City branding through spatial popularity: A data-driven perspective from Balikpapan City as a satellite city of Nusantara Capital City of Indonesia

City branding through spatial popularity: A data-driven perspective from Balikpapan City as a satellite city of Nusantara Capital City of Indonesia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article City branding through spatial popularity: A data-driven perspective from Balikpapan City as a satellite city of Nusantara Capital City of Indonesia Mega Ulimaz, Bart Julien Dewancker, Muhammad Ma’arij Harfadli This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5450838/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In many developing countries, satellite cities play an important role as feeder cities for major metropolitan areas, responding to rapid population growth and spatial transformation. Staying competitive and attracting visitors requires effective city branding strategies, which are often shaped by the physical environment and experience. We examine the spatial dynamics of city popularity in Balikpapan, a satellite city designated as the New Capital of Indonesia, Nusantara, using a data-driven approach that integrates place popularity data and nighttime light intensity analysis. The city shows a relatively homogeneous distribution of light intensity, which indicates widespread human and economic activity throughout the city. However, the average popularity of city brand objects remains below 45%, and key growth areas are not consistently aligned with high popularity zones. Furthermore, the density map of popular places shows that areas with moderate light intensity and infrastructure stability do not necessarily correspond with high visitor engagement. According to the results of this study, city growth alone does not ensure popularity, highlighting the need for targeted branding efforts to improve the city's image. Focusing on the spatial relationship between physical development and perceived attractiveness, this study provides a deeper understanding of city branding in emerging satellite cities. In a context where Balikpapan is evolving as a satellite city adjacent to Indonesia's new capital, the results of this study underline the importance of building distributed urban popularity and managing growth through evidence-based spatial branding. city branding data-driven place popularity satellite city Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1. Introduction The emergence of satellite cities has been facilitated by the rapid urbanization that has accompanied the expansion of metropolitan areas. Rapid urbanization has encouraged the growth of satellite cities as a solution to address the density and complexity of large cities, and satellite cities develop functionally and spatially to support the core city (Hasnat & Hoque, 2016 ; Parr, 2004 ; Tate et al., 2021 ). Although, in principle, satellite cities are designed to support large cities through the provision of housing and economic balance, in practice these cities must also compete and develop as competitive cities (Merrilees et al., 2014 ). A study byAsian Development Bank ( 2019 ) shows that satellite cities in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia are under double pressure, as a mainstay of the main city and as a city with an identity that wants to build independently. While the idea behind satellite towns is to provide housing and economic balance to larger cities, in reality, these communities need to compete and grow as competitive cities. For instance, the ability of satellite cities to develop into new centers through connectivity and integration with their primary cities has been demonstrated by cities such as Shenzen in China (Cheng et al., 2023 ), Tangerang Selatan in Indonesia (Fitri et al., 2023 ; Jumadi et al., 2024), and Pune in India (Ansari et al., 2022 ). Shenzhen, which was originally developed as a Special Economic Zone to support Hong Kong, has grown into a global center for technology and innovation. Tangerang Selatan, which initially developed from a Jakarta buffer city, has become a center of economic growth attracting investment in the technology and education sectors. Pune, located close to Mumbai, has become a center of education and information technology as a hub for industry. As competitiveness between cities increases, there is a need to understand the popularity of cities as part of city branding strategies, to solve stressed satellite city problems (Merrilees et al., 2013 ). City popularity reflects public perceptions of cities, including image, tourist attractions, availability of facilities, and the quality of the environment and social life (Lucarelli & Berg, 2011). In this context city branding is a relevant strategic approach to attract visitors as competitiveness satellite cities (Kasapi & Cela, 2017 ;Syafitri et al., 2021 ). In contrast to merely promoting tourism, city branding encompasses initiatives that enhance the city's identity, attract investment, increase exports, and establish an attractive global image (Anholt, 2007 ; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2008 ). As a city's popularity increases, the potential to attract new residents, investors, tourists, and media attention will increase (Armutcu et al., 2023 ). The city of Seoul is an example of successful city branding in the last decade. The city has transformed from an industrial city image to a creative, environmentally friendly, and technology-based global city through the use of public spaces (Joo & Seo, 2017 ). In the current digital era, a data-driven approach provides a novel and unbiased method for evaluating the popularity of a city. In the context of tourism and place popularity, the development of city brand objects such as tourist destinations, public spaces, and commercial services is important. (Govers & Go, 2016 ) show that cities that actively shape their image through point of interest (POI) and public perception can create an authentic and competitive city experience in the eyes of visitors and investors. Big data technology facilitates the examination of many prominent indicators, including location check-ins, social media sentiment, online searches, and mobility data from digital platforms. Recent research shows that geospatial data and real-time analytics enable a deeper understanding of city usage patterns, public perceptions, and the popularity of urban spaces (Batty, 2013 ; Hashem et al., 2016 ; Yigitcanlar & Cugurullo, 2020 ). This method enables the geographical and temporal mapping of urban popularity patterns, reflecting both the official branding story and the authentic public view. The transfer of the Indonesian capital from Jakarta to Nusantara is a strategic momentum to develop satellite cities in Kalimantan, one of which is Balikpapan. In the Regional Long-Term Development Plan (RPJPD) 2025–2045, Balikpapan targets five main development dimensions: services, industry, trade, tourism, and education. Balikpapan, as a strategic satellite city in East Kalimantan and the mainstay of the development of the Nusantara Indonesia Capital City, presents an interesting case study. By its characteristics as an industrial, port, and commercial city, Balikpapan is an important candidate in the narrative of a growing satellite city. As a result of the minimal impact of city branding concerns on the participation of cities in global municipal networks, it is crucial to consider popular spaces (Pinto & Remesar, 2012 ) in order to identify solutions for the emergence of popular cities. Analyzing the popularity of cities that have developed into satellite cities is very important in the context of regional planning. Cities that were previously regional centers can sometimes be transformed into satellite cities due to central policies. Recent studies have highlighted that the development of satellite cities can serve as an instrument to control massive urban expansion, as shown in a comparative analysis between Tokyo and Shanghai (Gu et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, the use of technology that is driven by data makes it possible to track the development of urban structures, which in turn provides an overview of the important transformations that have occurred in urban expansion over the course of the last three decades (Frolking et al., 2024 ). Investigating the popularity of the exist city like Balikpapan, which is undergoing transformation into a satellite city, not only helps to get a better knowledge of the dynamics of urban areas, but it also provides assistance for decision-making in the context of regional planning and development. As a satellite city in the new capital’s development orbit, Balikpapan offers a unique empirical context for understanding how secondary cities shape their appeal through image, connectivity, and public perception.The purpose of this research is to explore the popularity of Balikpapan by employing a data-driven methodology that integrates digital perception analysis and night time light imagery. The findings of this study are not only relevant to Balikpapan, but can also serve as a conceptual and methodological reference for other satellite cities in developing countries facing similar dynamics. This kind of study is increasingly important amid many countries' efforts to develop polycentric urban systems and support cities that function as new growth centers (Berdegué et al., 2015 ; Moreno-Monroy et al., 2021 ). A data-driven approach to understanding city popularity can be widely applied to evaluate secondary city development strategies, from the aspects of spatial planning, city branding, and digital community engagement. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Study area This study focuses on Balikpapan (Fig. 1 ), a city strategically located as a main buffer city for the Nusantara, the new capital of the Republic of Indonesia, a project currently under construction in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Balikpapan has a relatively advanced infrastructure, a high level of connectivity through seaports and international airports, and the presence of rapidly developing economic centers and public services. Characterized as such, Balikpapan is a strong candidate for a satellite city that will experience increased popularity and urban activity in the next few years. Exploring the dynamics of the city's spatial popularity using a data-driven approach is therefore important to identify strategic zones and potential future development in an objective and evidence-based method. 2.2 Research questions and data collection This study aims to explore the emerging popularity of Balikpapan by analyzing the pattern and popularity levelbased on Night Time Light (NTL) imagery and place popularity. The study is guided by the following research questions: How is the popularity of a satellite city based on the NTL intensity pattern and city brand objects popularity? The primary datasets (Table 1 ) consist of Google Maps POI data and NTL data. The first data retrieved using a Python-based extraction method to collect the dataset includes information on location coordinates and POI category. The extracted POI were selected over purely to city brand object (Table 2 ). The city brand objects include all forms of physical and symbolic elements that can represent the identity, character, and image of the city in a real way (Chan, 2022 ; Ulimaz et al., 2024 ). The use of big data in city brand purpose involves collecting customer information via social media platforms, which is then enhanced with pertinent evidence to accurately forecast their demands and actions (Liu et al. 2023 ). The intensity of POI visits in Balikpapan is also suitable for utilizing big data because the distribution of social media and technology usage in this city is already quite high, as evidenced by the monthly data updates. The second data, extracted from Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) satellite imagery, which is often used as a proxy for economic activity and human presence (Elvidge et al., 2013 ) with 750 meters spatial resolution standardization. NTL as big data source can be indicators of urban vitality and growth (Zhou et al., 2023 ). Due to the strong correlation between VIIRS data and the population (Li et al. 2023 ), therefore NTL is preferable for urban areas in Indonesia, particularly Balikpapan City, which is well-developed and has a reliable energy network. Table 1 Data collection Data and analysis type Data source and acquisition Administrative boundary One map one data Balikpapan 2024 Nighttime Light Imagery 2023 Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) 2024 POI visiting frequency and stay time Google map 2024 POI city brand objects category One map one data Balikpapan 2024 2.3 Research methods This research approaches are in line with recent urban research that utilizes big data analytics to support urban decision-making and planning (Casali et al., 2022 ; Yu & Fang, 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2024 ). This research uses a data-driven analysis approach to analyze the pattern and popularity level of satellite cities based on NTL intensity and city brand object popularity. The choice of data-based methodology is based on the need for an objective and measurable approach to assessing urban popularity. Methodologies based on traditional surveys are limited by scale and subjectivity. This study instead adopts a computational urban science framework using digital footprint data, specifically Google Maps POI data and NTL intensity as a proxy for urban activity and attractiveness in assessing the popularity of satellite cities. The processing phase consists of three main computational procedures (Fig. 2 ); heatmap analysis of NTL data, Google Map feature geocoding, and city popularity classification. The first analysis includes light intensity values from raster satellite images which were aggregated into a uniform grid. Each grid unit is assigned a mean light intensity value and distribution. The normalized light intensity (Liu et al., 2024 ) is computed as: \(\:LitBVi=\text{l}\text{n}(NTLi+\:\delta\:\) ) POI data are processed using Python scripts to extract geospatial coordinates and associated metadata. The output from this process are POI location and identity, such as name, address, coordinates, and temporal popularity patterns, particularly the busiest hours. The popularity is measured based on different attributes such as visiting frequency, visitor category, and stay time (Tiwari & Kaushik 2014). The last process is a heatmap-based clustering algorithm (A’Idah et al., 2021 ) to identify areas with high POI average popularity and strong NTL values. This composite score is used to classify grids into levels of popularity and to generate popularity heatmaps for interpretation. Furthermore, the density pattern of light intensity and average popularity is analyzed to produce a heatmap with two-dimensional representation of city popularity in Balikpapan with a kernel density analysis heatmap for each district. This analysis was chosen as it has the strength to visualize popular areas and show how tourists or locals concentrate, especially Balikpapan is known for its strategic location as a gateway city in East Kalimantan. 3. Results 3.1. NTL intensity as urban activities As proposed in the literature on urban dynamics by Gibson et al. ( 2021 ), NTL data offer an empirical foundation for monitoring urban growth and vitality, it serves as a multifaceted proxy for human activity, encompassing economic transactions, mobility patterns, and infrastructural development. Figure 3 illustrates the spatial distribution of NTL intensity across Balikpapan, highlighting distinct areas of urban popularity. The central-southern areas, indicated NTL values reaching up to 125.5, well above the average of 63 for typical populated areas which is corresponds with dense residential, commercial, and transportation functions. This NTL concentration supports Fu et al. ( 2023 ), where urban nodes that strengthen the positive impact of network externalities. In contrast, the peripheral zones in the northern and eastern parts of the city display lower NTL values, visualized in blue, which suggests limited nighttime human activity and a relative absence of service or infrastructure concentration. Seen from a city branding perspective, these illuminated areas reflect the identity of the growing city of Balikpapan. Visibility, functionality, and user experience play an important role in shaping the city's image, according to the City Brand Hexagon (Anholt, 2006 ). With this in mind, areas with NTL intensity indicate the presence of a strong brand through concentrated activity, economic relevance, and perceived liveliness as important elements for building city brand equity in the context of a satellite city. 3.2. City brand objects popularity Table 2 lists the different categories of city brand objects and the corresponding number of objects in each category. These objects become visual media or experiences that can strengthen the public's perception of the city. The city brand objects based on POI in this study consist of city attractions, city amenities, city hospitality, business and industry, and city appearance. City attractions refer to certain site locations and event activities inside a city that attract tourists and residents due to their enjoyable and interesting character. City amenities refer to the vital services and conveniences provided inside a city that enhance the well-being of its citizens and tourists, such as parks and shopping centers. City hospitality refers to the services and accommodations provided by a city to serve tourists as well as residents, such as hotels and restaurants. City appearances are the visual and aesthetic elements of a city, including city landmarks. Table 2 Classification of city brand objects in Balikpapan City 2024 Category Number of objects City attractions 251 City amenities 324 City hospitalities 290 Business and industries 213 City appearances 72 3.2.1 Spatial distribution of city brand objects Among the five categories identified, city brand amenity is the most dominant, demonstrating the city's emphasis on service quality and infrastructure accessibility, which are important elements of perceived brand value (Maket et al., 2024 ). City brand hospitality, including accommodation and restaurants, reinforces the experiential dimension of the city, echoing the principles of the experience economy (Oh et al., 2019 ), in which the city is seen as a platform for meaningful encounters. The city brand attractions such as cultural sites and recreational spaces reinforces Balikpapan's symbolic and cultural capital, while business and industry represent the economic substructure that Huang et al. ( 2025 ) consider fundamental in shaping the spatial logic of capital accumulation in the city. The city brand appearance, although less represented, is very important in shaping the aesthetic dimension of brand identity. The visual elements and quality of public spaces are in line with Ariannia et al. ( 2024 ), who emphasizes the visual readability of the city's form as a contributor to place attachment and recognition. By detailing the spatial distribution of city brand objects and district popularity, Fig. 4 highlights the strong concentration of city brand objects in Balikpapan Tengah dan Balikpapan Selatan. These areas are located along main roads and administrative centers, which supports the research of Nalin et al. ( 2025 ), which states that downtown areas attract higher intensity of functions due to accessibility and service provision. Although suburban areas such as Balikpapan Barat dan Balikpapan Utara are not very dense, especially in the industrial and commercial categories, this is in line with Dong et al. ( 2024 ), which shows that these areas are development nodes linked to strategic corridors to the Nusantara Capital City. This spatial logic also supports Cerisola & Panzera ( 2021 ), where city brand visibility extends beyond the core through infrastructure, commerce, and cultural activation. Monuments, parks, and man-made tourism assets serve as symbolic anchors that support weekend tourism and local place identity, thus enhancing urban spirit (Tang et al., 2018 ). 3.2.2 Temporal popularity patterns The Fig. 5 illustrates the average popularity trend throughout the week. A gradual increase in the popularity of city brand objects from Monday (27%) to Saturday (33.16%) indicates increased engagement on weekends. The Fig. 5 confirms the opinion of Luo et al. ( 2025 ), where branding is not static, but is carried out through the temporal rhythm of urban life. An increase of 20.7% from Monday to Saturday underlines the role of leisure-oriented branding in activating public spaces and visitor behavior. According to He et al. ( 2022 ), successful city brands often stimulate cognitive and emotional responses, especially through seasonal and weekend programs that attract public participation. The peak of the weekend is not only a reflection of visitor preferences, but also an indicator of a successful city branding strategy that targets urban livability and inclusiveness. Average Sunday popularity (30%) still exceeds weekday levels, reflecting a sustained interest driven by cultural and community events, in line with an inclusive branding approach (Bisani et al., 2024 ), which emphasizes stakeholder participation and everyday life rather than promotional campaigns. Figure 6 illustrates the trend in popularity by hour, which shows a clear peak at night on all days, especially on Fridays and Saturdays. The hours of 7–9 p.m. consistently show the highest popularity, indicating a strong alignment with the urban nightlife model (Santiago-Iglesias et al., 2024 ), in which cities expand their brands through nighttime activities that promote social and economic values, where time-based rhythms are central to how urban spaces are experienced and valued. A consistently lower morning activity shows the traditional work life cycle, while the evening peak highlights the importance of public spaces and service clusters that accommodate socializing after working hours. These findings reinforce the need to integrate time-sensitive urban design and branding strategies that reflect the living experiences of residents and visitors. 3.2.3 Spatial popularity patterns Figure 7 shows that Balikpapan Selatan leads in terms of average popularity (33.36%), followed by Balikpapan Tengah, while Balikpapan Timur has the lowest score (25.45%). On the other hand, suburban areas such as Balikpapan Utara are showing an increase in popularity, an important finding in line with polycentric urbanism (Wang, 2021 ). Spatial dispersion shows that the city brand is no longer limited to traditional centers, but extends towards strategic corridors in the future. Growing relevance of suburban districts also reflects changing spatial imagery of suburban areas, where new investments, infrastructure, and symbolic activities begin to shape new identities. Along with the development of Balikpapan Utara in response to the relocation of the capital, its increasing popularity can be interpreted as a city brand extension process (Ramadhani & Indradjati, 2023 ) in which new sub-identities are developed to strengthen the overall image of the city. 3.3. Spatial visualization of city’s popularity The heatmap represents the degree of engagement or city brand fullness in each area. Figure 8 presents a heatmap visualization that reflects the density and distribution of city brand objects across Balikpapan. This type of visualization supports the city as a spatial interface where brand-related elements interact and accumulate meaning through physical concentration. A high intensity seen in Balikpapan Tengah and Balikpapan Selatan shows the brand value that naturally emerges through the grouping of facilities, tourist sites, and economic activities. Spatial concentration of services and infrastructure improves accessibility, pedestrians, and symbolic capital. In Balikpapan Utara dan Balikpapan Barat, on the other hand, the relatively lower levels reflect the peripheral role in the current dynamics of the city brand, where brand objects are less represented. The spatial distribution of the average level of popularity shows a similar pattern of centrality. This may be explained by the spatial rebranding framework (Grenni et al., 2020 ), in which the identity of a place develops gradually through targeted interventions and infrastructure improvements. Areas such as Balikpapan Kota and Balikpapan Tengah again demonstrate high popularity (Fig. 9 ), reinforcing their roles as multifunctional urban cores that blend administrative, commercial, cultural, and recreational functions. According to Terefe & Hou (2024), such areas attract more consistent flows of people due to their accessibility and service concentration. These findings also correlate with consumer-based place branding models (Bose et al., 2020 ), which emphasize that frequent engagement and visibility of a place contribute directly to its brand equity. At this time, spatial popularity is both a function of objective access and the perceived value of a place, shaped by lived experiences and city narratives. Further supported by the day–night light heatmap (Fig. 10 ), similar patterns emerge in terms of urban intensity. The brightest areas, representing high human activity and mobility, are again concentrated in the southern and central corridors of the city. Nighttime light intensity has been acknowledged in urban studies as a valid proxy for economic vitality and spatial attractiveness (Elvidge et al., 2013 ). Its application here reinforces the idea that urban brightness is a reflection of place vibrancy, which supports both the economic and symbolic dimensions of city branding. On the other hand, lower activity in Balikpapan Barat and Balikpapan Utara may reflect mono-functional residential uses with less clustering of leisure or commercial activity. From the standpoint of place identity development, these areas offer opportunities for targeted spatial branding strategies that can introduce or reinforce local character through landmark creation, public space activation, or cultural programming. 4. Discussions: Divergence between Light Intensity and Popularity Patterns After taking a closer look at the distribution of urban lighting in Balikpapan, a unique pattern emerges. Unlike the traditional urban model, which shows lighting concentrated in the main business districts, the level of lighting here is spread relatively evenly across most urban areas, with only a slight intensity recorded in certain peripheral areas. This spatial uniformity in NTL implies a widespread level of human and economic activity across the city. However, when this data is contrasted with the city brand objects POI-based popularity density map, the findings reveal a divergence which is many areas with moderate light levels do not correspond to high levels of public popularity. This decoupling illustrates that urban lighting alone does not fully capture the spatial sense of popularity, pointing toward a more complex interplay between physical development and perceived place attractiveness. This phenomenon reinforces findings by Wu et al. ( 2022 ), who noted that light intensity can reflect localized city brand objects activity but is not always a direct predictor of user popularity or brand engagement. Elements such as environmental stimulation, place-based expectations (Nouri & Costa, 2017), and proximity to the city center (Moghaddam et al., 2022 ) appear to play a stronger role in shaping the popularity of cities. All these dimensions are in line with the theory of urban experience imaging (Chen et al., 2024 ), whereby the emotional and functional relationship that individuals have with a place shapes their perceptions and behavior, beyond infrastructure indicators. From a spatial branding standpoint, these insights underscore the need for branding strategies that are grounded in spatial differentiation rather than uniform urban growth. As noted by Nguyen et al. ( 2019 ) and Ulimaz et al. ( 2024 ), patterns of branding are often centralized and depend heavily on the built environment and the typology of urban spaces. Consequently, the popularity map not only functions as a visualization tool but also as a strategic instrument for city storytelling and intervention design, especially in cities transitioning towards satellite functions such as Balikpapan. Well-targeted branding in areas with high engagement levels can strengthen the city's identity, while branding investments in less popular zones can help balance the city's portfolio of attractions. Moreover, the expansion of illuminated areas, especially towards Balikpapan Utara dan Balikpapan Timur, signals the presence of growth poles. Spatial expansion represents a functional shift in urban configuration and a symbolic evolution of the city's brand narrative. According to Bellanca & Calogero ( 2023 ), spatial storytelling plays an important role in shaping public perception and strengthening the city's image. The illumination of new nodes is not just an indicator of development, but an opportunity to construct new brand identities aligned with the values, aesthetics, and experiences of these evolving spaces. Furthermore, as suggested expanded by Chen et al. ( 2024 ), the foundation of city branding lies in the visitor's experiential interface with the city, like how people feel and live the brand in different temporal and spatial moments. The popularity of the city center district in Balikpapan reflects an established urban identity, but the growing popularity of the northern district offers an important opportunity to jointly create new meaning and develop place-based narratives that align with the city's strategic position as a supporting center for the Nusantara Capital City. Balikpapan reflects an established urban identity, but the growing popularity of the northern district offers an important opportunity to jointly create new meaning and develop place-based narratives that align with the city's strategic position as a supporting center for the Indonesian Capital City. There are major planning implications to this reflection. The convergence of high popularity and high NTL value in Balikpapan Kota, Tengah, and Selatan requires ongoing congestion management, infrastructure resilience, and continuous spatial planning to maintain competitiveness. Simultaneously, rising popularity in Balikpapan Utara dan Balikpapan Timur requires proactive spatial planning, infrastructure provision, and local branding to guide their transformation into dynamic sub-centers. Finally, underperforming areas such as Balikpapan Barat, with low popularity and light intensity, can be seen as a blank slate for sustainable development, offering the potential for decentralization and pressure relief from the city center. Regardless of the geographic focus of this research in Balikpapan, the methodological approach and key findings have relevance to other urban contexts, particularly growing satellite cities or secondary cities undergoing spatial and economic transformation. Integrating data-driven analysis, including POI mapping, NTL imagery, and popularity metrics, offers a replicable framework for diagnosing the spatial dynamics of city popularity and branding in different places. Our Balikpapan case study underlines that a city's popularity and brand visibility are not only determined by infrastructure or centrality, but also by the interaction between spatial experience, cultural programming, and emotional connection to a place. For cities that want to improve their competitiveness in a decentralized government environment or in proximity to a larger city center, this insight is highly relevant. By adopting spatial diagnostics based on heat maps, urban planners and brand strategists can target interventions more effectively - either by strengthening existing strong points or revitalizing underperforming zones. The findings from Balikpapan offer conceptual and methodological value beyond the boundaries of the region, which can be a model for branding and planning in other urban areas that are undergoing similar transitions. 5. Conclusions The results of this study show that the popularity of Balikpapan is not only due to population density or nightlife, but is significantly shaped by the spatial presence of city brand objects, including attractions, amenities, hospitality, business, and visual appearance. Interestingly, Balikpapan Utara emerges as an outlier with high popularity despite limited distribution of city brand objects, suggesting spatial potential that could be leveraged by accessibility to new development corridors, especially in the context of its proximity to the future capital. In contrast, Balikpapan Barat, with lower popularity and fewer place-based assets, highlights areas that could benefit from strategic branding or targeted urban activation. The analysis also shows that the level of illumination is evenly distributed throughout the urban area, but this does not directly correlate with popularity. Its disassociation suggests that the spirit of the city and brand value cannot be inferred from physical development or the presence of infrastructure alone, but are also generated through spatial experiences, cultural engagement, and perception-based branding strategies. The peak in popularity observed on Friday and Saturday nights further emphasizes the importance of temporal branding patterns, which can be used to design specific activities at specific times and increase the vitality of the city. Aligned with Balikpapan's development as a satellite city adjacent to Indonesia's new capital, this research underscores the importance of building distributed city popularity and managing growth through evidence-based spatial imaging. The other cities that are in transition, both in Indonesia and in the world, can apply this approach to identify untapped city assets, reframe lesser-known areas, and increase competitiveness through a place-branding lens based on real spatial data. The research, however, recognizes the limitations of using dynamic digital data. Trends in popularity can fluctuate due to seasons, events, or data bias towards certain demographic segments, such as tourists or app users. Research in the future can integrate longitudinal data, mobility patterns, or qualitative perception studies to further enrich the understanding of how spatial branding affects the attractiveness and resilience of cities. Statements and Declarations Funding No funding was received for conducting this study. Conflicts of interests/Competing interests The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Authors’ contribution Conceptualization: Mega Ulimaz, Bart Julien Dewancker; Methodology: Mega Ulimaz, Muhammad Ma’arij Harfadli; Formal analysis and investigation: Mega Ulimaz; Writing - original draft preparation: Mega Ulimaz; Writing - review and editing: Mega Ulimaz, Bart Julien Dewancker; Resources: Muhammad Ma’arij Harfadli; Supervision: Bart Julien Dewancker Data availability The research data related to this study will be made available upon reasonable request. References A’Idah, S. S., Susiloningtyas, D., & Shidiq, I. P. A. (2021). GIS-based NNA and Kernel Density analysis for identifying distribution of restaurant’s popularity index in Bandung. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 940(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/940/1/012012 Anholt, S. (2006). The Anholt-GMI city brands index : How the world sees the world’s cities. Place Branding, 2(1). Anholt, S. (2007). 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Remote Sensing, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15040903 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 20 Apr, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 11 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 10 Apr, 2025 Editorial decision: Minor revision 10 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5450838","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":445444979,"identity":"763d069d-2ece-4eb6-8621-6590ca0d3a96","order_by":0,"name":"Mega 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flow\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/4a718b2348881133a287c2d3.png"},{"id":81512648,"identity":"b25a7f2b-4632-4bb0-9249-4bc7ad123584","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:27:41","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":327256,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVIIRS light intensity map of Balikpapan City 2023\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/2d212a64fcfe39a019ae8cff.png"},{"id":81512652,"identity":"d257e936-3863-4c6c-b24d-af1f3510f538","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:27:41","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":364325,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCity brand objects distribution in Balikpapan City 2024\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/a5373006bd7be8055f9ad6af.png"},{"id":81512654,"identity":"36bf361a-ce9f-42af-a2be-14a90389675a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:27:41","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":584244,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily average popularity of city brand objects in Balikpapan City 2024\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/af42f6a5dadec2fc77a026f8.png"},{"id":81512666,"identity":"e9041fb6-1be5-48f5-b125-1daa29c56266","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:27:42","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":982484,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage popularity of city brand objects in Balikpapan City from January to June 2024 by time\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/27668e1c37e4774797ece9a0.png"},{"id":81513125,"identity":"5dc3c5b0-16a8-40b9-9899-008072115147","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:35:41","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":329032,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMinimum, maximum, and average popularity of city brand objects in Balikpapan City 2024 by district\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/6c5360015828c1f9d17647f1.png"},{"id":81512658,"identity":"e39cee8d-0bd9-4b5d-a3d6-ae916e382f57","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:27:41","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":377354,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCity brand objects distribution heatmap of Balikpapan City 2024\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/231e33136fb52cb4b3fe0aff.png"},{"id":81513866,"identity":"3ffcfb76-978e-404f-9e4e-91cb546ca990","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:43:41","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":382009,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCity brand objects popularity heatmap of Balikpapan City\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/8906eef9fbdd804b20fa7d34.png"},{"id":81512674,"identity":"c4936395-6fc2-4911-a658-30ba7c5c6520","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:27:42","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":380942,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDay-nightlight heatmap of Balikpapan City\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/dcc26bc723d6c68ab08f3112.png"},{"id":81514251,"identity":"f401caf1-c4b0-425f-a05c-2c42150eea22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-28 06:51:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5487279,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5450838/v1/285298ab-a87d-4a77-ba06-4e796881b8cc.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"City branding through spatial popularity: A data-driven perspective from Balikpapan City as a satellite city of Nusantara Capital City of Indonesia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe emergence of satellite cities has been facilitated by the rapid urbanization that has accompanied the expansion of metropolitan areas. Rapid urbanization has encouraged the growth of satellite cities as a solution to address the density and complexity of large cities, and satellite cities develop functionally and spatially to support the core city (Hasnat \u0026amp; Hoque, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Parr, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Tate et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Although, in principle, satellite cities are designed to support large cities through the provision of housing and economic balance, in practice these cities must also compete and develop as competitive cities (Merrilees et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A study byAsian Development Bank (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) shows that satellite cities in Asia, especially in Southeast Asia are under double pressure, as a mainstay of the main city and as a city with an identity that wants to build independently. While the idea behind satellite towns is to provide housing and economic balance to larger cities, in reality, these communities need to compete and grow as competitive cities. For instance, the ability of satellite cities to develop into new centers through connectivity and integration with their primary cities has been demonstrated by cities such as Shenzen in China (Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), Tangerang Selatan in Indonesia (Fitri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Jumadi et al., 2024), and Pune in India (Ansari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Shenzhen, which was originally developed as a Special Economic Zone to support Hong Kong, has grown into a global center for technology and innovation. Tangerang Selatan, which initially developed from a Jakarta buffer city, has become a center of economic growth attracting investment in the technology and education sectors. Pune, located close to Mumbai, has become a center of education and information technology as a hub for industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs competitiveness between cities increases, there is a need to understand the popularity of cities as part of city branding strategies, to solve stressed satellite city problems (Merrilees et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). City popularity reflects public perceptions of cities, including image, tourist attractions, availability of facilities, and the quality of the environment and social life (Lucarelli \u0026amp; Berg, 2011). In this context city branding is a relevant strategic approach to attract visitors as competitiveness satellite cities (Kasapi \u0026amp; Cela, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e;Syafitri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast to merely promoting tourism, city branding encompasses initiatives that enhance the city's identity, attract investment, increase exports, and establish an attractive global image (Anholt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Kavaratzis \u0026amp; Ashworth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). As a city's popularity increases, the potential to attract new residents, investors, tourists, and media attention will increase (Armutcu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The city of Seoul is an example of successful city branding in the last decade. The city has transformed from an industrial city image to a creative, environmentally friendly, and technology-based global city through the use of public spaces (Joo \u0026amp; Seo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the current digital era, a data-driven approach provides a novel and unbiased method for evaluating the popularity of a city. In the context of tourism and place popularity, the development of city brand objects such as tourist destinations, public spaces, and commercial services is important. (Govers \u0026amp; Go, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) show that cities that actively shape their image through point of interest (POI) and public perception can create an authentic and competitive city experience in the eyes of visitors and investors. Big data technology facilitates the examination of many prominent indicators, including location check-ins, social media sentiment, online searches, and mobility data from digital platforms. Recent research shows that geospatial data and real-time analytics enable a deeper understanding of city usage patterns, public perceptions, and the popularity of urban spaces (Batty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hashem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Yigitcanlar \u0026amp; Cugurullo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This method enables the geographical and temporal mapping of urban popularity patterns, reflecting both the official branding story and the authentic public view.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe transfer of the Indonesian capital from Jakarta to Nusantara is a strategic momentum to develop satellite cities in Kalimantan, one of which is Balikpapan. In the Regional Long-Term Development Plan (RPJPD) 2025\u0026ndash;2045, Balikpapan targets five main development dimensions: services, industry, trade, tourism, and education. Balikpapan, as a strategic satellite city in East Kalimantan and the mainstay of the development of the Nusantara Indonesia Capital City, presents an interesting case study. By its characteristics as an industrial, port, and commercial city, Balikpapan is an important candidate in the narrative of a growing satellite city. As a result of the minimal impact of city branding concerns on the participation of cities in global municipal networks, it is crucial to consider popular spaces (Pinto \u0026amp; Remesar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) in order to identify solutions for the emergence of popular cities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalyzing the popularity of cities that have developed into satellite cities is very important in the context of regional planning. Cities that were previously regional centers can sometimes be transformed into satellite cities due to central policies. Recent studies have highlighted that the development of satellite cities can serve as an instrument to control massive urban expansion, as shown in a comparative analysis between Tokyo and Shanghai (Gu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the use of technology that is driven by data makes it possible to track the development of urban structures, which in turn provides an overview of the important transformations that have occurred in urban expansion over the course of the last three decades (Frolking et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Investigating the popularity of the exist city like Balikpapan, which is undergoing transformation into a satellite city, not only helps to get a better knowledge of the dynamics of urban areas, but it also provides assistance for decision-making in the context of regional planning and development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a satellite city in the new capital\u0026rsquo;s development orbit, Balikpapan offers a unique empirical context for understanding how secondary cities shape their appeal through image, connectivity, and public perception.The purpose of this research is to explore the popularity of Balikpapan by employing a data-driven methodology that integrates digital perception analysis and night time light imagery. The findings of this study are not only relevant to Balikpapan, but can also serve as a conceptual and methodological reference for other satellite cities in developing countries facing similar dynamics. This kind of study is increasingly important amid many countries' efforts to develop polycentric urban systems and support cities that function as new growth centers (Berdegu\u0026eacute; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Moreno-Monroy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). A data-driven approach to understanding city popularity can be widely applied to evaluate secondary city development strategies, from the aspects of spatial planning, city branding, and digital community engagement.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study area\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on Balikpapan (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), a city strategically located as a main buffer city for the Nusantara, the new capital of the Republic of Indonesia, a project currently under construction in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Balikpapan has a relatively advanced infrastructure, a high level of connectivity through seaports and international airports, and the presence of rapidly developing economic centers and public services. Characterized as such, Balikpapan is a strong candidate for a satellite city that will experience increased popularity and urban activity in the next few years. Exploring the dynamics of the city\u0026apos;s spatial popularity using a data-driven approach is therefore important to identify strategic zones and potential future development in an objective and evidence-based method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Research questions and data collection\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to explore the emerging popularity of Balikpapan by analyzing the pattern and popularity levelbased on Night Time Light (NTL) imagery and place popularity. The study is guided by the following research questions: \u003cem\u003eHow is the popularity of a satellite city based on the NTL intensity pattern and city brand objects popularity?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe primary datasets (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) consist of Google Maps POI data and NTL data. The first data retrieved using a Python-based extraction method to collect the dataset includes information on location coordinates and POI category. The extracted POI were selected over purely to city brand object (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The city brand objects include all forms of physical and symbolic elements that can represent the identity, character, and image of the city in a real way (Chan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ulimaz et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The use of big data in city brand purpose involves collecting customer information via social media platforms, which is then enhanced with pertinent evidence to accurately forecast their demands and actions (Liu et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The intensity of POI visits in Balikpapan is also suitable for utilizing big data because the distribution of social media and technology usage in this city is already quite high, as evidenced by the monthly data updates. The second data, extracted from Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) satellite imagery, which is often used as a proxy for economic activity and human presence (Elvidge et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) with 750 meters spatial resolution standardization. NTL as big data source can be indicators of urban vitality and growth (Zhou et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the strong correlation between VIIRS data and the population (Li et al.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), therefore NTL is preferable for urban areas in Indonesia, particularly Balikpapan City, which is well-developed and has a reliable energy network.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData collection\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData and analysis type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData source and acquisition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdministrative boundary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne map one data Balikpapan 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNighttime Light Imagery 2023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVisible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePOI visiting frequency and stay time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGoogle map 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePOI city brand objects category\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne map one data Balikpapan 2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Research methods\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis research approaches are in line with recent urban research that utilizes big data analytics to support urban decision-making and planning (Casali et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yu \u0026amp; Fang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This research uses a data-driven analysis approach to analyze the pattern and popularity level of satellite cities based on NTL intensity and city brand object popularity. The choice of data-based methodology is based on the need for an objective and measurable approach to assessing urban popularity. Methodologies based on traditional surveys are limited by scale and subjectivity. This study instead adopts a computational urban science framework using digital footprint data, specifically Google Maps POI data and NTL intensity as a proxy for urban activity and attractiveness in assessing the popularity of satellite cities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe processing phase consists of three main computational procedures (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e); heatmap analysis of NTL data, Google Map feature geocoding, and city popularity classification. The first analysis includes light intensity values from raster satellite images which were aggregated into a uniform grid. Each grid unit is assigned a mean light intensity value and distribution. The normalized light intensity (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) is computed as:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:LitBVi=\\text{l}\\text{n}(NTLi+\\:\\delta\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePOI data are processed using Python scripts to extract geospatial coordinates and associated metadata. The output from this process are POI location and identity, such as name, address, coordinates, and temporal popularity patterns, particularly the busiest hours. The popularity is measured based on different attributes such as visiting frequency, visitor category, and stay time (Tiwari \u0026amp; Kaushik 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe last process is a heatmap-based clustering algorithm (A\u0026rsquo;Idah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) to identify areas with high POI average popularity and strong NTL values. This composite score is used to classify grids into levels of popularity and to generate popularity heatmaps for interpretation. Furthermore, the density pattern of light intensity and average popularity is analyzed to produce a heatmap with two-dimensional representation of city popularity in Balikpapan with a kernel density analysis heatmap for each district. This analysis was chosen as it has the strength to visualize popular areas and show how tourists or locals concentrate, especially Balikpapan is known for its strategic location as a gateway city in East Kalimantan.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. NTL intensity as urban activities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs proposed in the literature on urban dynamics by Gibson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), NTL data offer an empirical foundation for monitoring urban growth and vitality, it serves as a multifaceted proxy for human activity, encompassing economic transactions, mobility patterns, and infrastructural development. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the spatial distribution of NTL intensity across Balikpapan, highlighting distinct areas of urban popularity. The central-southern areas, indicated NTL values reaching up to 125.5, well above the average of 63 for typical populated areas which is corresponds with dense residential, commercial, and transportation functions. This NTL concentration supports Fu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), where urban nodes that strengthen the positive impact of network externalities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the peripheral zones in the northern and eastern parts of the city display lower NTL values, visualized in blue, which suggests limited nighttime human activity and a relative absence of service or infrastructure concentration. Seen from a city branding perspective, these illuminated areas reflect the identity of the growing city of Balikpapan. Visibility, functionality, and user experience play an important role in shaping the city's image, according to the City Brand Hexagon (Anholt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). With this in mind, areas with NTL intensity indicate the presence of a strong brand through concentrated activity, economic relevance, and perceived liveliness as important elements for building city brand equity in the context of a satellite city.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. City brand objects popularity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e lists the different categories of city brand objects and the corresponding number of objects in each category. These objects become visual media or experiences that can strengthen the public's perception of the city. The city brand objects based on POI in this study consist of city attractions, city amenities, city hospitality, business and industry, and city appearance. City attractions refer to certain site locations and event activities inside a city that attract tourists and residents due to their enjoyable and interesting character. City amenities refer to the vital services and conveniences provided inside a city that enhance the well-being of its citizens and tourists, such as parks and shopping centers. City hospitality refers to the services and accommodations provided by a city to serve tourists as well as residents, such as hotels and restaurants. City appearances are the visual and aesthetic elements of a city, including city landmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassification of city brand objects in Balikpapan City 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of objects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCity attractions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCity amenities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e324\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCity hospitalities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness and industries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCity appearances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Spatial distribution of city brand objects\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the five categories identified, city brand amenity is the most dominant, demonstrating the city's emphasis on service quality and infrastructure accessibility, which are important elements of perceived brand value (Maket et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). City brand hospitality, including accommodation and restaurants, reinforces the experiential dimension of the city, echoing the principles of the experience economy (Oh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), in which the city is seen as a platform for meaningful encounters. The city brand attractions such as cultural sites and recreational spaces reinforces Balikpapan's symbolic and cultural capital, while business and industry represent the economic substructure that Huang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) consider fundamental in shaping the spatial logic of capital accumulation in the city. The city brand appearance, although less represented, is very important in shaping the aesthetic dimension of brand identity. The visual elements and quality of public spaces are in line with Ariannia et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasizes the visual readability of the city's form as a contributor to place attachment and recognition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy detailing the spatial distribution of city brand objects and district popularity, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e highlights the strong concentration of city brand objects in Balikpapan Tengah dan Balikpapan Selatan. These areas are located along main roads and administrative centers, which supports the research of Nalin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), which states that downtown areas attract higher intensity of functions due to accessibility and service provision. Although suburban areas such as Balikpapan Barat dan Balikpapan Utara are not very dense, especially in the industrial and commercial categories, this is in line with Dong et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which shows that these areas are development nodes linked to strategic corridors to the Nusantara Capital City. This spatial logic also supports Cerisola \u0026amp; Panzera (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), where city brand visibility extends beyond the core through infrastructure, commerce, and cultural activation. Monuments, parks, and man-made tourism assets serve as symbolic anchors that support weekend tourism and local place identity, thus enhancing urban spirit (Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Temporal popularity patterns\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the average popularity trend throughout the week. A gradual increase in the popularity of city brand objects from Monday (27%) to Saturday (33.16%) indicates increased engagement on weekends. The Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e confirms the opinion of Luo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), where branding is not static, but is carried out through the temporal rhythm of urban life. An increase of 20.7% from Monday to Saturday underlines the role of leisure-oriented branding in activating public spaces and visitor behavior. According to He et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), successful city brands often stimulate cognitive and emotional responses, especially through seasonal and weekend programs that attract public participation. The peak of the weekend is not only a reflection of visitor preferences, but also an indicator of a successful city branding strategy that targets urban livability and inclusiveness. Average Sunday popularity (30%) still exceeds weekday levels, reflecting a sustained interest driven by cultural and community events, in line with an inclusive branding approach (Bisani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasizes stakeholder participation and everyday life rather than promotional campaigns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the trend in popularity by hour, which shows a clear peak at night on all days, especially on Fridays and Saturdays. The hours of 7\u0026ndash;9 p.m. consistently show the highest popularity, indicating a strong alignment with the urban nightlife model (Santiago-Iglesias et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), in which cities expand their brands through nighttime activities that promote social and economic values, where time-based rhythms are central to how urban spaces are experienced and valued. A consistently lower morning activity shows the traditional work life cycle, while the evening peak highlights the importance of public spaces and service clusters that accommodate socializing after working hours. These findings reinforce the need to integrate time-sensitive urban design and branding strategies that reflect the living experiences of residents and visitors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Spatial popularity patterns\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows that Balikpapan Selatan leads in terms of average popularity (33.36%), followed by Balikpapan Tengah, while Balikpapan Timur has the lowest score (25.45%). On the other hand, suburban areas such as Balikpapan Utara are showing an increase in popularity, an important finding in line with polycentric urbanism (Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Spatial dispersion shows that the city brand is no longer limited to traditional centers, but extends towards strategic corridors in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrowing relevance of suburban districts also reflects changing spatial imagery of suburban areas, where new investments, infrastructure, and symbolic activities begin to shape new identities. Along with the development of Balikpapan Utara in response to the relocation of the capital, its increasing popularity can be interpreted as a city brand extension process (Ramadhani \u0026amp; Indradjati, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) in which new sub-identities are developed to strengthen the overall image of the city.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Spatial visualization of city\u0026rsquo;s popularity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe heatmap represents the degree of engagement or city brand fullness in each area. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e presents a heatmap visualization that reflects the density and distribution of city brand objects across Balikpapan. This type of visualization supports the city as a spatial interface where brand-related elements interact and accumulate meaning through physical concentration. A high intensity seen in Balikpapan Tengah and Balikpapan Selatan shows the brand value that naturally emerges through the grouping of facilities, tourist sites, and economic activities. Spatial concentration of services and infrastructure improves accessibility, pedestrians, and symbolic capital. In Balikpapan Utara dan Balikpapan Barat, on the other hand, the relatively lower levels reflect the peripheral role in the current dynamics of the city brand, where brand objects are less represented. The spatial distribution of the average level of popularity shows a similar pattern of centrality. This may be explained by the spatial rebranding framework (Grenni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), in which the identity of a place develops gradually through targeted interventions and infrastructure improvements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAreas such as Balikpapan Kota and Balikpapan Tengah again demonstrate high popularity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), reinforcing their roles as multifunctional urban cores that blend administrative, commercial, cultural, and recreational functions. According to Terefe \u0026amp; Hou (2024), such areas attract more consistent flows of people due to their accessibility and service concentration. These findings also correlate with consumer-based place branding models (Bose et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasize that frequent engagement and visibility of a place contribute directly to its brand equity. At this time, spatial popularity is both a function of objective access and the perceived value of a place, shaped by lived experiences and city narratives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther supported by the day\u0026ndash;night light heatmap (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e), similar patterns emerge in terms of urban intensity. The brightest areas, representing high human activity and mobility, are again concentrated in the southern and central corridors of the city. Nighttime light intensity has been acknowledged in urban studies as a valid proxy for economic vitality and spatial attractiveness (Elvidge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Its application here reinforces the idea that urban brightness is a reflection of place vibrancy, which supports both the economic and symbolic dimensions of city branding. On the other hand, lower activity in Balikpapan Barat and Balikpapan Utara may reflect mono-functional residential uses with less clustering of leisure or commercial activity. From the standpoint of place identity development, these areas offer opportunities for targeted spatial branding strategies that can introduce or reinforce local character through landmark creation, public space activation, or cultural programming.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussions: Divergence between Light Intensity and Popularity Patterns","content":"\u003cp\u003eAfter taking a closer look at the distribution of urban lighting in Balikpapan, a unique pattern emerges. Unlike the traditional urban model, which shows lighting concentrated in the main business districts, the level of lighting here is spread relatively evenly across most urban areas, with only a slight intensity recorded in certain peripheral areas. This spatial uniformity in NTL implies a widespread level of human and economic activity across the city. However, when this data is contrasted with the city brand objects POI-based popularity density map, the findings reveal a divergence which is many areas with moderate light levels do not correspond to high levels of public popularity. This decoupling illustrates that urban lighting alone does not fully capture the spatial sense of popularity, pointing toward a more complex interplay between physical development and perceived place attractiveness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis phenomenon reinforces findings by Wu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who noted that light intensity can reflect localized city brand objects activity but is not always a direct predictor of user popularity or brand engagement. Elements such as environmental stimulation, place-based expectations (Nouri \u0026amp; Costa, 2017), and proximity to the city center (Moghaddam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) appear to play a stronger role in shaping the popularity of cities. All these dimensions are in line with the theory of urban experience imaging (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), whereby the emotional and functional relationship that individuals have with a place shapes their perceptions and behavior, beyond infrastructure indicators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a spatial branding standpoint, these insights underscore the need for branding strategies that are grounded in spatial differentiation rather than uniform urban growth. As noted by Nguyen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Ulimaz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), patterns of branding are often centralized and depend heavily on the built environment and the typology of urban spaces. Consequently, the popularity map not only functions as a visualization tool but also as a strategic instrument for city storytelling and intervention design, especially in cities transitioning towards satellite functions such as Balikpapan. Well-targeted branding in areas with high engagement levels can strengthen the city's identity, while branding investments in less popular zones can help balance the city's portfolio of attractions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the expansion of illuminated areas, especially towards Balikpapan Utara dan Balikpapan Timur, signals the presence of growth poles. Spatial expansion represents a functional shift in urban configuration and a symbolic evolution of the city's brand narrative. According to Bellanca \u0026amp; Calogero (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), spatial storytelling plays an important role in shaping public perception and strengthening the city's image. The illumination of new nodes is not just an indicator of development, but an opportunity to construct new brand identities aligned with the values, aesthetics, and experiences of these evolving spaces.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, as suggested expanded by Chen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), the foundation of city branding lies in the visitor's experiential interface with the city, like how people feel and live the brand in different temporal and spatial moments. The popularity of the city center district in Balikpapan reflects an established urban identity, but the growing popularity of the northern district offers an important opportunity to jointly create new meaning and develop place-based narratives that align with the city's strategic position as a supporting center for the Nusantara Capital City.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalikpapan reflects an established urban identity, but the growing popularity of the northern district offers an important opportunity to jointly create new meaning and develop place-based narratives that align with the city's strategic position as a supporting center for the Indonesian Capital City.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are major planning implications to this reflection. The convergence of high popularity and high NTL value in Balikpapan Kota, Tengah, and Selatan requires ongoing congestion management, infrastructure resilience, and continuous spatial planning to maintain competitiveness. Simultaneously, rising popularity in Balikpapan Utara dan Balikpapan Timur requires proactive spatial planning, infrastructure provision, and local branding to guide their transformation into dynamic sub-centers. Finally, underperforming areas such as Balikpapan Barat, with low popularity and light intensity, can be seen as a blank slate for sustainable development, offering the potential for decentralization and pressure relief from the city center.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegardless of the geographic focus of this research in Balikpapan, the methodological approach and key findings have relevance to other urban contexts, particularly growing satellite cities or secondary cities undergoing spatial and economic transformation. Integrating data-driven analysis, including POI mapping, NTL imagery, and popularity metrics, offers a replicable framework for diagnosing the spatial dynamics of city popularity and branding in different places. Our Balikpapan case study underlines that a city's popularity and brand visibility are not only determined by infrastructure or centrality, but also by the interaction between spatial experience, cultural programming, and emotional connection to a place. For cities that want to improve their competitiveness in a decentralized government environment or in proximity to a larger city center, this insight is highly relevant. By adopting spatial diagnostics based on heat maps, urban planners and brand strategists can target interventions more effectively - either by strengthening existing strong points or revitalizing underperforming zones. The findings from Balikpapan offer conceptual and methodological value beyond the boundaries of the region, which can be a model for branding and planning in other urban areas that are undergoing similar transitions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study show that the popularity of Balikpapan is not only due to population density or nightlife, but is significantly shaped by the spatial presence of city brand objects, including attractions, amenities, hospitality, business, and visual appearance. Interestingly, Balikpapan Utara emerges as an outlier with high popularity despite limited distribution of city brand objects, suggesting spatial potential that could be leveraged by accessibility to new development corridors, especially in the context of its proximity to the future capital. In contrast, Balikpapan Barat, with lower popularity and fewer place-based assets, highlights areas that could benefit from strategic branding or targeted urban activation. The analysis also shows that the level of illumination is evenly distributed throughout the urban area, but this does not directly correlate with popularity. Its disassociation suggests that the spirit of the city and brand value cannot be inferred from physical development or the presence of infrastructure alone, but are also generated through spatial experiences, cultural engagement, and perception-based branding strategies. The peak in popularity observed on Friday and Saturday nights further emphasizes the importance of temporal branding patterns, which can be used to design specific activities at specific times and increase the vitality of the city.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAligned with Balikpapan's development as a satellite city adjacent to Indonesia's new capital, this research underscores the importance of building distributed city popularity and managing growth through evidence-based spatial imaging. The other cities that are in transition, both in Indonesia and in the world, can apply this approach to identify untapped city assets, reframe lesser-known areas, and increase competitiveness through a place-branding lens based on real spatial data. The research, however, recognizes the limitations of using dynamic digital data. Trends in popularity can fluctuate due to seasons, events, or data bias towards certain demographic segments, such as tourists or app users. Research in the future can integrate longitudinal data, mobility patterns, or qualitative perception studies to further enrich the understanding of how spatial branding affects the attractiveness and resilience of cities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Statements and Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for conducting this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interests/Competing interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: Mega Ulimaz, Bart Julien Dewancker; Methodology: Mega Ulimaz, Muhammad Ma\u0026rsquo;arij Harfadli; Formal analysis and investigation: Mega Ulimaz; Writing - original draft preparation: Mega Ulimaz; Writing - review and editing: Mega Ulimaz, Bart Julien Dewancker; Resources: Muhammad Ma\u0026rsquo;arij Harfadli; Supervision: Bart Julien Dewancker\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research data related to this study will be made available upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA\u0026rsquo;Idah, S. 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Remote Sensing, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15040903\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"city-and-built-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cben","sideBox":"Learn more about [City and Built Environment](https://www.springer.com/journal/44213/)","snPcode":"44213","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/cben/default.aspx","title":"City and Built Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"EM KeenBeans","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"city branding, data-driven, place popularity, satellite city ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5450838/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5450838/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn many developing countries, satellite cities play an important role as feeder cities for major metropolitan areas, responding to rapid population growth and spatial transformation. Staying competitive and attracting visitors requires effective city branding strategies, which are often shaped by the physical environment and experience. We examine the spatial dynamics of city popularity in Balikpapan, a satellite city designated as the New Capital of Indonesia, Nusantara, using a data-driven approach that integrates place popularity data and nighttime light intensity analysis. The city shows a relatively homogeneous distribution of light intensity, which indicates widespread human and economic activity throughout the city. However, the average popularity of city brand objects remains below 45%, and key growth areas are not consistently aligned with high popularity zones. Furthermore, the density map of popular places shows that areas with moderate light intensity and infrastructure stability do not necessarily correspond with high visitor engagement. According to the results of this study, city growth alone does not ensure popularity, highlighting the need for targeted branding efforts to improve the city's image. Focusing on the spatial relationship between physical development and perceived attractiveness, this study provides a deeper understanding of city branding in emerging satellite cities. In a context where Balikpapan is evolving as a satellite city adjacent to Indonesia's new capital, the results of this study underline the importance of building distributed urban popularity and managing growth through evidence-based spatial branding.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"City branding through spatial popularity: A data-driven perspective from Balikpapan City as a satellite city of Nusantara Capital City of Indonesia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-28 06:27:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5450838/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-04-21T12:22:20+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-20T23:34:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-11T05:51:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"City and Built Environment","date":"2025-04-10T04:07:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Minor revision","date":"2025-03-11T02:32:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"city-and-built-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cben","sideBox":"Learn more about [City and Built Environment](https://www.springer.com/journal/44213/)","snPcode":"44213","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/cben/default.aspx","title":"City and Built Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"EM KeenBeans","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"20f6a8e0-ad77-469c-a83f-0c04ea095a14","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-20T09:31:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-28 06:27:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5450838","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5450838","identity":"rs-5450838","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}