOGOTEK, model 7321, 8 mm width; JIANGSU HOGO Technology Co., Ltd). After drying in an oven at 70 °C for 12 hours, the specimens were transferred to a desiccator containing silica gel, where they remained for at least 24 hours before being analyzed by EDX. The analyses were performed at an accelerating voltage of 20 keV, with magnifications of 200× and 400×. The microanalyses by X-ray spectroscopy included the determination of the atomic percentage of chemical elements (K, Ca, S, Mg, P, Cl, Fe, Mn, Na, and Zn) in the cladodes of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus , with emphasis on the central veins and vein margins (Clairvil et al., 2025a). Anatomical analyses The anatomical analyses were performed on cladodes and roots from five plants per treatment, randomly collected after 65 days of in vitro cultivation. The cladodes and roots were fixed in FAA solution (formalin, acetic acid, and 50% ethanol in a 0.05:0.05:0.90 ratio) for 72 hours. Subsequently, clarification was performed using alcohol at increasing concentrations (70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%), with 2-hour intervals between each step (Johansen, 1940). The samples were immersed in a solution composed of 50% alcohol and 50% pure resin for 72 hours, fixed with pure resin, and hardened in a solution containing 15% pure resin and 1% hardener to facilitate the sectioning process (Clairvil et al., 2025; Clairvil et al., 2025a). Anatomical analysis was performed on five transverse sections per plant; with cuts of nine μm thickness obtained using a semi-automatic rotary microtome (MRS 3500). The sections were stained with 0.05% Toluidine Blue solution and mounted on permanent slides using glycerinated gelatin. The analyses included counting the number of vascular bundles, measuring the cross-sectional area (mm²), root area (mm²), total root diameter (µm) measured from one outer edge of the epidermis to the opposite side, and determining the number of metaxylem vessels. The sections were observed under a light microscope (Nikon, Eclipse E100) equipped with a digital camera (Infinity) for image capture. The photomicrographs obtained were used to measure the anatomical characteristics. The cross-sectional area of the cladodes was measured using a 4× objective lens; the number of vascular bundles, root area, and total root diameter were measured using a 20× objective lens; and the number of metaxylem vessels was determined using a 40× objective lens. All measurements were performed using the calibrated UTHSCSA-ImageTool® software. Due to the image size relative to the field of view of the microscope-mounted camera, each cladode cross-section was photographed in two parts (upper and lower) to facilitate measurement of the total area. Statistical analysis The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design, with two plant species ( S. undatus and H. polyrhizus ) and four LED light qualities (White: WL; Blue: BL; Purple: PL; Red: RL), arranged in a 2×4 factorial scheme, totaling eight treatments. Data analysis was performed using R Studio software (version 4.2.2) through analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means were compared using the Scott–Knott clustering test at a significance level of α = 0.05. Results were expressed as mean values ± standard error, with different letters in figures and/or tables indicating significant differences among treatments at p ≤ 0.05. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After 65 days of exposing S. undatus and H. polyrhizus plants to different LED light qualities [White (WL), Blue (BL), Purple (PL), Red (RL)], no significant interactions were observed with respect to cladode diameter. In contrast, significant interactions were observed for biometric variables (shoot length, and fresh and dry mass of the shoot and root), photosynthetic pigment content, and anatomical parameters (number of vascular bundles, cross-sectional area, total root diameter, root area, and number of metaxylem vessels) (Tables 2 and 3; Figures 3 and 4). The mean cladode diameter of S. undatus seedlings (0.728 ± 0.013 cm) was greater than that of H. polyrhizus (0.690 ± 0.009 cm). The highest mean cladode diameters were observed under purple (0.723 ± 0.023 cm) and red (0.715 ± 0.024 cm) light, which did not differ from each other but were higher than those under blue (0.703 ± 0.019 cm) and white (0.694 ± 0.017 cm) light (Table 1). Table 1. Mean cladode diameter (Dm; mm) of pitaya species ( Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus ) after 65 days of in vitro cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White: WL; Blue: BL; Purple: PL; Red: RL]. spp. Dm LQ Dm S. undatus 0.728±0.013 a WL 0.694±0.017B H. polyrhizus 0.690±0.009 b BL 0.703±0.019B PL 0.723±0.023A C.V. = 6.45% RL 0.715±0.024A Means (± standard error) followed by the same lowercase letter (species) or uppercase letter (light quality) within columns do not differ according to the Scott–Knott clustering test (p < 0.05). C.V.- coefficient of variation (%). The greater cladode diameters observed under purple and red light are consistent with recent studies on pitaya photomorphogenesis, which reported that red light influences primary metabolic processes in seedlings of this species, including glucose metabolism and photosynthesis. In contrast, the combination of red and blue light (1R:2B), i.e., purple light, resulted in the highest plant performance. It was observed that red light alone increased plant height, whereas blue light exerted an inhibitory effect on this parameter. According to the researchers, this positive effect of red light is associated with the specific activation of phytochromes, which regulate cell elongation and division, thereby supporting the radial growth of plant tissues (Huang et al., 2022). The biometric characteristics of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus seedlings did not vary in response to exposure to white light. However, under blue, purple, and red light, S. undatus seedlings exhibited greater shoot length (1.410 ± 0.165 cm, 1.613 ± 0.321 cm, and 1.694 ± 0.344 cm, respectively), shoot fresh mass (1.029 ± 0.133 g, 1.256 ± 0.276 g, and 1.218 ± 0.330 g, respectively) and dry mass (0.362 ± 0.006 g, 0.408 ± 0.007 g, and 0.401 ± 0.014 g, respectively), as well as root fresh mass (0.698 ± 0.078 g, 0.904 ± 0.163 g, and 0.816 ± 0.339 g, respectively) and dry mass (0.017 ± 0.002 g, 0.023 ± 0.003 g, and 0.026 ± 0.008 g, respectively) (Table 2). Table 2. Shoot length (LAP, cm), shoot fresh mass (FMAP, g plant⁻¹) and root fresh mass (DMAP, g plant⁻¹), and shoot dry mass (FMR, g plant⁻¹) and root dry mass (DMR, g plant⁻¹) of cladodes of pitaya species ( Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus ) after 65 days of in vitro cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); Red (RL)]. spp. LQ C.V. WL BL PL RL LAP S. undatus 1.361 0.132 Ba 1.410 0.165 Ba 1.613 0.321 Aa 1.694 0.344 Aa 8.97 H. polyrhizus 1.354 0.176 Ba 1.253 0.116 Cb 1.372 0.143 Bb 1.502 0.118 Ab FMAP S. undatus 0.908 0.074 Ca 1.029 0.133 Ba 1.256 0.276 Aa 1.218 0.330 Aa 8.99 H. polyrhizus 0.886 0.097 Aa 0.876 0.020 Ab 0.870 0.046 Ab 0.847 0.043 Ab DMAP S. undatus 0.303 0.003 Ba 0.362 0.006 Aa 0.408 0.007 Aa 0.401 0.014 Aa 10.17 H. polyrhizus 0.304 0.005 Aa 0.288 0.003 Ab 0.295 0.002 Ab 0.300 0.001 Ab FMR S. undatus 0.477 0.037 Ba 0.698 0.078 Aa 0.904 0.163 Aa 0.816 0.339 Aa 24.57 H. polyrhizus 0.564 0.082 Aa 0.462 0.002 Ab 0.597 0.072 Ab 0.415 0.021 Ab DMR S. undatus 0.011 0.002 Ba 0.017 0.002 Aa 0.023 0.003 Aa 0.026 0.008 Aa 14.39 H. polyrhizus 0.006 0.001 Aa 0.004 0.001 Ab 0.010 0.001 Ab 0.006 0.001 Ab Means (± standard error) followed by the same uppercase letter in the row (light quality) and lowercase letter in the column (species) do not differ according to the Scott–Knott clustering test (p < 0.05). C.V.- coefficient of variation (%). The cladodes of S. undatus exhibited the greatest shoot length under purple (1.613 ± 0.321 cm) and red (1.694 ± 0.344 cm) light, whereas for H. polyrhizus , the highest values were observed under red light (1.502 ± 0.118 cm). Similarly, shoot fresh mass of S. undatus cladodes was highest under purple (1.256 ± 0.276 g) and red (1.218 ± 0.330 g) light. Shoot dry mass, as well as root fresh and dry mass of S. undatus cladodes, were highest under purple (0.408 ± 0.007 g; 0.904 ± 0.163 g; and 0.023 ± 0.003 g, respectively), red (0.401 ± 0.014 g; 0.816 ± 0.339 g; and 0.026 ± 0.008 g, respectively), and blue (0.362 ± 0.006 g; 0.698 ± 0.078 g; and 0.017 ± 0.002 g, respectively) light. No significant differences in fresh or dry mass were observed for H. polyrhizus cladodes among the light qualities (Table 2). The higher biometric values observed for S. undatus compared to H. polyrhizus may be related to distinct interspecific responses, reflecting species-specific photomorphogenic mechanisms and, in the context of this study, suggesting greater morphological plasticity in S. undatus (Cavallaro et al., 2022). This underscores the importance of light quality in optimizing the growth of different species (De Vasconcelos Dias et al., 2025). The higher biometric values of S. undatus under purple and red light may be associated with the modulation of phytochrome activity, which regulates cell elongation genes mediated by phytochromes B (Huang et al., 2022), as well as the activation of cryptochromes that stimulate root development (Yun et al., 2023). These results, combined with those observed in the present study, suggest that S. undatus may exhibit greater morphological plasticity and efficiency in converting carbohydrates into tissues, as it is a CAM plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) with anatomical and physiological adaptations that optimize carbon and water use. CAM photosynthesis allows nocturnal CO₂ fixation with malate storage in the vacuoles, which is subsequently decarboxylated during the day to supply CO₂ to the Calvin cycle. This temporal separation between CO₂ capture and photosynthetic fixation confers CAM species, including S. undatus , with greater water-use efficiency and the ability to maintain photosynthetic metabolism even under stress conditions (Nhut et al., 2003; Cavallaro et al., 2022; Shang et al., 2023). In contrast, H. polyrhizus exhibited lower biometric performance, showing better development only under white light, which suggests a greater dependence on the full light spectrum to optimize growth. The low performance under red light may indicate competition for photoassimilates or species-specific limitations in light signal transduction. This lower performance is consistent with its epiphytic CAM physiology, which has a limited capacity to allocate resources for root growth under in vitro culture conditions, unlike the higher photosynthetic efficiency observed in S. undatus (Sarropoulou et al., 2023; Cossa et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2025). These results underscore the importance of optimizing light quality according to the species, as different photomorphogenic mechanisms may elicit contrasting responses to the same light spectrum (De Vasconcelos Dias et al., 2025). Photosynthetic pigment contents varied between the pitaya species S. undatus and H. polyrhizus , as well as in response to light quality during in vitro cultivation. Cladodes of S. undatus exhibited higher accumulation of chlorophyll a (R7) and total chlorophyll under blue light (0.615 ± 0.016 μg g⁻¹ and 0.687 ± 0.025 μg g⁻¹, respectively). Chlorophyll b and carotenoids showed the highest contents in the cladodes under blue (0.452 ± 0.010 μg g⁻¹ and 0.416 ± 0.005 μg g⁻¹, respectively), white (0.425 ± 0.017 μg g⁻¹ and 0.378 ± 0.010 μg g⁻¹, respectively), and purple light (0.412 ± 0.010 μg g⁻¹ and 0.376 ± 0.005 μg g⁻¹, respectively), without significant differences among them. The pitaya species Hylocereus polyrhizus showed higher concentrations of photosynthetic pigments under white light, with chlorophyll a at 0.709 ± 0.035 μg g⁻¹, chlorophyll b at 0.532 ± 0.012 μg g⁻¹, total chlorophylls at 0.798 ± 0.047 μg g⁻¹, and carotenoids at 0.488 ± 0.010 μg g⁻¹. In both species, the lowest pigment concentrations were observed under red light; however, for H. polyrhizus , no differences were detected between red, blue, and purple light for chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll (Table 3). Tabela 3. Teor dos pigmentos fotossintéticos (PF) clorofila 'a' (Chl a), clorofila 'b' (Chl b), clorofilas totais (Chl a+b) e carotenoides (Car), em μg g -1 de massa fresca, de cladódios das espécies (Esp.) de pitaya S. undatus e H. polyrhizus , aos 65 dias de cultivo in vitro , sob diferentes qualidades de luz (QL) [Branca (LB); Azul (LA); Roxa (LR) e Vermelha (LV)]. Table 3. Photosynthetic pigment contents (PP) – chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), total chlorophylls (Chl a+b), and carotenoids (Car), in μg g⁻¹ of fresh mass of cladodes from pitaya species ( S. undatus and H. polyrhizus ) after 65 days of in vitro cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); Red (RL)]. PP spp. LQ C.V. WL BL PL RL Chl a S. undatus 0.542 0.028 Bb 0.615 0.016 Aa 0.502 0.014 Ba 0.344 0.003 Cb 7.99 H. polyrhizus 0.709 0.035 Aa 0.579 0.027 Ba 0.561 0.020 Ba 0.506 0.017 Ca Chl b S. undatus 0.425 0.017 Ab 0.452 0.010 Aa 0.412 0.010 Aa 0.282 0.003 Bb 8.60 H. polyrhizus 0.532 0.012 Aa 0.442 0.009 Ba 0.415 0.008 Ba 0.383 0.006 Ba Chl a+b S. undatus 0.618 0.045 Bb 0.687 0.025 Aa 0.582 0.023 Ba 0.399 0.006 Cb 8.05 H. polyrhizus 0.798 0.047 Aa 0.655 0.036 Ba 0.629 0.028 Ba 0.571 0.022 Ba Car S. undatus 0.378 0.010 Ab 0.416 0.005 Aa 0.376 0.005 Aa 0.238 0.002 Bb 7.86 H. polyrhizus 0.488 0.010 Aa 0.421 0.008 Ba 0.386 0.008 Ba 0.350 0.005 Ca Means (± standard error) followed by the same uppercase letter in the row (light quality) and lowercase letter in the column (species) do not differ according to the Scott–Knott clustering test (p < 0.05). C.V.- coefficient of variation (%). Between the species, H. polyrhizus exhibited higher pigment contents than S. undatus under white light (chlorophyll a : 0.709 ± 0.035 μg g⁻¹; chlorophyll b : 0.532 ± 0.012 μg g⁻¹; total chlorophylls: 0.798 ± 0.047 μg g⁻¹; carotenoids: 0.488 ± 0.010 μg g⁻¹) and red light (chlorophyll a : 0.506 ± 0.017 μg g⁻¹; chlorophyll b : 0.383 ± 0.006 μg g⁻¹; total chlorophylls: 0.571 ± 0.022 μg g⁻¹; carotenoids: 0.350 ± 0.005 μg g⁻¹). Under blue and purple light, no differences in pigment contents were observed between the two species (Table 3). The higher pigment contents of H. polyrhizus under white light compared to other light qualities indicate genotypic differences in pigment biosynthesis capacity when compared to S. undatus (Yaoyuan et al., 2025). This assertion can be supported by the indicator of overall photosynthetic capacity, total chlorophyll, where the differences observed between the species in this study reinforce the existence of distinct adaptive strategies (Sumi et al., 2025; Yaoyuan et al., 2025). White light, by providing a complete and balanced light spectrum, creates optimal conditions for chlorophyll synthesis through the simultaneous activation of multiple metabolic pathways (Baidya et al., 2021) and maximizes synthesis via the combined activation of photosystems I and II (Liu & Van Iersel, 2021; Yaoyuan et al., 2025). The superior pigment accumulation in S. undatus under blue light confirms the involvement of cryptochromes and phototropins in regulating the expression of genes related to chlorophyll biosynthesis (Raqiba & Sibi, 2019; Wu et al., 2024). This supports the positive regulation of key enzymes, such as protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase, by blue wavelengths (Raqiba & Sibi, 2019) and highlights the dependence on regulatory pathways specific to this light spectrum (Liu & Van Iersel, 2021; Yaoyuan et al., 2025). The reduction in pigments of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus under red light corroborates the limitations of using a monochromatic spectrum for the full activation of metabolic pathways (Sumi et al., 2025). This indicates a dependence on specific spectral components, which hampers photosynthetic pigment synthesis and confirms the need for combination with blue wavelengths to achieve maximal carotenoid synthesis (Yaoyuan et al., 2025). The synthesis of bioactive compounds varied in the cladodes of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus under different LED light qualities, particularly betalains (1000–1200 cm⁻¹), phenolic compounds (1400–1600 cm⁻¹), and antioxidant agents (1000–1600 cm⁻¹) (Figure 1). These results are consistent with studies that validate the same wavelengths as specific markers of secondary metabolites (Vershinina et al., 2025; De Angelis et al., 2025). The species H. polyrhizus exhibited higher amounts of bioactive compounds, with more intense Raman peaks under white, blue, and purple light across all analyzed regions, whereas S. undatus showed higher levels under red light. H. polyrhizus under purple light and S. undatus under red light exhibited the most intense peaks, primarily in the 1400–1500 cm⁻¹ region (Figure 1). In S. undatus , betalains, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant agents were highest under white light (moderate–high, high, and very high, respectively) and red light (moderate, high, and high, respectively), not differing significantly from cladodes under blue light, which showed low–moderate levels of betalains and moderate antioxidant activity, all of which were higher than under purple light, which resulted in low metabolic activity (Figure 1). Red light activates phytochromes that regulate key genes in the betalain pathway (such as DODA and CYP76AD1), whereas blue light activates cryptochromes but with lower efficiency (Griffin & Toledo-Ortiz, 2022). However, these photoreceptors can interact synergistically with red light, optimizing the phenylpropanoid pathway through the modulation of transcription factors HY5 and PIFs (Pierik & Ballaré, 2021). H. polyrhizus exhibited higher concentrations of betalains, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant agents under white light (high, maximum, and maximum for betalains, phenolics, and antioxidants, respectively), followed by purple light (moderate, very high, and high) and red light (moderate–high, very high, and high), all of which were higher than under blue light, which produced moderate levels of all compounds (Figure 1). These results reveal a positive relationship between spectral intensity and antioxidant capacity, consistent with findings reported in other studies. Betacyanins, such as betanin and hylocerenin, for example, exhibited higher antioxidant activity than conventional anthocyanins, with EC₅₀ values ranging from 11–27 μg mL⁻¹ in DPPH and ABTS assays (Chen et al., 2021; Paśko et al., 2021). This pattern is consistent with evidence of interspecific variation in betalain content, with H. polyrhizus recognized for having higher betacyanin concentrations compared to other pitaya species (Choo et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2021; Khoo et al., 2022). For both species, white light proved to be the most efficient, enabling the emergence of complex spectra with multiple bioactive peaks. H. polyrhizus exhibited greater adaptive capacity, showing positive responses under purple light, in contrast to the low responsiveness of S. undatus to the same light quality (Figure 1). These results indicate a specific role of photoreceptors, where phytochromes and cryptochromes regulate distinct biosynthetic pathways (Griffin & Toledo-Ortiz, 2022; Xie et al., 2025). The elemental composition of S. undatus cladodes showed significant variations between the central ribs (CR) and the rib margins (RM), as well as among the different light qualities (white, blue, purple and red) (Table 4). Table 4. Percentage distribution (atomic %) of chemical elements (CE) in cladodes of pitaya species ( S. undatus and H. polyrhizus ) after 65 days of in vitro cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); Red (RL)]. LQ CE WL BL PL RL (%) spp. CR RM CR RM CR RM CR RM K S. undatus 57.49 1.88 43.08 1.55 48.14 1.68 74.45 2.47 49.46 1.76 69.53 2.35 70.35 2.44 59.07 2.05 H. polyrhizus 69.69 2.92 58.11 2.12 57.01 1.89 66.43 0.89 43.61 1.48 54.88 1.95 33.37 1.21 44.74 1.54 Ca S. undatus 6.39 0.38 25.73 1.03 27.88 1.08 11.17 0.63 17.44 0.83 13.28 0.71 23.37 1.09 18.89 0.87 H. polyrhizus 20.51 1.64 19.36 1.01 17.24 0.37 17.77 0.08 35.51 1.22 27.56 1.15 21.67 0.86 5.50 0.42 S S. undatus 7.37 0.44 6.06 0.53 3.01 0.41 0.64 0.03 3.07 0.47 1.78 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.01 H. polyrhizus 0.00 0.00 1.35 0.02 7.74 0.10 5.99 0.01 4.67 0.10 4.41 0.55 26.91 1.19 25.86 1.14 Mg S. undatus 10.80 0.85 13.62 1.20 6.18 0.79 0.00 0.00 16.25 1.37 0.28 0.03 0.00 0.00 9.07 1.02 H. polyrhizus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.36 0.06 0.00 0.00 5.78 0.07 2.80 0.06 9.41 0.88 12.05 1.00 P S. undatus 8.17 0.50 6.45 0.58 6.54 0.55 2.56 0.43 8.67 0.69 5.22 0.55 0.00 0.00 3.87 0.53 H. polyrhizus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.03 0.07 1.69 0.01 2.62 0.05 1.15 0.05 5.64 0.48 8.05 0.55 Cl S. undatus 8.67 0.45 3.61 0.42 6.94 0.49 8.48 0.54 4.91 0.48 8.54 0.57 4.12 0.51 4.71 0.48 H. polyrhizus 0.00 0.00 1.10 0.06 7.55 0.14 6.10 0.03 5.74 0.38 7.46 0.60 1.46 0.02 3.13 0.34 Fe S. undatus 0.55 0.18 0.78 0.29 0.91 0.27 1.41 0.31 0.13 0.01 0.72 0.30 0.91 0.37 1.40 0.35 H. polyrhizus 8.52 0.96 19.84 0.91 1.05 0.02 1.45 0.00 1.14 0.02 1.15 0.06 1.25 0.00 0.29 0.22 Mn S. undatus 0.27 0.16 0.61 0.28 0.33 0.15 0.91 0.28 0.07 0.01 0.47 0.03 1.25 0.37 2.40 0.36 H. polyrhizus 0.44 0.03 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.56 0.00 0.92 0.02 0.34 0.01 0.30 0.02 0.23 0.00 Na S. undatus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 H. polyrhizus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.04 0.00 0.00 Zn S. undatus 0.29 0.19 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.37 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.04 H. polyrhizus 0.84 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 Percentage distribution (atomic %) of chemical elements (CE) in cladodes of pitaya species ( S. undatus and H. polyrhizus ) (values expressed as ± standard error). CR = central ribs; RM = rib margins. Potassium (K) was the predominant mineral under all conditions, particularly in the blue light treatment, where S. undatus reached 74.55 ± 2.47% in the RM and 70.35 ± 2.44% in the CR. Meanwhile, H. polyrhizus exhibited higher K concentrations, reaching 69.69 ± 2.92% under white light in the CR and 66.43 ± 0.89% under blue light in the RM (Table 4). The high K content highlights its essential role as an osmotic regulator and primary cytosolic ion (Pinho et al., 2017). The higher accumulation in S. undatus under red light suggests the activation of specific transporters mediated by this light spectrum in this species (Chen et al., 2025In H. polyrhizus , the highest K content occurred under white light, which may further indicate metabolic differences between the species under study (Lima et al., 2021; Soufi et al., 2023). The highest calcium (Ca) content was observed in H. polyrhizus under purple light, both in the CR and RM (35.51 ± 1.22% and 27.56 ± 1.15%, respectively). In S. undatus , the highest Ca content was observed under blue light in the CR (27.88 ± 1.08%) and under white light in the RM (25.73 ± 1.03%) (Table 4). The difference in Ca content between species, influenced by light quality, may indicate a potential interaction between Ca²⁺ transport and the light spectrum (Soufi et al., 2023). The stimulation under blue light in S. undatus is associated with the activation of cryptochrome-mediated channels, whereas under purple light in H. polyrhizus it indicates a specific response to violet–blue wavelengths (Ahmed et al., 2023). Sulfur (S) content was highest in H. polyrhizus under red light (26.91 ± 1.19% in the CR and 25.86 ± 1.14% in the RM), whereas in S. undatus it was highest under white light (7.37 ± 0.44% in the CR and 6.06 ± 0.53% in the RM) (Table 4). The higher S content in H. polyrhizus highlights distinct metabolic demands between the species. The positive effect of red light in H. polyrhizus may be related to the activation of specific sulfate transporters (Soufi et al., 2023). Magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), and chlorine (Cl) contents were higher in S. undatus under purple light (16.25 ± 1.37%, 8.67 ± 0.69%, and 8.67 ± 0.45% in the CR, respectively) and white light (10.80 ± 0.85%, 6.45 ± 0.58%, and 8.54 ± 0.57% in the RM, respectively). In H. polyrhizus , Mg and P were highest under red light (12.05 ± 1.00% and 8.05 ± 0.55% in the CR; 9.41 ± 0.88% and 5.64 ± 0.48% in the RM, respectivelyChlorine (Cl) content was highest under white light in the CR (7.55 ± 0.14%) and under red light in the RM (7.46 ± 0.60%) (Table 4). The higher Mg content in S. undatus confirms the dependence of this mineral on specific light qualities to optimize its transport, given its role as the central component of chlorophyll (Li et al., 2023). Regarding micronutrients, iron (Fe) showed the highest levels in H. polyrhizus under white light in the RM (19.84 ± 0.91%) and in the CR (8.52 ± 0.96%). Manganese (Mn) content was highest in S. undatus under red light (2.40 ± 0.36% in the RM and 1.25 ± 0.37% in the CR). Sodium (Na) was not detected in S. undatus ; however, it was quantified in H. polyrhizus under red light in the CR (0.19 ± 0.04%). Zinc (Zn) content was highest in S. undatus under red light in the RM (0.42 ± 0.04%) and under white light in the CR (0.29 ± 0.19%). In H. polyrhizus , the highest zinc (Zn) content was observed under white light in the CR (0.84 ± 0.07%) and under red light in the RM (0.15 ± 0.00%) (Table 4). The highest accumulation of Fe in H. polyrhizus under white light suggests that a broad-spectrum light optimizes its uptake, being essential for the formation of iron-sulfur complexes and for electron transport in photosynthesis (Ning et al., 2023). The accumulation of Mn in S. undatus under red light confirms its role in photosystem II as a cofactor in the oxygen-evolving complex, and it is also associated with the regulation of flowering stimulated by red LED light (Chen et al., 2025). The low Zn content in both species corroborates previous studies indicating limited accumulation of this micronutrient in pitaya (Yasmin et al., 2024), possibly due to CAM metabolism, which reduces the uptake of certain elements because of daytime stomatal closure. The absence of Na in most samples further confirms the non-halophytic nature of pitayas, limiting their adaptation to saline soils, while making their fruits suitable for sodium-restricted diets (Nikalje & Suprasanna, 2018). Principal component analysis (PCA) of the mineral composition of the vascular tissues of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus at 65 days of in vitro cultivation under different light qualities [white (WL), blue (BL), purple (PL), and red (RL)] explained 55.8% of the total variance across the first two axes, highlighting a greater contribution of variables associated with nutrient uptake under the different treatments (Figure 2A–B). Dim1 explained 35.5% of the total variability, primarily distinguishing the species H. polyrhizus and S. undatus according to the spectral light conditions. Dim2 explained 20.3% of the variability, being associated with differences between cladode regions (CR and RM) within each species (Figure 2A–B). The first component describes a spectral gradient in which red light appears to stimulate the accumulation of sodium and chlorine, known markers of osmotic stress. This result is consistent with other studies linking this light quality to salt stress induction through alterations in stomatal conductance and ion transport (Ramezani et al., 2023). The opposite result was observed for blue light, which was correlated with enrichment in iron and manganese, redox elements essential for the activation of photosynthetic enzymes (Soufi et al., 2023). Regarding the second component, which differentiated tissue types, it is possible to infer a functional specialization in the central ribs (CR) for minerals such as P, S, and Mg, consistent with their conductive function, whereas in the rib margins (RM), structural elements like K and Ca were concentrated, playing a role in maintaining mechanical and osmotic integrity (Nganko et al., 2024; Peng et al., 2025). Among the species, S. undatus exhibited a more homogeneous and stable response, especially under purple light, indicating greater resilience to light quality variations. H. polyrhizus , in contrast, exhibited high phenotypic plasticity, with mineral adjustments modulated by light quality, suggesting distinct physiological strategies. The higher phenotypic plasticity observed in H. polyrhizus represents an adaptive advantage through differential regulation of ion transporters (such as HuTZF3 and Na⁺/H⁺ antiporters) that maintain Na⁺/K⁺ homeostasis, and metabolic enzymes like HuBADH (glycine betaine synthesis) and polyphenol oxidase (biosynthesis of antioxidant betalains), enabling greater tolerance to salinity and climatic stresses, particularly in marginal soils and arid environments (Zhu et al., 2025; Peng et al., 2025). Analysis of the number of vascular bundles and the cross-sectional area of cladodes revealed significant differences between the species ( S. undatus and H. polyrhizus ) cultivated in vitro under different light qualities (Figures 3 and 4). The number of vascular bundles was higher in the cladodes of S. undatus under white, purple, and red light, and lower under blue light, compared to H. polyrhizus (10.6 ± 0.15 vs. 7.2 ± 0.13; 9.2 ± 0.13 vs. 7.8 ± 0.13; and 7.0 ± 0.00 vs. 4.0 ± 0.20, respectively), whereas under blue light, H. polyrhizus exhibited a higher number (5.8 ± 0.13 vs. 4.6 ± 0.15) (Figures 3A and 4). The number of vascular bundles in the cladodes of S. undatus was highest under white light (10.6 ± 0.15), followed by purple (9.2 ± 0.13) and red (7.0 ± 0.00) light, and lowest under blue light (4.6 ± 0.15). For H. polyrhizus , the number of vascular bundles was highest under purple (7.8 ± 0.13) and white (7.2 ± 0.13) light, which did not differ significantly, followed by blue light (5.8 ± 0.13), and lowest under red light (4.0 ± 0.20) (Figures 3A and 4). The cross-sectional area was greater in the cladodes of S. undatus compared to H. polyrhizus under blue (0.93 ± 0.03 vs. 0.59 ± 0.02, respectively) and white light (0.79 ± 0.04 vs. 0.51 ± 0.02, respectively), whereas H. polyrhizus exhibited larger areas under purple (0.88 ± 0.04 vs. 0.81 ± 0.05, respectively) and red light (0.79 ± 0.02 vs. 0.28 ± 0.03, respectively) (Figures 3B and 4). The cross-sectional area of S. undatus cladodes was highest under blue light (0.93 ± 0.03), followed by purple (0.81 ± 0.05) and white light (0.79 ± 0.04), which did not differ significantly from each other, but was lower under red light (0.28 ± 0.03). H. polyrhizus had the cross-sectional area higher under purple light (0.88 ± 0.04), followed by red (0.79 ± 0.02) and blue light (0.59 ± 0.02), and lowest under white light (0.51 ± 0.02) (Figures 3B and 4). These anatomical patterns are consistent with recent studies linking LED spectral quality to vascular development in plants (Ahsan et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). The higher number of vascular bundles under white and blue light in S. undatus suggests a central role of cryptochromes in the regulation of genes involved in vascular differentiation (Yang et al., 2017; Bantis et al., 2020; Mani et al., 2024). It has been shown that blue light enables vascular reconnection in grafted watermelon, whereas red light impairs the early development of this system (Bantis et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2024). The reduction in the number of vascular bundles under red light in both species may be associated with stress induced by alterations in redox homeostasis, leading to impaired vascular development (Ahn et al., 2022). On the other hand, the increase in cross-sectional area under blue and purple light in S. undatus indicates that these wavelengths promote cell differentiation and the expansion of vegetative tissues (Bantis et al., 2020). The lower responsiveness of H. polyrhizus suggests genotypic differences in sensitivity to photoreceptors and in the regulation of vascular development pathways. This behavior is consistent with other studies on cacti, in which different species exhibited distinct anatomical responses depending on cultivation conditions (Soto Acosta et al., 2023; Hong & Huang, 2024). Anatomical analysis of the roots of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus under different light conditions revealed significant differences in total diameter, root area, and the number of metaxylem vessels (Figure 5). The total root diameter was greater in the cladodes of S. undatus compared to H. polyrhizus under red (339.54 ± 0.57 vs. 213.71 ± 1.00), purple (305.37 ± 0.99 vs. 216.80 ± 0.97), and white light (267.63 ± 0.89 vs. 200.82 ± 0.85), whereas under blue light, H. polyrhizus exhibited a larger diameter (296.23 ± 0.90 vs. 257.40 ± 0.73) (Figures 5A and 6). The total root diameter of S. undatus cladodes was highest under red light (339.54 ± 0.57), followed by purple (305.37 ± 0.99), and lowest under white and blue light (267.63 ± 0.89 and 257.40 ± 0.73, respectively), which did not differ significantly from each other. H. polyrhizus had the highest total root diameter under blue light (296.23 ± 0.90), whereas no significant differences were observed under purple, red, and white light (216.80 ± 0.97; 213.71 ± 1.00; and 200.82 ± 0.85, respectively) (Figures 5A and 6). Root area was greater in the cladodes of S. undatus compared to H. polyrhizus under red (0.34 ± 0.03 vs. 0.14 ± 0.01), purple (0.29 ± 0.04 vs. 0.14 ± 0.01), and white light (0.22 ± 0.02 vs. 0.12 ± 0.01), whereas under blue light, H. polyrhizus exhibited a larger root area (0.27 ± 0.05 vs. 0.21 ± 0.02) (Figures 5B and 6). The root area of S. undatus cladodes was highest under red light (0.34 ± 0.03), followed by purple (0.29 ± 0.04), whereas no significant differences were observed under white and blue light (0.22 ± 0.02 and 0.21 ± 0.02, respectively). H. polyrhizus had the highest root area under blue light (0.27 ± 0.05), while red, purple, and white light did not differ significantly (0.14 ± 0.01; 0.14 ± 0.01; and 0.12 ± 0.01, respectively) (Figures 5B and 6). The number of metaxylem vessels was higher in the cladodes of S. undatus compared to H. polyrhizus under purple (5 ± 0.03 vs. 3 ± 0.01) and red light (5 ± 0.02 vs. 3 ± 0.01), lower under blue light (4 ± 0.02 vs. 5 ± 0.02), and did not differ under white light (4 ± 0.01 vs. 4 ± 0.01) (Figures 5C and 6). The number of metaxylem vessels in S. undatus cladodes was highest under purple and red light, with no significant difference between them (5 ± 0.03 and 5 ± 0.02, respectively). Blue and white light, which were also similar, resulted in lower values (4 ± 0.02 and 4 ± 0.01, respectively). H. polyrhizus had the highest number of metaxylem vessels under blue light (5 ± 0.02), followed by white light (4 ± 0.01), and then purple and red light, which did not differ significantly (3 ± 0.01 and 3 ± 0.01, respectively) (Figures 5C and 6). These results are consistent with recent studies on the effects of LED light quality on the root system development of S. undatus and H. polyrhizus (Hua et al., 2016; Pauls et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024). The superiority of S. undatus in root diameter and area under purple and red light is consistent with evidence that long wavelengths stimulate cell expansion through phytochrome activation and hormonal regulation (Kiss et al., 2003; De Wit et al., 2016; Samalova et al., 2024). Researchers have shown that blue light signaling, mediated by cryptochromes, regulates xylem cell differentiation, stimulating secondary cell wall deposition in xylem fibers via the CRY-HY5-NST3 cascade (Hwang et al., 2024). The contrast between the higher number of metaxylem vessels in S. undatus under purple and red light and the preferential response of H. polyrhizus to blue light suggests distinct adaptive strategies in root vascular differentiation between the species. These variations in the number and size of metaxylem vessels directly affect axial hydraulic conductivity and drought tolerance, with smaller vessels being more favorable under water stress conditions (Priatama et al., 2022). The uniform response of S. undatus across all treatments, in contrast to the specific responsiveness of H. polyrhizus to blue light, reinforces the hypothesis of genotypic differences in sensitivity to photoreceptors. Researchers have observed that blue light can increase stomatal conductance and photosynthetic efficiency through anatomical modifications, including changes in stomatal density and leaf thickness (Zheng & Van Labeke, 2017). CONCLUSIONS The results obtained in this study highlight the need to adopt species-specific lighting strategies to optimize pitaya micropropagation. LED light quality, at 65 days of in vitro cultivation, influenced the growth of Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus . S. undatus exhibited higher biometric parameters (diameter, fresh and dry mass) and anatomical traits related to the vascular system, particularly in seedlings under purple and red light, indicating greater morphoanatomical plasticity and a more homogeneous response under these light qualities. In contrast, H. polyrhizus showed higher accumulation of photosynthetic pigments under white light, suggesting an adaptive strategy aimed at optimizing light capture across a broad spectrum, albeit with lower vegetative vigor. Red light favors potassium accumulation but simultaneously induces osmotic stress, whereas blue light promotes redox elements essential for photosynthetic functioning. Blue light enhances carotenoid biosynthesis in S. undatus , whereas purple and white light promote betalain accumulation in H. polyrhizus , representing fundamental differences in secondary metabolism and adaptive strategies between the two species. Purple and red light qualities promoted greater growth and vascular differentiation in S. undatus , whereas white and blue light were more favorable for the development of H. polyrhizus . Abbreviations PPFD : Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density; LQ : Light Qualities; WL : White Light; BL : Blue Light; PL : Purple Light; RL : Red Light; CR : Central Rib; RM : Rib Margins; CE : Chemical Elements; Dm : Mean Diameter; SL : Shoot Length; FMS : Fresh Mass of Shoot; SDM : Shoot Dry Mass; RFM : Root Fresh Mass; RDM : Root Dry Mass; PP : Photosynthetic Pigments; Chl a : Chlorophyll a ; Chl b : Chlorophyll b ; Chl a+b : Total Chlorophylls; Car : Carotenoids; spp.: Species; PCA : Principal Component Analysis. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors of this work thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES), the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) for financial support for the experiments and for funding scholarships and research productivity grants. Funding: Not applicable. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Ethics declaration: Not applicable. Consent to participate: Not applicable. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Data availability statement: Not applicable. Author's contribution: Conceptual idea: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Mirian, N.M.; Methodological design: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G; Filipe, A. R.; Data collection: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Mirian, N.M.; Data analysis and interpretation: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Filipe, A. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":169033,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRaman spectra of \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities [Purple, Blue, Red, and White]: comparative analysis of biochemical profiles.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/7e6baf6c26738be298d57a41.jpg"},{"id":100865894,"identity":"c5cab0e6-db0b-47a6-9c71-93655b64a74b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 08:27:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":88911,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA–B. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the mineral composition of vascular tissues of pitaya cladodes (CR and RM) species (spp.) \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e (orange symbols) and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e (blue symbols) at 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003ecultivation under different light qualities [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); and Red (RL)]. (A) Distribution of individuals along the first two principal axes (Dim1 = 35.5%; Dim2 = 20.3%). (B) Biplot showing the correlation between variables (mineral elements) and the evaluated treatments. The numbered points (1–16) represent combinations of species, cladode regions, and light qualities, as follows: 1 (BLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light; 2 (BLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under white light; 3 (PLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003eunder purple light; 4 (PLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under purple light; 5 (RLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red light; 6 (RLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light; 7 (WLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light (control); 8 (WLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under white light (control); 9 (BLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light (control); 10 (BLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under white light (control); 11 (PLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under purple light; 12 (PLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under purple light; 13 (RLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red light; 14 (RLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light; 15 (WLCR) = \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light (control); and 16 (WLRM) = \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003eunder white light (control).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/67fa0f28bd41b7de8b68c0b7.jpg"},{"id":100866037,"identity":"b366deae-d3c0-4f05-8f71-0fa097e5a361","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 08:28:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53743,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(A) Number of vascular bundles and (B) cross-sectional area of cladodes of the pitaya species \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e at 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); and Red (RL)]. Anatomical traits are presented as means ± standard error (n = 5). Lowercase letters compare species within each light quality, and uppercase letters compare light qualities within each species; values followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to the Scott-Knott test (p \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/ca2f715efd369cfd32bd7324.jpg"},{"id":100866042,"identity":"b3b08e00-e6a4-4c43-a84d-ccf142e3c40c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 08:28:07","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":141905,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCross-sectional area of cladodes of pitaya species \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities [White (A–B), Blue (C–D), Purple (E–F), and Red (G–H)]. Labels: c= cuticle; ep= epidermis; pr= storage parenchyma; pm= medullary parenchyma; c = cortex; w= wing; ab= axillary bud (areole); vb= vascular bundle. Scale bar= 100 µm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/084d2be290b1b96839862fcf.jpg"},{"id":100866043,"identity":"850324e8-2fc6-424e-b593-4cbe5ff53b7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 08:28:08","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55717,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(A) Total root diameter; (B) root area; and (C) number of metaxylem vessels in the cladodes of pitaya species \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e at 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); and Red (RL)]. Anatomical traits are presented as means ± standard error (n = 5). Lowercase letters compare pitaya species within each light quality, and uppercase letters compare light qualities within each species; values followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to the Scott-Knott test (p \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/707d43b8216b981be741b65a.jpg"},{"id":100865947,"identity":"1ace096e-eb5d-4c40-9b9a-4e31b40f8f03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 08:27:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":116662,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrographs of transverse root sections of pitaya species \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e at 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities [White (A–B), Blue (C–D), Purple (E–F), and Red (G–H)]. Labels: ep= epidermis; cx= cortex; cv= vascular cylinder; ex= exodermis; rh= root hairs. Scale bar: 100 μm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/3290894655a85bd1c064118c.jpg"},{"id":104406203,"identity":"5c742b19-11be-4b80-a81d-6c574746242b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:25:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1909304,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8099833/v1/db0f61c9-8215-4b42-a779-fcb5e904998b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"The quality of LED light alters the biometrics, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomy of in vitro micropropagated pitaya","fulltext":[{"header":"Key Message","content":"\u003cp\u003eLED light quality differentially modulates \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e physiology and anatomy, optimizing micropropagation according to species-specific responses for growth and pigmentation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current scenario of large-scale plant production faces significant limitations imposed by regional and environmental constraints, hindering the commercial availability of high-value medicinal species (Anuruddi et al., 2023). Traditional cultivation, characterized by long development periods that can exceed three years, represents an additional barrier to the commercial availability of plants (Tian et al., 2021). In this context, \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation techniques emerge as viable technological alternatives, providing rapid and consistent production of plant biomass, a particularly relevant aspect considering that more than 60% of anticancer drugs are derived from plants (Garcia-Oliveira et al., 2021; Wawrosch \u0026amp; Zotchev, 2021; Sarropoulou et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the species of high nutraceutical and pharmacological value, the pitaya species \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, both threatened with extinction, possess important specific qualities that make them plants of global interest (Nishikito et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e is recognized as a \u0026ldquo;superfruit\u0026rdquo; due to its nutraceutical properties, whereas \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e stands out for its therapeutic potential in the prevention of diabetes, obesity, and cancer (Ravichandran et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2024).\u0026nbsp;Considering that the traditional cultivation of these species from seeds requires up to three years to reach commercial maturity (Oo et al., 2023), there \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e multiplication may represent an efficient biotechnological solution, with optimization potential through strategies based on light quality (Suman et al., 2017; Fan et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLight radiation, or light quality, is one of the most decisive environmental factors in regulating plant physiology, performing complementary functions throughout the plant life cycle. Light acts as an energy source for carbon assimilation processes during photosynthesis and, simultaneously, plays a crucial signaling role in regulating growth and developmental mechanisms through the activation of specific photoreceptors (Paradiso \u0026amp; Proietti, 2022). This functional duality establishes light as a central modulator of both primary and secondary metabolism, directly influencing immediate morphogenic responses and the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites (Hashim et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe implementation of Light-Emitting Diode (LED) technologies has revolutionized spectral quality control in cultivation systems. This technology enables the emission of wavelength ranges tailored to the specific physiological needs of plants, making it possible to induce targeted morphogenic responses (Dou et al., 2019; Hashim et al., 2021). In \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation environments, the modulation of light quality assumes great importance, since different spectra trigger specific metabolic activities, optimizing both vegetative growth and the production of bioactive compounds (Manivannan et al., 2021). Scientific evidence indicates that strategic spectral combinations significantly enhance the \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e development of multiple plant species (Ali et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Silva et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe physiological characterization of light qualities reveals distinct functional specificities. White light, characterized by its broad and balanced spectrum, is effective in root development, shoot proliferation, aerial biomass accumulation, and carotenoid pigment synthesis in species such as \u003cem\u003eVanilla planifolia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSaccharum officinarum\u003c/em\u003e (Bello-Bello et al., 2016; De Ara\u0026uacute;jo Silva et al., 2016; Cavallaro et al., 2022). Red light, recognized as the light quality with the highest photosynthetic efficiency, is widely used to optimize \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e survival and enhance the production of secondary metabolites, acting as an efficient elicitor in the biosynthesis of pharmacologically active compounds (Hogewoning et al., 2010). Blue light plays regulatory roles in stomatal opening and transpiration and helps prevent morphological disorders associated with the \u0026ldquo;red light syndrome\u0026rdquo; (Lee et al., 2007; Davis \u0026amp; Burns, 2016). Combined light spectra, particularly purple light, resulting from the combination of blue and red wavelengths, have shown superior effectiveness in the cultivation of plants with pharmacological properties (Cuong et al., 2019; Nadeem et al., 2019). This combination of different LED light qualities contributes to an increase in net photosynthetic rate and dry biomass accumulation and is widely applied in the controlled cultivation of species such as potato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum tuberosum\u003c/em\u003e), Brazilian ginseng (\u003cem\u003ePfaffia glomerata\u003c/em\u003e), and \u003cem\u003eBrassica chinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Hogewoning et al., 2010; Ani et al., 2015; Luz et al., 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the established advances in light quality modulation to enhance growth efficiency and phytochemical production, significant gaps still, remain in the understanding of aspects related to cladodes of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivated pitaya species. Thus, this study aims to evaluate biometric parameters, photosynthetic pigments, bioactive compounds, the percentage of chemical elements, and anatomical characteristics of cladodes from pitaya species \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e micropropagated under different LED light qualities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted at the Laboratório de Cultura de Tecidos of the Departamento de Agricultura, Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA), in Lavras, Minas Gerais State, Brazil.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant material and \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e culture\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCladodes of \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, approximately 1.5 cm in length, were cultured \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e in 250 mL glass flasks containing 50 mL of MS culture medium (Murashige \u0026amp; Skoog, 1962), supplemented with 30 g L⁻¹ sucrose and 5.6 g L⁻¹ agar (Agargel Indústria e Comércio Ltda). The pH of the medium was adjusted to 6.0 ± 0.2 before autoclaving, which was carried out at 121 °C and 1.2 atm for 20 minutes. Five cladodes were aseptically inoculated in each flask under sterile conditions, using a laminar flow chamber (VECO®, model HLFS-12). The flasks were maintained in a growth room at 25 ± 2 °C for 65 days, under a 16-hour photoperiod. LED lamps (Empalux® FT8 HO, 36 W /6400 K) with different spectral compositions provided illumination: white light (WL), blue light (BL), purple light (PL) and red light (RL). The estimation of the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was obtained from illuminance (lux) measurements taken with a digital lux meter (Politerm®, model POL-10B). Readings were taken at three distinct points (left, center, and right) on the surface of the culture shelves (1.29 m²), positioned 21 cm below the lamps and approximately 3 cm above the top of the flasks. The mean illuminance values were converted into PPFD (μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) using specific conversion factors for each light spectrum, based on studies that correlated lux measurements with quantum sensor readings of photosynthetically active radiation (Yeh \u0026amp; Chung, 2009; Hernández \u0026amp; Kubota, 2016). The following conversion factors per 1000 lux were used for each light quality: white (6400 K), 15–18 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; blue (~450 nm), 13–14 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; red (~650 nm), 19–20 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; and purple (a combination of blue and red, with peaks at 450 and 650 nm), ~16–17 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Based on this conversion, the estimated PPFD values were as follows: white light (WL), 2.41 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; blue light (BL), 3.07 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹; purple light (PL), 2.16 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and red light (RL), 1.99 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiometric characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBiometric parameters, such as cladode diameter, shoot length, and fresh and dry mass of the shoot and root of the cladodes, were measured in five randomly selected plants from each treatment, 65 days after inoculation. Cladode diameter and shoot length were measured using a millimeter ruler. The dry masses of the shoot and root were determined after drying the fresh material in a forced-air oven at 65 °C for 72 hours. Dry mass measurement was performed after thermal stabilization of the materials in a styrofoam box. Fresh and dry masses were measured using an analytical balance (OHAUS, model PR224BR) with four decimal places. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhotosynthetic pigments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of photosynthetic pigments was performed using cladodes (± 0.050 g) from five plants of \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, randomly selected from each treatment after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation. The cladodes were transferred to test tubes containing 5 mL of 80% acetone for the extraction of chlorophylls and carotenoids. The tubes were wrapped in aluminum foil to prevent chlorophyll degradation. Twenty-four hours after storage in a refrigerator at ± 4 °C, the absorbance of the samples was measured using a Multiskan GO spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) at wavelengths of 470 nm (Abs₄₇₀), 647 nm (Abs₆₄₇), and 663 nm (Abs₆₆₃) (Scopel et al., 2011). The contents of chlorophyll ‘\u003cem\u003ea’\u003c/em\u003e, chlorophyll ‘\u003cem\u003eb’\u003c/em\u003e, total chlorophylls, and carotenoids were calculated based on equations (Lichtenthaler \u0026amp; Wellburn, 1983 and Lichtenthaler \u0026amp; Babani, 2021). Absorbance measurements were performed in five replicates per treatment, with each replicate evaluated in hexaplicate. The analysis was performed using SkanIt Software 5.0 for Microplate Readers, version 5.0.0.42.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRaman spectroscopic analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRaman microscopy (RM) was performed to evaluate the preservation of bioactive compounds, particularly at the peaks and characteristic bands associated with the presence of betacyanins (1000–1200 cm⁻¹), phenolic compounds (1400–1600 cm⁻¹), and antioxidant agents (1000–1600 cm⁻¹) in fresh cladodes of \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e cultured \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e under different LED light qualities. Due to logistical limitations in sample collection and handling, the analyses were performed on representative cladodes from each treatment, without replication. Thus, cladodes of these species were randomly collected 65 days after inoculation and analyzed using a Confocal Raman Microscopy system (Alpha300 model, Witec) equipped with a 785 nm laser and 10× and 50× objective lenses. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnergy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEDX (Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) mapping analyses were performed using a scanning electron microscope (TESCAN-CLARA model, manufactured in the Czech Republic) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray detector (Bruker – Quantax EDX, XFlash Detector 6|60 model). Due to logistical limitations in sample collection and handling, it was not possible to perform replicates; therefore, representative cladodes from each treatment were selected for the analyses. Thus, fresh samples of cladodes from \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivated plants of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, grown under different LED light qualities, were collected and mounted on aluminum stubs using double-sided carbon tape (HOGOTEK, model 7321, 8 mm width; JIANGSU HOGO Technology Co., Ltd). After drying in an oven at 70 °C for 12 hours, the specimens were transferred to a desiccator containing silica gel, where they remained for at least 24 hours before being analyzed by EDX. The analyses were performed at an accelerating voltage of 20 keV, with magnifications of 200× and 400×. The microanalyses by X-ray spectroscopy included the determination of the atomic percentage of chemical elements (K, Ca, S, Mg, P, Cl, Fe, Mn, Na, and Zn) in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, with emphasis on the central veins and vein margins (Clairvil et al., 2025a). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnatomical analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe anatomical analyses were performed on cladodes and roots from five plants per treatment, randomly collected after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation. The cladodes and roots were fixed in FAA solution (formalin, acetic acid, and 50% ethanol in a 0.05:0.05:0.90 ratio) for 72 hours. Subsequently, clarification was performed using alcohol at increasing concentrations (70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%), with 2-hour intervals between each step (Johansen, 1940). The samples were immersed in a solution composed of 50% alcohol and 50% pure resin for 72 hours, fixed with pure resin, and hardened in a solution containing 15% pure resin and 1% hardener to facilitate the sectioning process (Clairvil et al., 2025; Clairvil et al., 2025a). Anatomical analysis was performed on five transverse sections per plant; with cuts of nine μm thickness obtained using a semi-automatic rotary microtome (MRS 3500). The sections were stained with 0.05% Toluidine Blue solution and mounted on permanent slides using glycerinated gelatin. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analyses included counting the number of vascular bundles, measuring the cross-sectional area (mm²), root area (mm²), total root diameter (µm) measured from one outer edge of the epidermis to the opposite side, and determining the number of metaxylem vessels. The sections were observed under a light microscope (Nikon, Eclipse E100) equipped with a digital camera (Infinity) for image capture. The photomicrographs obtained were used to measure the anatomical characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cross-sectional area of the cladodes was measured using a 4× objective lens; the number of vascular bundles, root area, and total root diameter were measured using a 20× objective lens; and the number of metaxylem vessels was determined using a 40× objective lens. All measurements were performed using the calibrated UTHSCSA-ImageTool® software. Due to the image size relative to the field of view of the microscope-mounted camera, each cladode cross-section was photographed in two parts (upper and lower) to facilitate measurement of the total area. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design, with two plant species (\u003cem\u003eS. undatus and H. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) and four LED light qualities (White: WL; Blue: BL; Purple: PL; Red: RL), arranged in a 2×4 factorial scheme, totaling eight treatments. Data analysis was performed using R Studio software (version 4.2.2) through analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means were compared using the Scott–Knott clustering test at a significance level of α = 0.05. Results were expressed as mean values ± standard error, with different letters in figures and/or tables indicating significant differences among treatments at p ≤ 0.05. \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAfter 65 days of exposing \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e plants to different LED light qualities [White (WL), Blue (BL), Purple (PL), Red (RL)], no significant interactions were observed with respect to cladode diameter. In contrast, significant interactions were observed for biometric variables (shoot length, and fresh and dry mass of the shoot and root), photosynthetic pigment content, and anatomical parameters (number of vascular bundles, cross-sectional area, total root diameter, root area, and number of metaxylem vessels) (Tables 2 and 3; Figures 3 and 4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mean cladode diameter of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e seedlings (0.728 \u0026plusmn; 0.013 cm) was greater than that of \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e (0.690 \u0026plusmn; 0.009 cm). The highest mean cladode diameters were observed under purple (0.723 \u0026plusmn; 0.023 cm) and red (0.715 \u0026plusmn; 0.024 cm) light, which did not differ from each other but were higher than those under blue (0.703 \u0026plusmn; 0.019 cm) and white (0.694 \u0026plusmn; 0.017 cm) light (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Mean cladode diameter (Dm; mm) of pitaya species (\u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White: WL; Blue: BL; Purple: PL; Red: RL].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.728\u0026plusmn;0.013\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.694\u0026plusmn;0.017B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.690\u0026plusmn;0.009\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.703\u0026plusmn;0.019B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.723\u0026plusmn;0.023A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.V. = 6.45%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.715\u0026plusmn;0.024A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeans (\u0026plusmn; standard error) followed by the same lowercase letter (species) or uppercase letter (light quality) within columns do not differ according to the Scott\u0026ndash;Knott clustering test (p \u0026lt; 0.05). C.V.- coefficient of variation (%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe greater cladode diameters observed under purple and red light are consistent with recent studies on pitaya photomorphogenesis, which reported that red light influences primary metabolic processes in seedlings of this species, including glucose metabolism and photosynthesis. In contrast, the combination of red and blue light (1R:2B), i.e., purple light, resulted in the highest plant performance. It was observed that red light alone increased plant height, whereas blue light exerted an inhibitory effect on this parameter. According to the researchers, this positive effect of red light is associated with the specific activation of phytochromes, which regulate cell elongation and division, thereby supporting the radial growth of plant tissues (Huang et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe biometric characteristics of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e seedlings did not vary in response to exposure to white light. However, under blue, purple, and red light, \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e seedlings exhibited greater shoot length (1.410 \u0026plusmn; 0.165 cm, 1.613 \u0026plusmn; 0.321 cm, and 1.694 \u0026plusmn; 0.344 cm, respectively), shoot fresh mass (1.029 \u0026plusmn; 0.133 g, 1.256 \u0026plusmn; 0.276 g, and 1.218 \u0026plusmn; 0.330 g, respectively) and dry mass (0.362 \u0026plusmn; 0.006 g, 0.408 \u0026plusmn; 0.007 g, and 0.401 \u0026plusmn; 0.014 g, respectively), as well as root fresh mass (0.698 \u0026plusmn; 0.078 g, 0.904 \u0026plusmn; 0.163 g, and 0.816 \u0026plusmn; 0.339 g, respectively) and dry mass (0.017 \u0026plusmn; 0.002 g, 0.023 \u0026plusmn; 0.003 g, and 0.026 \u0026plusmn; 0.008 g, respectively) (Table 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2. Shoot length (LAP, cm), shoot fresh mass (FMAP, g plant⁻\u0026sup1;) and root fresh mass (DMAP, g plant⁻\u0026sup1;), and shoot dry mass (FMR, g plant⁻\u0026sup1;) and root dry mass (DMR, g plant⁻\u0026sup1;) of cladodes of pitaya species (\u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); Red (RL)].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"586\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.V.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLAP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.361\u003csup\u003e0.132\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.410\u003csup\u003e0.165\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.613\u003csup\u003e0.321\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.694\u003csup\u003e0.344\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.354\u003csup\u003e0.176\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.253\u003csup\u003e0.116\u003c/sup\u003eCb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.372\u003csup\u003e0.143\u003c/sup\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.502\u003csup\u003e0.118\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFMAP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.908\u003csup\u003e0.074\u003c/sup\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.029\u003csup\u003e0.133\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.256\u003csup\u003e0.276\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.218\u003csup\u003e0.330\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003csup\u003e0.097\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.876\u003csup\u003e0.020\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.870\u003csup\u003e0.046\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.847\u003csup\u003e0.043\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDMAP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.303\u003csup\u003e0.003\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.362\u003csup\u003e0.006\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.408\u003csup\u003e0.007\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.401\u003csup\u003e0.014\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.304\u003csup\u003e0.005\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.288\u003csup\u003e0.003\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.295\u003csup\u003e0.002\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.300\u003csup\u003e0.001\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFMR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.477\u003csup\u003e0.037\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.698\u003csup\u003e0.078\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003csup\u003e0.163\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.816\u003csup\u003e0.339\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.564\u003csup\u003e0.082\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.462\u003csup\u003e0.002\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.597\u003csup\u003e0.072\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.415\u003csup\u003e0.021\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDMR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003csup\u003e0.002\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003csup\u003e0.002\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003csup\u003e0.003\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003csup\u003e0.008\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003csup\u003e0.001\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003csup\u003e0.001\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003csup\u003e0.001\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003csup\u003e0.001\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeans (\u0026plusmn; standard error) followed by the same uppercase letter in the row (light quality) and lowercase letter in the column (species) do not differ according to the Scott\u0026ndash;Knott clustering test (p \u0026lt; 0.05). C.V.- coefficient of variation (%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the greatest shoot length under purple (1.613 \u0026plusmn; 0.321 cm) and red (1.694 \u0026plusmn; 0.344 cm) light, whereas for \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, the highest values were observed under red light (1.502 \u0026plusmn; 0.118 cm). Similarly, shoot fresh mass of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes was highest under purple (1.256 \u0026plusmn; 0.276 g) and red (1.218 \u0026plusmn; 0.330 g) light. Shoot dry mass, as well as root fresh and dry mass of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes, were highest under purple (0.408 \u0026plusmn; 0.007 g; 0.904 \u0026plusmn; 0.163 g; and 0.023 \u0026plusmn; 0.003 g, respectively), red (0.401 \u0026plusmn; 0.014 g; 0.816 \u0026plusmn; 0.339 g; and 0.026 \u0026plusmn; 0.008 g, respectively), and blue (0.362 \u0026plusmn; 0.006 g; 0.698 \u0026plusmn; 0.078 g; and 0.017 \u0026plusmn; 0.002 g, respectively) light. No significant differences in fresh or dry mass were observed for \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes among the light qualities (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe higher biometric values observed for \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e may be related to distinct interspecific responses, reflecting species-specific photomorphogenic mechanisms and, in the context of this study, suggesting greater morphological plasticity in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e (Cavallaro et al., 2022). This underscores the importance of light quality in optimizing the growth of different species (De Vasconcelos Dias et al., 2025). The higher biometric values of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under purple and red light may be associated with the modulation of phytochrome activity, which regulates cell elongation genes mediated by phytochromes B (Huang et al., 2022), as well as the activation of cryptochromes that stimulate root development (Yun et al., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results, combined with those observed in the present study, suggest that \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e may exhibit greater morphological plasticity and efficiency in converting carbohydrates into tissues, as it is a CAM plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) with anatomical and physiological adaptations that optimize carbon and water use. CAM photosynthesis allows nocturnal CO₂ fixation with malate storage in the vacuoles, which is subsequently decarboxylated during the day to supply CO₂ to the Calvin cycle. This temporal separation between CO₂ capture and photosynthetic fixation confers CAM species, including \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e, with greater water-use efficiency and the ability to maintain photosynthetic metabolism even under stress conditions (Nhut et al., 2003; Cavallaro et al., 2022; Shang et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited lower biometric performance, showing better development only under white light, which suggests a greater dependence on the full light spectrum to optimize growth. The low performance under red light may indicate competition for photoassimilates or species-specific limitations in light signal transduction. This lower performance is consistent with its epiphytic CAM physiology, which has a limited capacity to allocate resources for root growth under in vitro culture conditions, unlike the higher photosynthetic efficiency observed in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e (Sarropoulou et al., 2023; Cossa et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results underscore the importance of optimizing light quality according to the species, as different photomorphogenic mechanisms may elicit contrasting responses to the same light spectrum (De Vasconcelos Dias et al., 2025).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhotosynthetic pigment contents varied between the pitaya species \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, as well as in response to light quality during in vitro cultivation. Cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher accumulation of chlorophyll a (R7) and total chlorophyll under blue light (0.615 \u0026plusmn; 0.016\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1; and 0.687 \u0026plusmn; 0.025 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively). Chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e and carotenoids showed the highest contents in the cladodes under blue (0.452 \u0026plusmn; 0.010\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1; and 0.416 \u0026plusmn; 0.005 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively), white (0.425 \u0026plusmn; 0.017 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1; and 0.378 \u0026plusmn; 0.010 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively), and purple light (0.412 \u0026plusmn; 0.010 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1; and 0.376 \u0026plusmn; 0.005 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, respectively), without significant differences among them. The pitaya species \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e showed higher concentrations of photosynthetic pigments under white light, with chlorophyll \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e at 0.709 \u0026plusmn; 0.035\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e at 0.532 \u0026plusmn; 0.012 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, total chlorophylls at 0.798 \u0026plusmn; 0.047 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;, and carotenoids at 0.488 \u0026plusmn; 0.010 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;. In both species, the lowest pigment concentrations were observed under red light; however, for \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, no differences were detected between red, blue, and purple light for chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e and total chlorophyll (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTabela 3. Teor dos pigmentos fotossint\u0026eacute;ticos (PF) clorofila \u003cem\u003e\u0026apos;a\u0026apos;\u003c/em\u003e (Chl a), clorofila \u003cem\u003e\u0026apos;b\u0026apos;\u003c/em\u003e (Chl b), clorofilas totais (Chl a+b) e carotenoides (Car), em \u0026mu;g g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e de massa fresca, de clad\u0026oacute;dios das esp\u0026eacute;cies (Esp.) de pitaya \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e e \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, aos 65 dias de cultivo \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e, sob diferentes qualidades de luz (QL) [Branca (LB); Azul (LA); Roxa (LR) e Vermelha (LV)].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3. Photosynthetic pigment contents (PP) \u0026ndash; chlorophyll \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e (Chl a), chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e (Chl b), total chlorophylls (Chl a+b), and carotenoids (Car), in \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1; of fresh mass of cladodes from pitaya species (\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); Red (RL)].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"595\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.V.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChl a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.542\u003csup\u003e0.028\u003c/sup\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.615\u003csup\u003e0.016\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.502\u003csup\u003e0.014\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.344\u003csup\u003e0.003\u003c/sup\u003eCb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.709\u003csup\u003e0.035\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.579\u003csup\u003e0.027\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.561\u003csup\u003e0.020\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.506\u003csup\u003e0.017\u003c/sup\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChl b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.425\u003csup\u003e0.017\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.452\u003csup\u003e0.010\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.412\u003csup\u003e0.010\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.282\u003csup\u003e0.003\u003c/sup\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.532\u003csup\u003e0.012\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.442\u003csup\u003e0.009\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.415\u003csup\u003e0.008\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.383\u003csup\u003e0.006\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChl a+b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.618\u003csup\u003e0.045\u003c/sup\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.687\u003csup\u003e0.025\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.582\u003csup\u003e0.023\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.399\u003csup\u003e0.006\u003c/sup\u003eCb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.798\u003csup\u003e0.047\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.655\u003csup\u003e0.036\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.629\u003csup\u003e0.028\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.571\u003csup\u003e0.022\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.378\u003csup\u003e0.010\u003c/sup\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.416\u003csup\u003e0.005\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.376\u003csup\u003e0.005\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.238\u003csup\u003e0.002\u003c/sup\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.488\u003csup\u003e0.010\u003c/sup\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.421\u003csup\u003e0.008\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.386\u003csup\u003e0.008\u003c/sup\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.350\u003csup\u003e0.005\u003c/sup\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeans (\u0026plusmn; standard error) followed by the same uppercase letter in the row (light quality) and lowercase letter in the column (species) do not differ according to the Scott\u0026ndash;Knott clustering test (p \u0026lt; 0.05). C.V.- coefficient of variation (%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBetween the species, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher pigment contents than \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under white light (chlorophyll \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e: 0.709 \u0026plusmn; 0.035 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;; chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e: 0.532 \u0026plusmn; 0.012 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;; total chlorophylls: 0.798 \u0026plusmn; 0.047 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;; carotenoids: 0.488 \u0026plusmn; 0.010 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;) and red light (chlorophyll \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e: 0.506 \u0026plusmn; 0.017 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;; chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e: 0.383 \u0026plusmn; 0.006 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;; total chlorophylls: 0.571 \u0026plusmn; 0.022 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;; carotenoids: 0.350 \u0026plusmn; 0.005 \u0026mu;g g⁻\u0026sup1;). Under blue and purple light, no differences in pigment contents were observed between the two species (Table 3).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe higher pigment contents of \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light compared to other light qualities indicate genotypic differences in pigment biosynthesis capacity when compared to \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e (Yaoyuan et al., 2025). This assertion can be supported by the indicator of overall photosynthetic capacity, total chlorophyll, where the differences observed between the species in this study reinforce the existence of distinct adaptive strategies (Sumi et al., 2025; Yaoyuan et al., 2025). White light, by providing a complete and balanced light spectrum, creates optimal conditions for chlorophyll synthesis through the simultaneous activation of multiple metabolic pathways (Baidya et al., 2021) and maximizes synthesis via the combined activation of photosystems I and II (Liu \u0026amp; Van Iersel, 2021; Yaoyuan et al., 2025). The superior pigment accumulation in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under blue light confirms the involvement of cryptochromes and phototropins in regulating the expression of genes related to chlorophyll biosynthesis (Raqiba \u0026amp; Sibi, 2019; Wu et al., 2024). This supports the positive regulation of key enzymes, such as protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase, by blue wavelengths (Raqiba \u0026amp; Sibi, 2019) and highlights the dependence on regulatory pathways specific to this light spectrum (Liu \u0026amp; Van Iersel, 2021; Yaoyuan et al., 2025). The reduction in pigments of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red light corroborates the limitations of using a monochromatic spectrum for the full activation of metabolic pathways (Sumi et al., 2025). This indicates a dependence on specific spectral components, which hampers photosynthetic pigment synthesis and confirms the need for combination with blue wavelengths to achieve maximal carotenoid synthesis (Yaoyuan et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe synthesis of bioactive compounds varied in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under different LED light qualities, particularly betalains (1000\u0026ndash;1200 cm⁻\u0026sup1;), phenolic compounds (1400\u0026ndash;1600 cm⁻\u0026sup1;), and antioxidant agents (1000\u0026ndash;1600 cm⁻\u0026sup1;) (Figure 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results are consistent with studies that validate the same wavelengths as specific markers of secondary metabolites (Vershinina et al., 2025; De Angelis et al., 2025).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe species \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher amounts of bioactive compounds, with more intense Raman peaks under white, blue, and purple light across all analyzed regions, whereas \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e showed higher levels under red light. \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under purple light and \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light exhibited the most intense peaks, primarily in the 1400\u0026ndash;1500 cm⁻\u0026sup1; region (Figure 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e, betalains, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant agents were highest under white light (moderate\u0026ndash;high, high, and very high, respectively) and red light (moderate, high, and high, respectively), not differing significantly from cladodes under blue light, which showed low\u0026ndash;moderate levels of betalains and moderate antioxidant activity, all of which were higher than under purple light, which resulted in low metabolic activity (Figure 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRed light activates phytochromes that regulate key genes in the betalain pathway (such as DODA and CYP76AD1), whereas blue light activates cryptochromes but with lower efficiency (Griffin \u0026amp; Toledo-Ortiz, 2022). However, these photoreceptors can interact synergistically with red light, optimizing the phenylpropanoid pathway through the modulation of transcription factors HY5 and PIFs (Pierik \u0026amp; Ballar\u0026eacute;, 2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher concentrations of betalains, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant agents under white light (high, maximum, and maximum for betalains, phenolics, and antioxidants, respectively), followed by purple light (moderate, very high, and high) and red light (moderate\u0026ndash;high, very high, and high), all of which were higher than under blue light, which produced moderate levels of all compounds (Figure 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results reveal a positive relationship between spectral intensity and antioxidant capacity, consistent with findings reported in other studies. Betacyanins, such as betanin and hylocerenin, for example, exhibited higher antioxidant activity than conventional anthocyanins, with EC₅₀ values ranging from 11\u0026ndash;27\u0026nbsp;\u0026mu;g mL⁻\u0026sup1; in DPPH and ABTS assays (Chen et al., 2021; Paśko et al., 2021). This pattern is consistent with evidence of interspecific variation in betalain content, with \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e recognized for having higher betacyanin concentrations compared to other pitaya species (Choo et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2021; Khoo et al., 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor both species, white light proved to be the most efficient, enabling the emergence of complex spectra with multiple bioactive peaks. \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited greater adaptive capacity, showing positive responses under purple light, in contrast to the low responsiveness of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e to the same light quality (Figure 1). These results indicate a specific role of photoreceptors, where phytochromes and cryptochromes regulate distinct biosynthetic pathways (Griffin \u0026amp; Toledo-Ortiz, 2022; Xie et al., 2025).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe elemental composition of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes showed significant variations between the central ribs (CR) and the rib margins (RM), as well as among the different light qualities (white, blue, purple and red) (Table 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4. Percentage distribution (atomic %) of chemical elements (CE) in cladodes of pitaya species (\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) after 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities (LQ) [White (WL); Blue (BL); Purple (PL); Red (RL)].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"662\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.49\u003csup\u003e1.88\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.08\u003csup\u003e1.55\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.14\u003csup\u003e1.68\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e74.45\u003csup\u003e2.47\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.46\u003csup\u003e1.76\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.53\u003csup\u003e2.35\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e70.35\u003csup\u003e2.44\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.07\u003csup\u003e2.05\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e69.69\u003csup\u003e2.92\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.11\u003csup\u003e2.12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.01\u003csup\u003e1.89\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e66.43\u003csup\u003e0.89\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.61\u003csup\u003e1.48\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.88\u003csup\u003e1.95\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.37\u003csup\u003e1.21\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.74\u003csup\u003e1.54\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.39\u003csup\u003e0.38\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25.73\u003csup\u003e1.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e27.88\u003csup\u003e1.08\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.17\u003csup\u003e0.63\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.44\u003csup\u003e0.83\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.28\u003csup\u003e0.71\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.37\u003csup\u003e1.09\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.89\u003csup\u003e0.87\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.51\u003csup\u003e1.64\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.36\u003csup\u003e1.01 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.24\u003csup\u003e0.37\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.77\u003csup\u003e0.08\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e35.51\u003csup\u003e1.22\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e27.56\u003csup\u003e1.15\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.67\u003csup\u003e0.86\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.50\u003csup\u003e0.42\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.37\u003csup\u003e0.44\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.06\u003csup\u003e0.53\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.01\u003csup\u003e0.41\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003csup\u003e0.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.07\u003csup\u003e0.47\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.78\u003csup\u003e0.41\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003csup\u003e0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.74\u003csup\u003e0.10\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.99\u003csup\u003e0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.67\u003csup\u003e0.10\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.41\u003csup\u003e0.55\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26.91\u003csup\u003e1.19\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25.86\u003csup\u003e1.14\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.80\u003csup\u003e0.85\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e13.62\u003csup\u003e1.20\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.18\u003csup\u003e0.79\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e16.25\u003csup\u003e1.37\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003csup\u003e0.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.07\u003csup\u003e1.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.36\u003csup\u003e0.06\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.78\u003csup\u003e0.07\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.80\u003csup\u003e0.06\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9.41\u003csup\u003e0.88\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12.05\u003csup\u003e1.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.17\u003csup\u003e0.50\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.45\u003csup\u003e0.58\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.54\u003csup\u003e0.55\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003csup\u003e0.43\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.67\u003csup\u003e0.69\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.22\u003csup\u003e0.55\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.87\u003csup\u003e0.53\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.03\u003csup\u003e0.07\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003csup\u003e0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.62\u003csup\u003e0.05\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003csup\u003e0.05\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.64\u003csup\u003e0.48\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.05\u003csup\u003e0.55\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.67\u003csup\u003e0.45\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.61\u003csup\u003e0.42\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.94\u003csup\u003e0.49\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.48\u003csup\u003e0.54\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.91\u003csup\u003e0.48\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.54\u003csup\u003e0.57\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.12\u003csup\u003e0.51\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.71\u003csup\u003e0.48\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003csup\u003e0.06\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.55\u003csup\u003e0.14\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.10\u003csup\u003e0.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.74\u003csup\u003e0.38\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.46\u003csup\u003e0.60\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.13\u003csup\u003e0.34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003csup\u003e0.18\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003csup\u003e0.29\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.91\u003csup\u003e0.27\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.41\u003csup\u003e0.31\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003csup\u003e0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003csup\u003e0.30\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.91\u003csup\u003e0.37\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.40\u003csup\u003e0.35\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.52\u003csup\u003e0.96\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e19.84\u003csup\u003e0.91\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.05\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003csup\u003e0.06\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003csup\u003e0.22\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003csup\u003e0.16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003csup\u003e0.28\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003csup\u003e0.15\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003csup\u003e0.28\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003csup\u003e0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003csup\u003e0.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.25\u003csup\u003e0.37\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.40\u003csup\u003e0.36\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003csup\u003e0.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.56\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.92\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003csup\u003e0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003csup\u003e0.04\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003csup\u003e0.19\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003csup\u003e0.04\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003csup\u003e0.02\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003csup\u003e0.03\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003csup\u003e0.04\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003csup\u003e0.04\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003csup\u003e0.07\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003csup\u003e0.00\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePercentage distribution (atomic %) of chemical elements (CE) in cladodes of pitaya species (\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) (values expressed as \u0026plusmn; standard error). CR = central ribs; RM = rib margins.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePotassium (K) was the predominant mineral under all conditions, particularly in the blue light treatment, where \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e reached 74.55 \u0026plusmn; 2.47% in the RM and 70.35 \u0026plusmn; 2.44% in the CR. Meanwhile, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher K concentrations, reaching 69.69 \u0026plusmn; 2.92% under white light in the CR and 66.43 \u0026plusmn; 0.89% under blue light in the RM (Table 4). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe high K content highlights its essential role as an osmotic regulator and primary cytosolic ion (Pinho et al., 2017). The higher accumulation in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light suggests the activation of specific transporters mediated by this light spectrum in this species (Chen et al., 2025In \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, the highest K content occurred under white light, which may further indicate metabolic differences between the species under study (Lima et al., 2021; Soufi et al., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe highest calcium (Ca) content was observed in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under purple light, both in the CR and RM (35.51 \u0026plusmn; 1.22% and 27.56 \u0026plusmn; 1.15%, respectively). In \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e, the highest Ca content was observed under blue light in the CR (27.88 \u0026plusmn; 1.08%) and under white light in the RM (25.73 \u0026plusmn; 1.03%) (Table 4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe difference in Ca content between species, influenced by light quality, may indicate a potential interaction between Ca\u0026sup2;⁺ transport and the light spectrum (Soufi et al., 2023). The stimulation under blue light in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e is associated with the activation of cryptochrome-mediated channels, whereas under purple light in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e it indicates a specific response to violet\u0026ndash;blue wavelengths (Ahmed et al., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSulfur (S) content was highest in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red light (26.91 \u0026plusmn; 1.19% in the CR and 25.86 \u0026plusmn; 1.14% in the RM), whereas in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e it was highest under white light (7.37 \u0026plusmn; 0.44% in the CR and 6.06 \u0026plusmn; 0.53% in the RM) (Table 4). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe higher S content in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e highlights distinct metabolic demands between the species. The positive effect of red light in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e may be related to the activation of specific sulfate transporters (Soufi et al., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMagnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), and chlorine (Cl) contents were higher in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under purple light (16.25 \u0026plusmn; 1.37%, 8.67 \u0026plusmn; 0.69%, and 8.67 \u0026plusmn; 0.45% in the CR, respectively) and white light (10.80 \u0026plusmn; 0.85%, 6.45 \u0026plusmn; 0.58%, and 8.54 \u0026plusmn; 0.57% in the RM, respectively). In \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, Mg and P were highest under red light (12.05 \u0026plusmn; 1.00% and 8.05 \u0026plusmn; 0.55% in the CR; 9.41 \u0026plusmn; 0.88% and 5.64 \u0026plusmn; 0.48% in the RM, respectivelyChlorine (Cl) content was highest under white light in the CR (7.55 \u0026plusmn; 0.14%) and under red light in the RM (7.46 \u0026plusmn; 0.60%) (Table 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe higher Mg content in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e confirms the dependence of this mineral on specific light qualities to optimize its transport, given its role as the central component of chlorophyll (Li et al., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding micronutrients, iron (Fe) showed the highest levels in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light in the RM (19.84 \u0026plusmn; 0.91%) and in the CR (8.52 \u0026plusmn; 0.96%). Manganese (Mn) content was highest in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light (2.40 \u0026plusmn; 0.36% in the RM and 1.25 \u0026plusmn; 0.37% in the CR). Sodium (Na) was not detected in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e; however, it was quantified in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red light in the CR (0.19 \u0026plusmn; 0.04%). Zinc (Zn) content was highest in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light in the RM (0.42 \u0026plusmn; 0.04%) and under white light in the CR (0.29 \u0026plusmn; 0.19%). In \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, the highest zinc (Zn) content was observed under white light in the CR (0.84 \u0026plusmn; 0.07%) and under red light in the RM (0.15 \u0026plusmn; 0.00%) (Table 4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe highest accumulation of Fe in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under white light suggests that a broad-spectrum light optimizes its uptake, being essential for the formation of iron-sulfur complexes and for electron transport in photosynthesis (Ning et al., 2023). The accumulation of Mn in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under red light confirms its role in photosystem II as a cofactor in the oxygen-evolving complex, and it is also associated with the regulation of flowering stimulated by red LED light (Chen et al., 2025). The low Zn content in both species corroborates previous studies indicating limited accumulation of this micronutrient in pitaya (Yasmin et al., 2024), possibly due to CAM metabolism, which reduces the uptake of certain elements because of daytime stomatal closure. The absence of Na in most samples further confirms the non-halophytic nature of pitayas, limiting their adaptation to saline soils, while making their fruits suitable for sodium-restricted diets (Nikalje \u0026amp; Suprasanna, 2018).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Principal component analysis (PCA) of the mineral composition of the vascular tissues of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e at 65 days of \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e cultivation under different light qualities [white (WL), blue (BL), purple (PL), and red (RL)] explained 55.8% of the total variance across the first two axes, highlighting a greater contribution of variables associated with nutrient uptake under the different treatments (Figure 2A\u0026ndash;B).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Dim1 explained 35.5% of the total variability, primarily distinguishing the species \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e according to the spectral light conditions. Dim2 explained 20.3% of the variability, being associated with differences between cladode regions (CR and RM) within each species (Figure 2A\u0026ndash;B).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; The first component describes a spectral gradient in which red light appears to stimulate the accumulation of sodium and chlorine, known markers of osmotic stress. This result is consistent with other studies linking this light quality to salt stress induction through alterations in stomatal conductance and ion transport (Ramezani et al., 2023). The opposite result was observed for blue light, which was correlated with enrichment in iron and manganese, redox elements essential for the activation of photosynthetic enzymes (Soufi et al., 2023). Regarding the second component, which differentiated tissue types, it is possible to infer a functional specialization in the central ribs (CR) for minerals such as P, S, and Mg, consistent with their conductive function, whereas in the rib margins (RM), structural elements like K and Ca were concentrated, playing a role in maintaining mechanical and osmotic integrity (Nganko et al., 2024; Peng et al., 2025).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the species, \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a more homogeneous and stable response, especially under purple light, indicating greater resilience to light quality variations. \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, in contrast, exhibited high phenotypic plasticity, with mineral adjustments modulated by light quality, suggesting distinct physiological strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; The higher phenotypic plasticity observed in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e represents an adaptive advantage through differential regulation of ion transporters (such as HuTZF3 and Na⁺/H⁺ antiporters) that maintain Na⁺/K⁺ homeostasis, and metabolic enzymes like HuBADH (glycine betaine synthesis) and polyphenol oxidase (biosynthesis of antioxidant betalains), enabling greater tolerance to salinity and climatic stresses, particularly in marginal soils and arid environments (Zhu et al., 2025; Peng et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of the number of vascular bundles and the cross-sectional area of cladodes revealed significant differences between the species (\u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e) cultivated in vitro under different light qualities (Figures 3 and 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of vascular bundles was higher in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under white, purple, and red light, and lower under blue light, compared to \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e (10.6 \u0026plusmn; 0.15 vs. 7.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.13; 9.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.13 vs. 7.8 \u0026plusmn; 0.13; and 7.0 \u0026plusmn; 0.00 vs. 4.0 \u0026plusmn; 0.20, respectively), whereas under blue light, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a higher number (5.8 \u0026plusmn; 0.13 vs. 4.6 \u0026plusmn; 0.15) (Figures 3A and 4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of vascular bundles in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e was highest under white light (10.6 \u0026plusmn; 0.15), followed by purple (9.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.13) and red (7.0 \u0026plusmn; 0.00) light, and lowest under blue light (4.6 \u0026plusmn; 0.15). For \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, the number of vascular bundles was highest under purple (7.8 \u0026plusmn; 0.13) and white (7.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.13) light, which did not differ significantly, followed by blue light (5.8 \u0026plusmn; 0.13), and lowest under red light (4.0 \u0026plusmn; 0.20) (Figures 3A and 4). \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cross-sectional area was greater in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under blue (0.93 \u0026plusmn; 0.03 vs. 0.59 \u0026plusmn; 0.02, respectively) and white light (0.79 \u0026plusmn; 0.04 vs. 0.51 \u0026plusmn; 0.02, respectively), whereas \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited larger areas under purple (0.88 \u0026plusmn; 0.04 vs. 0.81 \u0026plusmn; 0.05, respectively) and red light (0.79 \u0026plusmn; 0.02 vs. 0.28 \u0026plusmn; 0.03, respectively) (Figures 3B and 4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cross-sectional area of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes was highest under blue light (0.93 \u0026plusmn; 0.03), followed by purple (0.81 \u0026plusmn; 0.05) and white light (0.79 \u0026plusmn; 0.04), which did not differ significantly from each other, but was lower under red light (0.28 \u0026plusmn; 0.03). \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e had the cross-sectional area higher under purple light (0.88 \u0026plusmn; 0.04), followed by red (0.79 \u0026plusmn; 0.02) and blue light (0.59 \u0026plusmn; 0.02), and lowest under white light (0.51 \u0026plusmn; 0.02) (Figures 3B and 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese anatomical patterns are consistent with recent studies linking LED spectral quality to vascular development in plants (Ahsan et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). The higher number of vascular bundles under white and blue light in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e suggests a central role of cryptochromes in the regulation of genes involved in vascular differentiation (Yang et al., 2017; Bantis et al., 2020; Mani et al., 2024). It has been shown that blue light enables vascular reconnection in grafted watermelon, whereas red light impairs the early development of this system (Bantis et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2024). The reduction in the number of vascular bundles under red light in both species may be associated with stress induced by alterations in redox homeostasis, leading to impaired vascular development (Ahn et al., 2022). On the other hand, the increase in cross-sectional area under blue and purple light in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e indicates that these wavelengths promote cell differentiation and the expansion of vegetative tissues (Bantis et al., 2020).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lower responsiveness of \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e suggests genotypic differences in sensitivity to photoreceptors and in the regulation of vascular development pathways. This behavior is consistent with other studies on cacti, in which different species exhibited distinct anatomical responses depending on cultivation conditions (Soto Acosta et al., 2023; Hong \u0026amp; Huang, 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnatomical analysis of the roots of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under different light conditions revealed significant differences in total diameter, root area, and the number of metaxylem vessels (Figure 5).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total root diameter was greater in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red (339.54 \u0026plusmn; 0.57 vs. 213.71 \u0026plusmn; 1.00), purple (305.37 \u0026plusmn; 0.99 vs. 216.80 \u0026plusmn; 0.97), and white light (267.63 \u0026plusmn; 0.89 vs. 200.82 \u0026plusmn; 0.85), whereas under blue light, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a larger diameter (296.23 \u0026plusmn; 0.90 vs. 257.40 \u0026plusmn; 0.73) (Figures 5A and 6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total root diameter of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes was highest under red light (339.54 \u0026plusmn; 0.57), followed by purple (305.37 \u0026plusmn; 0.99), and lowest under white and blue light (267.63 \u0026plusmn; 0.89 and 257.40 \u0026plusmn; 0.73, respectively), which did not differ significantly from each other. \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ehad the highest total root diameter under blue light (296.23 \u0026plusmn; 0.90), whereas no significant differences were observed under purple, red, and white light (216.80 \u0026plusmn; 0.97; 213.71 \u0026plusmn; 1.00; and 200.82 \u0026plusmn; 0.85, respectively) (Figures 5A and 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRoot area was greater in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under red (0.34 \u0026plusmn; 0.03 vs. 0.14 \u0026plusmn; 0.01), purple (0.29 \u0026plusmn; 0.04 vs. 0.14 \u0026plusmn; 0.01), and white light (0.22 \u0026plusmn; 0.02 vs. 0.12 \u0026plusmn; 0.01), whereas under blue light, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a larger root area (0.27 \u0026plusmn; 0.05 vs. 0.21 \u0026plusmn; 0.02) (Figures 5B and 6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe root area of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes was highest under red light (0.34 \u0026plusmn; 0.03), followed by purple (0.29 \u0026plusmn; 0.04), whereas no significant differences were observed under white and blue light (0.22 \u0026plusmn; 0.02 and 0.21 \u0026plusmn; 0.02, respectively). \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e had the highest root area under blue light (0.27 \u0026plusmn; 0.05), while red, purple, and white light did not differ significantly (0.14 \u0026plusmn; 0.01; 0.14 \u0026plusmn; 0.01; and 0.12 \u0026plusmn; 0.01, respectively) (Figures 5B and 6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of metaxylem vessels was higher in the cladodes of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e under purple (5 \u0026plusmn; 0.03 vs. 3 \u0026plusmn; 0.01) and red light (5 \u0026plusmn; 0.02 vs. 3 \u0026plusmn; 0.01), lower under blue light (4 \u0026plusmn; 0.02 vs. 5 \u0026plusmn; 0.02), and did not differ under white light (4 \u0026plusmn; 0.01 vs. 4 \u0026plusmn; 0.01) (Figures 5C and 6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of metaxylem vessels in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e cladodes was highest under purple and red light, with no significant difference between them (5 \u0026plusmn; 0.03 and 5 \u0026plusmn; 0.02, respectively). Blue and white light, which were also similar, resulted in lower values (4 \u0026plusmn; 0.02 and 4 \u0026plusmn; 0.01, respectively).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e had\u0026nbsp;the highest number of metaxylem vessels under blue light (5 \u0026plusmn; 0.02), followed by white light (4 \u0026plusmn; 0.01), and then purple and red light, which did not differ significantly (3 \u0026plusmn; 0.01 and 3 \u0026plusmn; 0.01, respectively) (Figures 5C and 6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results are consistent with recent studies on the effects of LED light quality on the root system development of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e (Hua et al., 2016; Pauls et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024). The superiority of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e in root diameter and area under purple and red light is consistent with evidence that long wavelengths stimulate cell expansion through phytochrome activation and hormonal regulation (Kiss et al., 2003; De Wit et al., 2016; Samalova et al., 2024). Researchers have shown that blue light signaling, mediated by cryptochromes, regulates xylem cell differentiation, stimulating secondary cell wall deposition in xylem fibers via the CRY-HY5-NST3 cascade (Hwang et al., 2024). The contrast between the higher number of metaxylem vessels in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e under purple and red light and the preferential response of \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e to blue light suggests distinct adaptive strategies in root vascular differentiation between the species. These variations in the number and size of metaxylem vessels directly affect axial hydraulic conductivity and drought tolerance, with smaller vessels being more favorable under water stress conditions (Priatama et al., 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe uniform response of \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e across all treatments, in contrast to the specific responsiveness of \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e to blue light, reinforces the hypothesis of genotypic differences in sensitivity to photoreceptors. Researchers have observed that blue light can increase stomatal conductance and photosynthetic efficiency through anatomical modifications, including changes in stomatal density and leaf thickness (Zheng \u0026amp; Van Labeke, 2017).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results obtained in this study highlight the need to adopt species-specific lighting strategies to optimize pitaya micropropagation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLED light quality, at 65 days of in vitro cultivation, influenced the growth of \u003cem\u003eSelenicereus undatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHylocereus polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited higher biometric parameters (diameter, fresh and dry mass) and anatomical traits related to the vascular system, particularly in seedlings under purple and red light, indicating greater morphoanatomical plasticity and a more homogeneous response under these light qualities. In contrast, \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e showed higher accumulation of photosynthetic pigments under white light, suggesting an adaptive strategy aimed at optimizing light capture across a broad spectrum, albeit with lower vegetative vigor. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRed light favors potassium accumulation but simultaneously induces osmotic stress, whereas blue light promotes redox elements essential for photosynthetic functioning.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlue light enhances carotenoid biosynthesis in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e, whereas purple and white light promote betalain accumulation in \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e, representing fundamental differences in secondary metabolism and adaptive strategies between the two species.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePurple and red light qualities promoted greater growth and vascular differentiation in \u003cem\u003eS. undatus\u003c/em\u003e, whereas white and blue light were more favorable for the development of \u003cem\u003eH. polyrhizus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePPFD\u003c/strong\u003e: Photosynthetic \u0026nbsp; Photon Flux Density; \u003cstrong\u003eLQ\u003c/strong\u003e: Light Qualities; \u003cstrong\u003eWL\u003c/strong\u003e: White Light; \u003cstrong\u003eBL\u003c/strong\u003e: Blue Light; \u003cstrong\u003ePL\u003c/strong\u003e: Purple Light;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;RL\u003c/strong\u003e: Red Light; \u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e: Central Rib; \u003cstrong\u003eRM\u003c/strong\u003e: Rib Margins; \u003cstrong\u003eCE\u003c/strong\u003e: Chemical Elements; \u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eDm\u003c/strong\u003e: Mean Diameter; \u003cstrong\u003eSL\u003c/strong\u003e: Shoot Length; \u003cstrong\u003eFMS\u003c/strong\u003e: Fresh Mass of Shoot; \u003cstrong\u003eSDM\u003c/strong\u003e: Shoot Dry Mass; \u003cstrong\u003eRFM\u003c/strong\u003e: Root Fresh Mass; \u003cstrong\u003eRDM\u003c/strong\u003e: Root Dry Mass; \u003cstrong\u003ePP\u003c/strong\u003e: Photosynthetic Pigments; \u003cstrong\u003eChl a\u003c/strong\u003e: Chlorophyll \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eChl b\u003c/strong\u003e: Chlorophyll \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eChl a+b\u003c/strong\u003e: Total Chlorophylls; \u003cstrong\u003eCar\u003c/strong\u003e: Carotenoids; \u003cstrong\u003espp.:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSpecies; \u003cstrong\u003ePCA\u003c/strong\u003e: Principal Component Analysis.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this work thank the Coordena\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de Aperfei\u0026ccedil;oamento de Pessoal de N\u0026iacute;vel Superior \u0026ndash; Brasil (CAPES), the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u0026iacute;fico e Tecnol\u0026oacute;gico (CNPq), and the Funda\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de Amparo \u0026agrave; Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) for financial support for the experiments and for funding scholarships and research productivity grants.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026apos;s contribution:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptual idea: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Mirian, N.M.; Methodological design: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G; Filipe, A. R.; Data collection: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Mirian, N.M.; Data analysis and interpretation: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Filipe, A. R.; Luana, J.S.; Jos\u0026eacute;, F.F.S.; Eduardo A., and Writing and editing: Evens, C.; Marcelo, A. G.; Mirian, N.M.; Filipe, A. R.; Luana, J.S.; Jos\u0026eacute;, F.F.S.; Eduardo A.; Joyce, D.; Moacir, P.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003eAhmed N, Zhang B, Bozdar B, Chachar S, Rai M, Li J et al (2023) The power of magnesium: unlocking the potential for increased yield, quality, and stress tolerance of horticultural crops. Frontiers in Plant Science, 14:1285512. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1285512 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAhn G, Jung IJ, Cha JY, Jeong SY, Shin, GI, Ji MG et al (2022) Phytochrome B positively regulates red light-mediated ER stress response in \u003cem\u003eArabidopsis\u003c/em\u003e. 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Genes, 16(4):375. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes16040375 \u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Hylocereus polyrhizus, Selenicereus undatus, Photomorphogenesis, Plant tissue culture, Vascular anatomy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8099833/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8099833/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Light quality is a crucial environmental factor regulating plant physiology, serving as both an energy source for photosynthesis and a signal for growth and development through photoreceptor activation. This study evaluated biometric, physiological, biochemical, elemental, and anatomical responses of in vitro micropropagated Selenicereus undatus and Hylocereus polyrhizus cladodes grown under different LED light qualities (white, blue, purple, and red) for 65 days on MS medium. Measurements included growth parameters, photosynthetic pigments, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomical traits. S. undatus showed superior biometric performance compared with H. polyrhizus, particularly in cladode diameter, shoot length, and fresh and dry masses, with notable responses under purple and red light. H. polyrhizus exhibited higher pigment accumulation, especially under white light. Raman spectral profiling revealed that blue light enhanced carotenoid biosynthesis in S. undatus, whereas H. polyrhizus responded more strongly to purple and white light. Elemental analyses indicated potassium as the predominant element in both species; S. undatus accumulated more Mg, P, Cl, and Zn, while H. polyrhizus had higher K, Ca, S, Fe, and Na. Principal component analysis indicated that red light promotes potassium accumulation but may induce osmotic stress, while blue light stimulates redox-related elements. The results demonstrate that species-specific lighting strategies can significantly optimize pitaya micropropagation, with purple or red light recommended for S. undatus and white or blue light for H. polyrhizus.","manuscriptTitle":"The quality of LED light alters the biometrics, bioactive compounds, mineral composition, and anatomy of in vitro micropropagated pitaya","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-22 08:26:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8099833/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fce44ee0-44ad-4f35-a002-b0823b070adc","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 22nd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-11T11:04:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-22 08:26:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8099833","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8099833","identity":"rs-8099833","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}