School starting age and mothers’ labour supply: Causal evidence from the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey

School starting age and mothers’ labour supply: Causal evidence from the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article School starting age and mothers’ labour supply: Causal evidence from the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey Gülen Derya Zayim, Ayşegül Kayaoğlu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3882365/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The 2012 Education Reform has significantly transformed the education system in Turkey in various ways. It extended compulsory schooling to 12 years, replacing a discrete structure across educational levels. As a part of this change, the primary school starting age has been adjusted, allowing up to 60-month-old children to be accepted in primary schools. Prior to this reform, the compulsory schooling starting age was seven years old, corresponding to 72-month-old children. By utilizing this exogenous variation in school starting age following the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey, we investigate the impact of childcare cost on maternal labour supply. The results reveal that the reform did not alter the labour supply behaviour of mothers, even after splitting them based on educational attainment or marital status. The findings for married mothers align with previous literature; however, for single mothers, our results, despite being positive in magnitude, are not statistically significant. JEL Codes: I21, J22 Labour supply childcare motherhood penalty differences in differences Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1 Introduction There is a strong correlation between maternal labour supply and the age of a woman's youngest child, suggesting that mothers are more likely to participate in the labour market once their youngest child reaches school age (Cascio,2009). This universal phenomenon highlights publicly subsidised childcare as an important driver in boosting maternal labour supply, particularly when mothers are not able to afford private childcare services. Numerous studies have documented the positive labour supply responses of mothers to various childcare policies, whether in the form of direct childcare programs or extensions of public schooling (Berger et al.,1992; Gelbach,2002; Berlinski et al., 2007; Berlinski et al., 2011 ; Fitzpatrick,2012; Hardoy et al., 2013; Bettendorf et al. 2015 ). In the absence of direct childcare policies, researchers can use reductions in compulsory school starting age as an implicit childcare subsidy to study how mothers would respond when childcare prices decrease (Finseraas, 2017). The idea is that public schools offer free childcare during the school day and lower the cost of childcare. The theoretical foundation of the connection between childcare costs and maternal labour supply relies on a straightforward cost-benefit analysis of mothers at the employment margin. According to Gelbach ( 1999 ), public schooling functions as a full-price subsidy for mothers who might not otherwise have worked, increasing the cost of leisure and encouraging them to shift toward employment. It is crucial to note that the marginal price subsidy may indicate an income effect for mothers already working more hours than the school day. As income and substitution effects operate in opposite directions, the net program impact on employment and working hours becomes ambiguous (Gelbach,2002; Berlinski, 2007 ). Consequently, establishing a causal relationship between childcare costs and maternal labour supply in various country contexts becomes an empirical question. In 2012, a major transformation in the Turkish Education System took place. Alongside the extension of compulsory education to the high school level, the starting age for primary school was lowered from seven to six. Notably, school age calculations were revised to a monthly basis, decreasing from 72 to 66 months. Moreover, children aged 60–66 months were encouraged to enrol in primary education based on their cognitive development and parental permission. Consequently, children turning 5 and 6 years old became eligible for primary school enrolment. This exogenous change in school starting age provides us with a quasi-experimental design to study the causal link between childcare costs and maternal employment, as it implies a reduction in childcare costs by offering full or, at least, part-time public schooling. Considering the persistently low rates of female labour force participation in Turkey (as of 2022, female labour force participation in Turkey stands at 34 percent), our research focuses on the following question: Does the absence of accessible childcare constitute a barrier for the stagnant female labour force participation (FLFP) in Turkey? Utilising data from the 2004–2019 Household Labour Force Surveys (HLFS), we employed a difference-in-differences estimation to investigate the impact of a reduction in childcare cost and maternal labour supply of women in Turkey after the 2012 Education Reform, which lowered the primary school starting age. Our findings indicate that neither married nor single women are responsive to education reform. The paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents the relevant literature and outlines our contribution. Section 3 summarises the background information regarding childcare services and education reform in Turkey. Section 4 includes our identification strategy, hypotheses, and details on data and variables. Section 5 demonstrates the empirical model. Section 6 presents the main findings, and Section 7 concludes. 2 Childcare and Female Labour Supply After the mid-1960s, many state governments initiated childcare programs by subsidising the integration of kindergartens into public schools. These programs aimed to enhance access to preschool education and render kindergartens more affordable for mothers with eligible children. Building on this, Gelbach ( 2002 ) utilised a theoretical model to estimate how the extension of preschool eligibility in the United States affected maternal labour supply. He employed an instrumental variable (IV) strategy with mothers of 5-year-olds and found a positive response in labour supply for mothers whose youngest child was 5. In a similar investigation, Cascio ( 2009 ) explored the impact of a comparable program by leveraging variations in the introduction of kindergartens into American public schools. She compared the labour supply choices of mothers with 5- or 6-year-olds to those with slightly younger and older children. Her analysis revealed that the labour supply of single mothers without children younger than 5 increased, but there was no effect on the labour supply of other women with eligible children. Despite being limited in number, several important papers address the gap in the literature by focusing on whether child-related subsidies can support female employment in developing countries. For instance, Berlinski ( 2007 ) estimated the causal impact of a preschool construction program in Argentina on preschool attendance and maternal labour supply. By leveraging the gradual increase in the supply of schools that varies by geographical regions, they demonstrated a positive effect on maternal labour supply. In a similar vein, Schlosser (2011) exploited a public policy initiative that introduced free public preschool for children aged 3 and 4. Her study examined the response of Arab mothers' labour supply to a decrease in childcare costs and found that highly educated mothers responded significantly in Israel. These papers serve as important examples of maternal responses to direct childcare policies. However, in the absence of direct childcare subsidies, researchers turn their attention to implicit childcare subsidies, such as extensions in compulsory education covering preschool education or reductions in school starting age. Primarily, researchers focus on compulsory education reforms and reductions in school starting age as implicit childcare subsidies, given that public schools offer free education and lower the cost of preschool education for eligible children. For instance, Finseraas et al. ( 2017 ) utilised the change in the statutory school starting age in Norway from seven to six to analyse how mothers respond to a change in the price of public childcare. The study exhibited a positive effect on mothers' labour supply, particularly those with lower earning potential. Our contribution to the relevant strand of literature is threefold. First, this paper represents the first empirical study using the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey to understand the link between childcare cost and maternal labour supply by exploiting an exogenous change in school starting age as an implied free childcare. Second, we provide evidence for a developing country with a very low level of FLFP, in contrast to the dominant literature on developed countries where FLFP is high and generous family policy arrangements are already in place. Third, given the persistently low rates of FLFP in Turkey, our results have importance for education and labour market policies. 3 Background 3.1 Care work, childcare facilities and female employment in Turkey The strong negative association between unpaid care work and women's employment prospects is universal. However, it particularly constitutes an obstacle for female labour market activity in countries where female labour force participation is excessively low, gender inequalities are more prevalent, women are often considered the primary care providers, and the time women spend on unpaid caregiving significantly exceeds that of men (ILO, 2018). Undoubtedly, the lack of formal care services for dependent children, as well as elderly and sick individuals, also contributes to gender inequalities in care burden in these countries (İlkkaracan, 2010 ). On average, in OECD countries, 20% of women's time is devoted to household chores and care work. In Turkey, however, women spend 25% of their time, on average, on these unpaid activities, making Turkey second after Mexico in terms of female care burden. Care work is argued to be a significant factor contributing to Turkey’s stagnant FLFP, implying a substantial efficiency cost for the economy. As of 2022, recent FLFP in Turkey is only 34 percent, significantly lower than the OECD average (OECD, 2023). Additionally, the market value of female unpaid care activities is not negligible, estimated between 1.3–3.34% of Turkey’s GDP as of 2011 (Aran and Aktakke, 2015). While care work encompasses various responsibilities for dependent household members, our analysis specifically focuses on childcare responsibilities. A recent report on childcare services in Turkey highlights that, despite one out of three women not being active in the labour force due to childcare responsibilities, public childcare provision or financing is insufficient to meet the existing demand. The report sheds light on crucial aspects of the childcare market in Turkey, pointing out two major barriers to entry. High rental costs and a scarcity of available spaces in urban centres present substantial challenges in increasing market supply. Childcare providers, adhering to regulations such as garden requirements, find compliance difficult in densely populated urban areas. Additionally, the associated high rental costs significantly elevate the fixed costs for suppliers. With demand surpassing supply, high market prices become unaffordable for many mothers, especially those with low willingness and ability to pay for childcare services. As of 2010, only 17 percent of those in the bottom income decile had access to preschool or centre-based childcare facilities. Another source of inefficiency arises due to the fact that most private childcare facilities do not offer full-day care or do not operate during summer holidays, further limiting mothers' ability to demand these services (Munoz-Boudet and Aran, 2015). As we provide a brief overview of the current situation and challenges in childcare services, highlighting its strong correlation with female employment, one might expect that limited access to childcare services may be a major impediment for the low FLFP in Turkey. However, it is noteworthy that there has not been any comprehensive childcare subsidy program implemented in Turkey. This absence hinders researchers from investigating its labour market consequences and establishing a causal link between childcare prices and mothers' labour supply. Therefore, following the latest literature, we have leveraged an exogenous change in compulsory school starting age in Turkey after the 2012 Education Reform to study the causal link between childcare cost and maternal labour supply. In the next section, we elaborate on how the reform changed the structure of the education system. 3.2 The 2012 Education Reform The fundamental principles and purposes of national education in Turkey are governed by the Basic Law of National Education (Law No. 1739), with the Ministry of Education being the primary institution responsible for enforcing its provisions. According to the Basic Law of National Education, formal education in the Turkish National Education System encompasses pre-school education, primary and secondary education, as well as higher education. A significant reform in the national education system occurred in 1997 when compulsory education, which had been only 5 years prior to the reform, was extended to 8 years (Law No. 4306). The implementation of this reform was primarily motivated by political concerns. The main purpose of the secular government at the time was to limit religious education, which was then available at the lower secondary level. The extension of compulsory education by 3 more years aimed to prevent students from accessing religious schools ( İmam-Hatip schools ) before the upper secondary level. A similar reform was undertaken in 2012, extending compulsory education to 12 years. While the reform was introduced with the stated goal of enhancing international competitiveness, the political aim of the conservative government was to revive religious education, which had been restricted by the 1997 Education Reform. Regardless of its claimed purposes, this reform substantially transformed the structure of the national education system, affecting elements such as school starting age, duration of course hours, and the length of education levels. Additionally, it altered the length of compulsory education. The reform, known as the 4 + 4 + 4 system, replaced the continuous structure of 8 years of mandatory education before 2012 and introduced a discrete four-year primary school education, four-year lower school education, and four-year high school education as the legally enforced compulsory schooling duration (Law No. 6287). Given that the primary purpose of this study is to explore the labour market consequences for mothers with eligible children exposed to the reform, we will delve into the regulations regarding school starting age. Before the 2012 Education Reform, primary education covered the ages 6–14. However, with the new regulation, the school starting age is now calculated on a monthly basis. According to the related law, starting from the end of September 2012, children who turn 5 and enter the age of 6 (older than 66 months) are obligated to begin primary education. The regulation also permits children aged between 60–66 months to enrol in primary education based on their physical and cognitive development. The regulation amendment dated July 21, 2012, from the Ministry of National Education introduced the following changes: Children who turn 66 months by the end of September during the registration year are enrolled in the first grade of primary schools. Additionally, children aged 60 to 66 months and developmentally ready for primary school may also register in the first grade upon parental request. Suppose children meet the age requirement but lack physical or mental development for school and are 66 months or older. In that case they can either attend preschool with medical reports proving their immaturity until the end of November or postpone enrolment for one year. Despite being subjected to some exceptions, the reform has mostly affected the age cohort of 5 and 6-year-old children. 4 Empirical Approach Methodologically, a well-known endogeneity problem arises when a child's age might be related to other factors that are also correlated with a mother's labour supply decision. Therefore, in most examples, researchers employ instrumental variable (IV) or quasi-experimental techniques to investigate the link between childcare costs and maternal employment. Some researchers address this issue by using the quarter of birth as an instrument variable for preschool eligibility (Angrist and Krueger, 1991 ; Gelbach, 2002 ). Other researchers tackle the endogeneity problem by leveraging the exogenous implementation of public-school programs, which may vary across geographical areas. They employ quasi-experimental research designs to estimate maternal labour supply responses (Berlinski, 2007 ; Baker et al., 2008 ; Schlosser, 2005 ). To establish a solid theoretical foundation for our empirical approach, the initial step is to demonstrate the "first stage," illustrating the treatment's impact on usage following causal inference terminology (Cunningham, 2021 ). The 2012 education reform, while changing the mandatory school starting age, has not been strictly enforced and, therefore, introduced some fuzziness in compliance due to the provision of a dual option for 5-year-old children. Demonstrating the compliance ratio (first stage) by age cohort is crucial for the robustness of the methodology to be employed. As the age cohorts theoretically affected by the reform are 5 and 6-year-old children, we will show their compliance rate in terms of primary school enrolment using several statistics. It is important to note that, before 2013, the Household Labour Force Survey (HLFS) provided information regarding the current educational status conditional on being at least 6 years old because, at that time, the compulsory schooling age was 72 months. Only after 2013, respondents were asked for their current educational status conditional on being at least 5 years old when compulsory schooling also became eligible for children aged 5 (60 months). Consequently, we are unable to provide crucial information regarding the percentage of school enrolment for 5-year-old children (either pre-primary or primary) before 2013, using HLFS statistics. Besides, HLFS does not record pre-primary education statistics. Therefore, we provide evidence for the compliance of 5-year-olds by exploiting Ministry of National Education (MONE) pre-primary education statistics. Figure 1 shows pre-primary school enrolment of 5 years old children by exploiting two statistics, net enrolment rates and gross enrolment rates 3 . However, for 2011-12 academic year, there is only one statistic that we cannot distinguish whether it is net or gross enrolment rate from the MONE records. For this year, the pre-primary school enrolment is reported as 65.69. Still, we can notice a sharp drop in both statistics in the treatment year. In 2012-13 academic year, the net enrolment rate has decreased to 39.72 percent while gross enrolment rate has fallen to 55.35 percent. The considerable amount of decrease between two consecutive years might imply that some families preferred enrolling their children in primary education instead of pre-primary education when their children turn 5, complying with the reform. Next, we demonstrate how 6 years old children have been affected by the reform in terms of primary school enrolment in Fig. 2, using HLFS questions related to the current educational status of the household members. As seen, the enrolment rates of children aged 7 to 9 remain relatively smooth around the treatment year. However, there is a noticeable jump in the school enrolment rates of 6-year-olds after 2013 when the treatment was initiated. The primary school enrolment, which was 64.87 percent in 2012, increased to 80.69 percent in 2013. Finally, we visualise the overall compliance regardless of the children's age. Fig. 3 shows dramatic increases in the number of children enrolling in the 1st grade during the academic year following the reform. Before the treatment, children aged 72 months were eligible to enrol in the first grade. However, in the academic year following the reform, several age cohorts overlapped in terms of starting the 1st grade (children above 60 months became eligible), resulting in a substantial increase in enrolment numbers. While 1,404,857 students were enrolled in the 1st grade during the 2011-2012 school year, this number rose to 1,870,705 in the 2012-2013 academic year, reflecting a 33 percent increase in the number of enrolled students. This suggests that, overall, the compliance ratio is not negligible, and the descriptive statistics shows that the number of families complying with the reform is considerable. Given these evidences, we grouped 5 and 6-year-old children as eligible children and assigned the mothers with those children to the treatment group. The treatment group includes all mothers potentially treated by the introduction of the education reform. As the control group we use mothers with a youngest child 4 years of age as these parents are not eligible for school enrolment but otherwise quite similar to the treatment group. We avoid assigning a control group with all mothers whose youngest child are younger than 5, because mothers' preferences for parental care are strongly related to the age of their children, and considering the cultural context in Turkey, mothers with 0-3-year-olds are more likely to prefer parental care. Therefore, including mothers with children aged 0-3 in the control group would be problematic due to possible confounders related to differential preferences across mothers that may be hard to control for. Put it differently, the children’s age may be related to an unobservable factor such as demand for childcare which may also be correlated with maternal labour supply (Cascio,2009). The sudden implementation of the 2012 Education Reform provides an opportunity to leverage exogenous variation in school starting age as a natural experiment to investigate the causal impact of free childcare on maternal labour supply in Turkey. As previously discussed, Turkey has limited childcare options for young mothers, with most institutions being privately operated and charging substantial fees. Despite the availability of free childcare services provided by the government or some municipalities, these services are limited and often do not meet market demand. Additionally, the prices are frequently too high and not affordable, especially for low-income mothers. When the demand for childcare services is not met under the prevailing market conditions, one can anticipate an increase in labour force participation either at the extensive margin, intensive margin, or both when mothers with eligible children are offered a form of childcare due to the reduction in school starting age, as public schooling offers free childcare during the school day. Therefore, our alternative hypotheses against the null are as follows: H1a: The 2012 Education Reform increases the labour supply of mothers with 5- and 6-year-olds compared to 4-year-olds at the extensive margin, resulting in increased labour force participation and/or at the intensive margin, leading to increased labour hours and/or part-time employment. H2a : The treatment impact might be heterogeneous such that mothers with low earning potential may be the primary beneficiaries of the 2012 Education Reform. 4.3 Data and variables We utilised individual-level cross-sectional data from the Household Labour Force Surveys for Turkey, conducted by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) since 1988. The HLFS relies on a representative sampling of households in Turkey, providing comprehensive information on demographics, educational backgrounds, and detailed labour market histories of individuals living in the same household. Given that the HLFS is a household-level dataset, each household has a unique identifier. Additionally, each household has a relationship identifier to link the household head with each member. In this study, the unit of analysis is the mother. Therefore, the first step in data arrangement is identifying mothers using the relationship identifier. Our algorithm is similar to the study conducted by Berlinski (2007), where the focus is on the children of the household head, and mothers are identified as either the female head of the household or the female spouse of a male household head. After defining mothers, we grouped them based on the age of their youngest child and utilised mothers’ labour market information in the main analysis. We separately analyse married mothers and single mothers. Despite using the full sample for descriptive purposes, in the main estimations, we work with the dataset covering the years 2011-2014, which includes a 2-year time window before and after the treatment. HLFS includes direct questions regarding the employment status in the current year and in the previous year. Moreover, respondents are asked about the working hours in the reference week. Additionally, part-time employment status is recorded conditionally on being employed. Using this information, we construct several labour supply measures as dependent variables. Labour force is a dummy variable which equals 1 when the respondent is employed or actively looking for a job (unemployed) in the current year. Employment is a binary variable and equal to 1 when the respondent is employed in the current year. We also used two different dummy variables for the labour force and employment status in the previous year keeping their definition the same. These variables are denoted as Labour force previous and Employment_previous. As measures for intensive labour supply, we define a continuous variable, Hours worked , which indicates the labour hours past in the main job in a week. We also used the part-time employment indicator for the variable Part_time, as the second measure of intensive labour supply. We follow Angrist and Pischke (2009) and coded zero work hours for those who are not in employment. Similarly, we denote part-time employment as zero for these individuals to be able to use the same number of observations in each equation. Consequently, we would be able to analyse potential changes in working hours and part-time employment due to any marginal change at the intensive as well as extensive margin. Finally, we define a broad labour supply measure which is more in line with the theoretical model of Gelbach (2002) formalising an income effect for the mothers with longer working hours than the school day. Accordingly, we created a variable, Labour_Supply_30, denoting 1 if the mother is employed and works more than 30 hours and 0 if the mother is employed and works less than 30 hours or the mother is not in employment, assuming that a regular school day is 6 hours and children spend 30 hours at the school in a week. Our main variables of interest are Labour_Supply_30 and Hours worked , but we also estimated the response to the conventional labour supply and employment measures to check any possible variation. Finally, we constructed household-level variables such as the number of children aged 0-15, the number of adults (defined as the household members above 15) and the presence of children aged 7-15 by exploiting household identifiers. Similarly, we used partner identifiers to construct the employment status of the spouse for each mother when estimating the regressions with the sample of married mothers. We show the descriptive statistics in Table 1 and Table 2, for married and single mothers, respectively. Summary statistics provide information about the treatment and control group during the pre-treatment period (for the years 2004-2012) in Table 1 for married mothers and Table 2 for single mothers who are 18-49 years old. In Table 1 although there are no large differences across the control and treatment groups, mean differences for each variable are statistically significant. As expected, mothers in the control group are, on average, slightly younger than the treated mothers, and their educational attainment is higher, indicating that mothers in the control group are more likely to have graduated from high school or upper high school compared to lower high school. Regarding household characteristics, mothers whose youngest child is 4 years old are less likely to have older children who are 7-15 years old. The number of adults in households with the mothers with 4-year-olds tends to be fewer, but the number of children aged 0-15 is higher. Moreover, partners of the women with 4-year-olds are more likely to be employed. Due to the small but statistically significant differences in observables across the groups for married mothers, we control for demographic and household-level variables in each regression. In the lower part Table 1, mean differences of the dependent variables are also presented. For labour supply measures except part-time employment, the means of the control group are lower, which implies that mothers with 4-year-olds are less likely to be in the labour force or employment and, conditional on employment, tend to work fewer hours. Table 2 also compares the control and treatment groups which are constructed among single mothers. The observable characteristics are very similar across single mothers with 4 years old and single mothers with 5- and 6-years old children. However, control group members are also younger as younger women are more likely to have younger children. The presence of older children when single mothers have 4 years old as their youngest is less likely compared to the treatment group. But the number of children below 15 is higher. Finally, the probability of part-time employment is higher when single mothers have 4-year-old children. 5 Estimation Our identification strategy relies on an exogenous variation in school starting age, shifting from 72 months to 60 months after the 2012 Education Reform. The abrupt implementation of the reform, independent of economic conditions and driven by the political mindset of the time, allows us to exploit it as a natural experiment to study the causal relationship between childcare costs and maternal labour supply. We compare the labour supply choices of mothers with children aged 5 and 6 ( treatment group ) to those with children aged 4 ( control group ) before and after the policy change in 2013 within a difference-in-differences (DD) framework. First, we work with a baseline model in Eq. (1) with mothers of eligible children and regress each labour market variable on the treatment dummy (defined as 1 for the years after 2012) to estimate the impact of the treatment on eligible mothers with OLS regressions. Then, we estimate Eq. (2) where i, j, t index individual, mother groups and survey time, respectively. Y represents a set of dependent variables that we described earlier. Each measure will be used in a separate regression. Reform is a dummy variable equal to 1 for the years after 2012 and 0 for the years before 2013. Treat is a dummy variable and is equal to 1 for the mothers with 5 and 6 years-olds (eligible children) and 0 for the mothers with 4-years-olds. We specified 2013 as the first treatment year as the 2012–2013 school calendar lasts from September 2012 to June 2013 and provides childcare during this period. From the surveys, we are able to convey information regarding the current state of employment and employment status of the previous year. To take into account possible delays in finding employment, we examine both outcomes. We estimate the Eq. (2) with a 2-year time window to make a proper counterfactual analysis. \(X\) is the vector of individual and household-level variables which include mother’s age, binary variables for lower high school, high school, upper high school completions, an indicator for the presence of children aged 7–15, the number of children aged 0–15, the number of adults (defined as the household members older than 15) and employment status of the spouse. These variables are used to control the supply-side factors. We also include the regional unemployment rate which varies by year to control demand-side factors ( \(w)\) . The main parameter of interest, \({ \rho }_{3}\) , measures the treatment impact. \({Y}_{ijt}={ \gamma }_{0}+{ \gamma }_{1} I ({Reform}_{t}=1)+{X}_{it}{\prime }{ \gamma }_{2}+{w}_{t}{\prime }{ \gamma }_{3}+{\eta }_{ijt}\) (Eq. 1) \({Y}_{ijt} = { \rho }_{0}+ { \rho }_{1}I {(Treat}_{j}=1)+ { \rho }_{2}I\left({Reform}_{t}=1\right)+{ \rho }_{3} {(Treat}_{j}=1)*{(Reform}_{t}=1)+{ {X}^{{\prime }}}_{it}{ \rho }_{4} + {w}_{t}{\prime }{ \rho }_{5} + {\nu }_{ijt}\) (Eq. 2) Before proceeding, we outline the underlying assumptions of the DD estimator and assess their validity in our case. The key assumption in the DD design is the parallel trends assumption. While not directly testable, one approach to examine the pre-treatment dynamics is plotting the raw data and conducting a visual inspection for the pre-treatment periods. Figure 4 visualises the parallel trends across the groups before the reform for each variable of interest. We also report the descriptive statistics across the groups before the treatment in Table 1 and Table 2. Despite significant differences, they are not too large to suspect for unbalanced comparison groups. The second critical assumption in DD analysis is the Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption (SUTVA), which stipulates that potential outcomes for a specific units should not vary with the treatments assigned to the other units. Therefore, for SUTVA to hold, we should choose a control group that is not so close to the treatment group as to cause any spillover effects, yet close enough to maintain common trends. As we used the mothers with 4-year-olds in the counterfactual scenario, concerns may arise about the identification and validity of SUTVA. If there were any spillover effects on the mothers with 4-year-olds due to the reduction in the school starting age to 5, DD estimates could be downward biased. To address such concerns, we conducted a robustness check by estimating each regression with an alternative control group of mothers covering the women with both 3- and 4-year-olds. The results are reported in Table 6 and Table 7 in the Appendix and do not change the main results. One might also question the potential impact of the reform on the schooling distribution of women, considering that the reform also made high school education compulsory. It can be argued that exclusion restriction would be violated if the reform had influenced the fertility patterns or labour supply variables of women through increased human capital accumulation, potentially confounding our estimates. Notably, the first cohort affected by the new policy, in terms of the extension of compulsory schooling to 12 years, was born in 1998. However, in our DD estimates using a 2-time window (2011–2014), the youngest cohort under consideration was born in 1996. Therefore, it is unlikely that, at least in our samples, the same reform influences maternal labour supply outcomes through variables other than the compulsory school enrolment of their children. Moreover, one of the assumptions of the DD analysis might be violated if control group mothers (with 4-year-olds) could anticipate a change in the compulsory schooling age and adjust their labour supply behaviour in advance. However, the implementation of the 2012 Education Reform was very sudden and unexpected, making the anticipation issue unlikely. Therefore, the exogeneity of the reform ensures that mothers were unable to adapt their behaviour in response to the legal change before its implementation. Finally, a potential threat to identification could be related to the endogenous selection of motherhood. The common trend assumption is violated if the composition of characteristics related to our outcomes across the groups is unstable. This could occur, for example, if the education reform led to a change in fertility rates. To address this issue, we examined fertility rates by estimating the likelihood of being a mother based on the actual treatment indicator and several placebo treatment dummies. Our estimates reveal a decline in the fertility rate in each regression, albeit very small in magnitude. Therefore, we conclude that this pattern has emerged due to a time effect rather than a treatment impact, which was expected to be specific to the year 2013. Table 12 in the Appendix displays the coefficients of actual and placebo treatment dummies. 6 Results We begin by presenting the reduced-form estimates (intention-to-treat) of the legal enforcement after 2013 on a set of labour supply measures using data from the 2004-2019 HLFS of Turkey. In this baseline regression, only mothers with 5- and 6-year-olds are included. Table 3 displays the OLS coefficients for seven dependent variables outlined in the far-left column. The top row indicates the samples used in each regression. Initially, we estimated the full sample, followed by three additional subsamples categorised by educational level. The second row further divides the sample by marital status, with Panel A showing estimates for married mothers with eligible children, and Panel B presenting results for single mothers. In each regression, the labour supply measure is regressed on a treatment dummy (defined as 1 for the years after 2012). Additionally, each regression is linearly controlled for the mother’s age, the number of children aged 0-15, the number of adults (older than 15), the presence of children between 7-15, partner employment, and regional unemployment rates (NUTS2- level). Robust standard errors are used to account for potential heteroskedasticity. According to the baseline model, the main parameter of interest, denoted by , signifies an increase in each labour supply measure for the full sample of married women. The estimates revolve around 2-8 percentage points (pp.) for binary outcome variables and 1.51 hours increase in labour hours (Columns 1 in Table 3). More clearly, based on conventional labour supply measures, mothers with eligible children are more likely to engage the labour market by 7 percentage points and more likely be in paid employment by 5 pp. Our main labour supply measure, Labour_supply30 , displays 2pp. increase after the reform. Moreover, the likelihood of part-time employment raises by 2 pp. and working hours tend to be longer by 1.5 hours. When we apply a heterogeneity test by educational attainment, intention-to-treat effect is positive for low-skilled and semi-skilled married mothers (Column 2 and 3 in Table 3). In terms of magnitude, the positive effect is higher for low-skilled married mothers compared to the middle skilled group. On the contrary, high skilled married mothers’ response is significantly negative (Column 4 in Table 3). From the baseline estimates, we find no evidence for a significant response for single mothers. Nevertheless, the parameter does not yield an unbiased estimate because first differencing alone cannot eliminate the inherent changes in maternal labour supply over time. Consequently, the OLS estimate is not consistent and tends to overestimate the true impact of the reform when the time trend was not taken into account. To address this, we employ a DD setup to estimate the treatment response of mothers. This involves using a control group to derive counterfactual outcomes for treated mothers if they had not been offered a childcare by their children’s early school enrolment. Relying on common support, the DD estimate allows us to uncover the causal impact of the education reform (and its implied reduction in childcare cost) on maternal labour supply. This method provides a consistent estimate for the treatment parameter unless other shocks coincide with the reform and only affect mothers with 5 or 6-year-old children. Our main findings are presented in Table 4 for married mothers and Table 5 for single mothers. The far-left columns of the tables present the main variable of interest, the first row describes the samples used in each regression. On the left panel (Panel A), results are reported with robust standard errors while on the right-hand side in Panel B, we clustered standard errors by year and child’s age (12x3=36 clusters). As can be seen in Table 4, once we control the time trend, the treatment impact of each labour supply measure for married mothers is indistinguishable from zero (Column 1). The coefficients fluctuate between slightly negative and zero; however, none of them turns out to be statistically significant. There is only a slight statistically significant decrease in labour hours for the full sample by 0.7 hours. Next, we explore whether free childcare has heterogeneous effects depending on mothers’ skill level. As HLFS only reports wage information of the wage earner, we categorised the mothers based on their educational attainment to avoid sample bias. Subsequently, we examine whether the response of mothers with low earning potential differs from the main sample. The results of the heterogeneity analysis are presented in Table 4 in Column 2-4. As seen in Column 2, low-skilled mothers respond by decreasing their labour supply by 1 pp. and working hours by 1 hour. Considering the construction of Labour_supply_30 variable, the negative response may come from the mothers who were already working more than 30 hours before the reform and adjust their working hours slightly after. Overall, when splitting the married mothers according to their skill level, we do not find a positive response in any subgroup. The literature on the response of married mothers to various childcare policies yields mixed findings. Bettendorf (2015) documented a 2.0 percentage point increase in the participation rate among married mothers with children aged 0-11 in the Netherlands following a substantial rise in public spending on after-school care. Similarly, Havnes and Mogstad (2011) highlighted a 1.1 pp. increase among married mothers with low-income potential in Norway after a staggered implementation of a childcare expansion program. Gelbach (2002) reported a 5-pp. increase in the United States, utilising the quarter of birth as an instrumental variable for public school eligibility. Notably, positive treatment impacts are not exclusive to developed countries; Scholsser (2005) documented a substantial response from Arab mothers in Israel to the extension of public schooling to 3- and 4-year-old children. However, the absence of a response from married mothers is not unexpected, as supporting evidence for null effects of childcare policies in different settings also exists. Recent data, for instance, indicates that married mothers are unresponsive to universal pre-K availability (Fitzpatrick, 2010; Fitzpatrick, 2012) and to an increase in the supply of schools (Cascio, 2009) in the United States. Regarding this, our null findings are more aligned with the latter branch of literature. Table 5 presents the results for single mothers with eligible children. We estimate the impact of the education reform as 9 pp. or 23 percent increase given that the baseline participation rate is 39 percent for single mothers. The treatment impact for single mothers of 5–6-year-olds is higher than the estimates obtained from the sample of married mothers. However, our estimates are not statistically significant despite being positive so we cannot reject the null hypothesis that treatment responses of the two groups of women are equal. When we rely on our main labour supply measure ( Labour_suppy30 ), our estimated 9 pp. increase is close to the coefficient reported in the previous studies. For example, Gelbach (2002) estimated 5.1 pp. increase in labour force participation of single mothers in US, Cascio (2009) find a behavioural change in labour supply of single mothers by 6.9 pp., Goux and Maurin (2010) provides causal evidence for a 3.6 pp. increase in maternal labour force participation for mothers without a spouse even though most of these studies do not show a statistically significant impact of childcare policies on married mothers’ labour supply behaviour. Similarly, these studies report an increase in working hours ranging from 0 to 3.6 hours in a week. Our model estimates 3.9 hours increase for the full sample of single mothers as a lower bound since the coefficient becomes larger when splitting the sample of single mothers by educational attainment (4.4 hours for low-skilled mothers, 5.7 hours for semi-skilled mothers and 4.2 hours for highly skilled mothers). It is important to note that our coefficients are not statistically significant and standard errors are very large, possibly due to the small sample size we have for single mothers since the occurrence of lone women with children in Turkey is very rare. Indeed, Fitzpatrick (2012) used 23,066 single mothers in a regression discontinuity design (1,382 single mothers even in the narrowest bandwidth), the sample size in the study of Cascio (2009) is 19,248 for 90s Census data and Goux and Maurin (2010) exploits the information for 10,188 single mothers in his study which are more likely to yield more efficient estimates with larger sample size. 7 Conclusion We provide several mechanisms to explain why mothers have not been responsive. When interpreting the null findings, it is essential to consider the counterfactual mode of care when the reform was absent (Havnes and Mogstad, 2011). Previous studies offer three primary arguments to justify why mothers are not responsive to relevant childcare subsidies in various settings. The first argument involves a substitution from informal childcare arrangements to public childcare. For instance, Baker et al. (2008) provides supporting evidence that almost one-third of the beneficiaries of Canadian childcare coverage for 4- and 5-year-olds appear to be women who had a job before the reform but used informal childcare arrangements. This argument is also pertinent to debates about subsidized childcare in the US and Sweden, where scholars do not report significant responses for married mothers (Cascio, 2009; Lundin et al., 2008). The second mechanism is the crowding-out argument, which refers to families shifting from private childcare arrangements to public kindergartens or schools. In line with the ideas of Guox et al. (2010), pre-elementary schools or early school enrolment may crowd out private modes of childcare, especially for dual-parent families with larger access to these non-parental private options. Therefore, this argument is more likely to be the underlying mechanism behind the empirical results for married mothers. Finally, Lundin et al. (2008) argue that the impact of the Swedish childcare reform on maternal employment was negligible as Sweden is a developed country and was highly subsidized even before the reform, so further reduction did not cause an additional pushing effect. So, one potential argument may be the initial development level and female labour force participation rates. Given these discussions, the first two arguments seem more relevant to our case. Firstly, there is an extensive informal childcare market in Turkey. Grandmothers often provide free care for their grandchildren, independent of the availability of any public childcare. This suggests that mothers unaffected by the reform may still opt for grandparental care if they wish to enter paid employment. Thus, an informal childcare arrangement may be one of the underlying channels of why mothers are unresponsive, despite a substantial increase in children’s school enrolment rates. Even though we do not explicitly show the rates of informal childcare usage for the compliers before the reform, as demonstrated by a recent study, women's likelihood of being in paid employment substantially increases once they benefit from informal childcare arrangements (Gökmen, 2022). This argument may be applicable to both single and married mothers. However, we argue that the crowding-out argument is more relevant for married women with reform-eligible children, as families may need more resources for private modes of childcare facilities, which is more likely to be seen in two-parent families. Finally, the limited representation of single mothers in our samples, comprising almost 2 percent of the married sample, may contribute to the fact that our results do not yield a significant response despite the positive estimates. One last thing to note is that, once monthly date of birth data is available for children, it would be good practice to check the robustness of our findings within a regression discontinuity design. We believe that this approach would be more appropriate to address SUTVA (Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption) and increase the internal validity of the estimates. We mention this here for future suggestions and discussions. Declarations Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Gülen Derya Zayim. The first draft of the manuscript was written Gülen Derya Zayim and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Turkish Statistical Institute for granting permission to use Household Labour Force Surveys, 2004-2019. References Angrist, J. D., & Krueger, A. B. (1991). Does compulsory school attendance affect schooling and earnings?. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , 106 (4), 979-1014. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937954 Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist's companion . Princeton university press. Aran, Meltem A.; Aktakke,Nazlı. Kadinlarin görünmeyen katkisi : Türkiye’de kadınların ücretsiz bakım faaliyetlerinin ekonomik değerinin belirlenmesi ve kadınlar üzerindeki bakım yükünün azaltılmasına yönelik politika seçenekleri (Turkish). 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Footnotes Net enrolment rate is obtained by dividing the number of students of a theoretical age group enrolled in a specific level of education by the population in that age group. Gross enrolment rate is obtained by dividing the total number of students in a specific level of education by the population in the theoretical age group. Tables Table 1 Descriptive statistics by control vs. treatment group before 2012 Education Reform ( married mothers ) Control (Mothers with 4 years olds) Treatment (Mothers with 5 or 6 years olds) Control vs. Treatment Independent variables Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Difference Mother’s age 41,700 32.38 5.76 71,368 34.14 5.68 -1.75*** Lower high school 41,700 0.77 0.41 71,368 0.79 0.40 -0.01*** Highschool 41,700 0.15 0.35 71,368 0.14 0.34 0.008*** Upper high school 41,700 0.07 0.25 71,368 0.06 0.24 0.007*** Presence of children aged 7–15 41,700 0.62 0.48 71,368 0.71 0.45 -0.09*** # of adults 41,700 0.38 0.85 71,368 0.47 0.91 -0.087*** # of children aged 0–15 41,700 2.26 1.20 71,368 2.20 1.07 0.060*** Partner employment 41,483 0.86 0.33 70,905 0.85 0.35 0.011*** Unemployment 41,700 10.84 3.65 71,368 10.75 3.62 0.092*** Dependent variables Labour force 41,700 0.24 0.42 71,368 0.26 0.44 -0.021*** Employment 41,700 0.21 0.41 71,368 0.24 0.42 -0.021*** Labour force last 41,700 0.24 0.42 71,368 0.24 0.42 -0.024*** Employment last 41,700 0.20 0.40 71,368 0.23 0.42 -0.023*** Part time employment 9,123 0.25 0.43 17,175 0.25 0.43 -0.000 Hours worked 9,123 39.63 16.65 17,175 40.09 16.89 -0.454** Labour supply_30 41,700 0.15 0.35 71,368 0.16 0.37 -0.016*** Note: Authors’ calculation based on 2004-2012 Household Labour Force Surveys. Only 18-49 aged married mothers are included. Table 2 Descriptive statistics by control vs. treatment group before 2012 Education Reform ( single mothers ) Control (Mothers with 4 years olds) Treatment (Mothers with 5 or 6 years olds) Control vs. Treatment Independent variables Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Difference Mother’s age 974 35.30 5.75 2,520 36.39 5.78 -1.094*** Lower high school 974 0.68 0.46 2,520 0.69 0.46 -0.007 Highschool 974 0.16 0.37 2,520 0.16 0.37 0.002 Upper high school 974 0.14 0.35 2,520 0.14 0.34 0.005 Presence of children ages 7–15 974 0.57 0.49 2,520 0.63 0.48 -0.063*** # of adults 974 0.54 0.88 2,520 0.57 0.95 -0.025 # of children aged 0–15 974 2.18 1.27 2,520 2.09 1.10 0.092** Unemployment 974 10.87 3.84 2,520 10.84 4.13 0.030 Dependent variables Labour force 974 0.50 0.50 2,520 0.48 0.49 0.017 Employment 974 0.42 0.49 2,520 0.40 0.49 0.017 Labour force last 974 0.45 0.49 2,520 0.46 0.49 -0.011 Employment last 974 0.40 0.49 2,520 0.40 0.49 -0.004 Part time employment 415 0.22 0.41 1,030 0.17 0.38 0.043* Hours worked 415 41.06 17.43 1,030 42.03 15.78 -0.972 Labour supply_30 974 0.40 0.46 2,520 0.31 0.46 -0.007 Note: Authors’ calculation based on 2004-2012 Household Labour Force Surveys. Only 18-49 aged single mothers are included. Table 3 OLS estimates for labour supply response of mothers with eligible children (5- or 6-year-olds) by marital status and educational level Full Low-skilled Semi-skilled Skilled Full Low-skilled Semi-skilled Skilled Panel A: Married mothers Panel B: Single mothers (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Labour supply ≥ 30 0 .023*** (0.002) 0.034*** (0.002) 0.026*** (0.006) -0.067*** (0.009) -0.011 (0.011) -0.007 (0.013) -0.006 (0.024) -0.031 (0.040) Hours worked 1.51*** (0.32) 2.05*** (0.12) 1.54*** (0.30) -2.50*** (0.36) -0.76* (0.43) -0.61 (0.55) -1.24 (0.93) -0.82 (1.09) Part-time employment 0 .029*** (0.001) 0.035*** (0.001) 0.0153*** (0.002) 0.002 (0.004) 0.011 (0.010) 0.013 (0.012) 0.005 (0.022) 0.005 (0.026) Labour force 0.072*** (0.002) 0.088*** (0.002) 0.063*** (0.006) -0.032*** (0.008) 0.010 (0.013) 0.012 (0.015) -0.015 (0.040) -0.016 (0.026) Employment 0.052*** (0.002) 0.069*** (0.002) 0.044*** (0.006) -0.058*** (0.008) -0.000 (0.002) 0.000 (0.003) 0.000 (0.000) -0.006 (0.006) Labour force (previous) 0.076*** (0.002) 0.091*** (0.002) 0.073*** (0.006) -0.033*** (0.008) 0.044*** (0.016) 0.052*** (0.019) 0.056 (0.047) -0.018 (0.030) Employment (previous) 0.058*** (0.002) 0.076*** (0.002) 0.047*** (0.006) -0.059*** (0.008) 0.045*** (0.015) 0.047*** (0.018) 0.155*** (0.047) -0.077** (0.030) Obs. 121,832 91,584 19,002 11,246 1,980 1,344 339 297 Notes : OLS estimates are shown for each labour market variable. The sample used in each regression is shown in the top row which covers full sample, low-skilled mothers, semi-skilled mothers and skilled mothers, respectively. Panel A shows the estimates for the married mothers while Panel B demonstrates the estimates for the single mothers. Each regression is controlled for the number of children younger than 16, number of adults older than 15, presence of children between 7–15, partner employment and regional unemployment rates (NUTS2 level). The regression with full samples is also controlled for mother’s education. Besides, 6 age categories have been added to each regression to control mothers’ age. 18–20 aged mothers are the baseline group. Age categories: 20–25, 26–30, 31–35, 36–40, 41–45, 46–49. Mothers are either the household head or the spouse of the household head. Only married mothers and 18–49 years old and having youngest children 5- or 6-years old are included in the samples. Robust standard errors in parentheses: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1 Table 4 DD estimates for labour supply response of married women with 5- and 6-year-olds ( control group: 4-year-olds ) Full Low-skilled Semi-skilled Skilled Full Low-skilled Semi-skilled Skilled Panel A: Robust standard errors Panel B: Clustered standard errors (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Labour supply (Hours ≥ 30) -0.008 (0.006) -0.015** (0.007) -0.013 (0.018) 0.045 (0.028) -0.008 (0.009) -0.015 (0.009) -0.013 (0.021) 0.045 (0.025) Hours worked -0.74** (0.34) -1.08*** (0.39) -0.58 (0.91) 1.20 (1.08) -0.74 (0.55) -1.08* (0.49) -0.58 (1.10) 1.20 (1.09) Part time employment 0.002 (0.005) 0.001 (0.006) 0.012 (0.009) -0.009 (0.014) 0.002 (0.004) 0.001 (0.006) 0.012* (0.005) -0.009 (0.013) Labour force -0.010 (0.008) -0.013 (0.009) -0.000 (0.021) -0.014 (0.023) -0.010 (0.012) -0.013 (0.012) -0.000 (0.022) -0.0146 (0.024) Labour force (previous) -0.003 (0.007) -0.003 (0.009) -0.006 (0.020) -0.006 (0.024) -0.003 (0.015) -0.003 (0.017) -0.006 (0.025) -0.006 (0.021) Employment -0.009 (0.007) -0.014 (0.009) -0.000 (0.019) 0.000 (0.025) -0.009 (0.011) -0.014 (0.011) -0.000 (0.020) 0.000 (0.023) Employment (previous) 0.000 (0.007) -0.002 (0.009) -0.000 (0.019) 0.014 (0.025) 0.000 (0.013) -0.002 (0.016) -0.000 (0.022) 0.014 (0.016) Obs. 48,559 35,242 8,131 5,186 48,559 35,242 8,131 5,186 Notes : Differences-in-differences estimates are presented for each labour market variable. The top row indicates the sample used in each regression, encompassing the full sample of mothers, low-skilled mothers, semi-skilled mothers, and skilled mothers, respectively. In Panel A, estimates with robust standard errors are displayed. Panel B shows estimates with standard errors clustered by year and children’s age. Each regression controls for the number of children younger than 16, the number of adults older than 15, the presence of children between 7–15, partner employment, and regional unemployment rates at the NUTS2 level. Regressions with full samples also control for mother’s education. Additionally, each regression includes 6 age categories to control for mothers’ age, with 18–20 aged mothers as the baseline group. The age categories are 20–25, 26–30, 31–35, 36–40, 41–45, and 46–49. The treatment group comprises mothers with 5-6-year-olds, and the control group consists of mothers with 4-year-olds as their youngest child. The years 2011–2012 represent pre-treatment, while 2013–2014 are post-treatment. Mothers are either the household head or the spouse of the household head. Only married mothers aged 18–49 are included in the samples. Robust standard errors in parentheses: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1 Table 5 DD estimates for labour supply response of single women with 5- and 6-year-olds ( control group: 4 years olds ) Full Low-skilled Semi-skilled Skilled Full Low-skilled Semi-skilled Skilled Panel A: Robust standard errors Panel B: Clustered standard errors (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Labour supply (Hours ≥ 30) 0.090 (0.0670) 0.067 (0.077) 0.134 (0.222) 0.204 (0.170) 0.090 (0.058) 0.067 (0.052) 0.134 (0.137) 0.204 (0.162) Hours worked 3.95 (3.56) 4.45 (4.45) 5.78 (11.37) 4.24 (6.13) 3.95 (2.81) 4.45 (2.56) 5.78 (7.77) 4.24 (5.38) Part time employment -0.028 (0.048) -0.0243 (0.062) 0.0975 (0.102) -0.0867 (0.089) -0.0280 (0.047) -0.0243 (0.063) 0.0975 (0.061) -0.0867 (0.152) Labour force -0.025 (0.070) -0.014 (0.092) -0.068 (0.199) 0.042 (0.103) -0.025 (0.036) -0.014 (0.059) -0.068 (0.146) 0.042 (0.117) Labour force (previous) 0.032 (0.070) 0.059 (0.090) 0.045 (0.204) 0.099 (0.131) 0.032 (0.029) 0.059 (0.046) 0.045 (0.134) 0.099 (0.122) Employment 0.055 (0.070) 0.045 (0.088) 0.192 (0.217) 0.143 (0.123) 0.055 (0.057) 0.045 (0.085) 0.192 (0.127) 0.143 (0.112) Employment (previous) 0.080 (0.070) 0.085 (0.086) 0.243 (0.214) 0.089 (0.148) 0.080* (0.041) 0.085 (0.053) 0.243* (0.116) 0.089 (0.145) Obs. 906 612 150 144 906 612 150 144 Notes : Differences-in-differences estimates are presented for each labour market variable. The top row indicates the sample used in each regression, encompassing the full sample of mothers, low-skilled mothers, semi-skilled mothers, and skilled mothers, respectively. In Panel A, estimates with robust standard errors are displayed. Panel B shows estimates with standard errors clustered by year and children’s age. Each regression controls for the number of children younger than 16, the number of adults older than 15, the presence of children between 7–15, partner employment, and regional unemployment rates at the NUTS2 level. Regressions with full samples also control for mother’s education. Additionally, each regression includes 6 age categories to control for mothers’ age, with 18–20 aged mothers as the baseline group. The age categories are 20–25, 26–30, 31–35, 36–40, 41–45, and 46–49. The treatment group comprises mothers with 5-6-year-olds, and the control group consists of mothers with 4-year-olds as their youngest child. The years 2011–2012 represent pre-treatment, while 2013–2014 are post-treatment. Mothers are either the household head or the spouse of the household head. Only single mothers aged 18–49 are included in the samples. Robust standard errors in parentheses: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3882365","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":268478239,"identity":"4fff273a-4fc9-4ce5-b06f-5c02e5b9f970","order_by":0,"name":"Gülen Derya Zayim","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAwwG/+XYwEw2orUUMBuzsUG18BCn6QNzYgPRWuTbzxgeumHAlt4n32PA8KHsMIO99AH8Whh7cgwO5xjw5Lax8Rgwzjh3mIGHLwG/FmYGsBYJsBZm3jagFkIuY+N/A9JikM4G0vKXGC08EmBbEhLAWhiJ0SIh8awAqOWAYRtbWsHBnnPpPDxnCGiR70/e/DnnzwF5+ebDGx/8KLOWY+8hoIWBgcMAzjzAQFxMsj8gQtEoGAWjYBSMaAAAE1w4bD1z36QAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Istanbul Technical University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gülen","middleName":"Derya","lastName":"Zayim","suffix":""},{"id":268478241,"identity":"2cf14cdf-17c8-42dd-9217-a92451fd338e","order_by":1,"name":"Ayşegül Kayaoğlu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Istanbul Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ayşegül","middleName":"","lastName":"Kayaoğlu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-20 19:14:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3882365/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3882365/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":50117252,"identity":"d709c094-b5ca-4c0e-aec3-1f8b52d2faeb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-24 18:55:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":947680,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eReform effect on pre-primary school enrolment rate of 5 years old children over time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNotes: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003eNet and gross enrolment rates of 5-year-olds to pre-primary education. The Ministry of National Education does report separate statistics for net enrolment and gross enrolment rates after 2012-13 academic year. Therefore, there is only one value for 2011-12 academic year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e Ministry of National Education, Formal Education Statistics (2006-2020). \u003ca href=\"https://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/resmi-istatistikler/icerik/64\"\u003ehttps://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/resmi-istatistikler/icerik/64\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3882365/v1/0d7ac0aa9400c98b90d4d5b8.jpg"},{"id":50117249,"identity":"2361215f-5e8d-42c1-9611-064d6b659c28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-24 18:55:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":876941,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFirst stage: Reform effect on primary school enrolment by age cohorts\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e Authors’ calculation depending on 2004-2019 Household Labour Force Surveys. The vertical line indicates the year 2012. As the compulsory school starting age was 72 months before 2012, HLFS does not provide the educational status of children younger than 6 years old. Thereby, we are able to analyse the impact of the reform on enrolment rates only for children older than 5.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3882365/v1/18962bccd163e9c138b6cf1c.jpg"},{"id":50117251,"identity":"51346ac6-5b4f-4965-a0c7-702bb6cb1c38","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-24 18:55:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1055326,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLog number of students enrolled in 1\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e grade\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e Ministry of National Education, Formal Education Statistics (2006-2020). \u003ca href=\"https://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/resmi-istatistikler/icerik/64\"\u003ehttps://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/resmi-istatistikler/icerik/64\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3882365/v1/9d74626fdc2482eeaac2b9e1.jpg"},{"id":50117988,"identity":"4d6fe18a-ba01-4011-9342-4b1287ed1ef8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-24 19:03:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1070185,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParallel trends across the groups before 2012-2013 (\u003cem\u003emarried mothers\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNotes:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eEach figure visualises the annual mean of different labour supply measures which are labelled on the y-axis. The vertical line indicates the year 2012 which is the last pre-treatment year. The dashed lines show the annual means of the control group which includes the mothers with 4-year-olds as their youngest child and the solid lines demonstrate the annual means of the treatment group which is mothers with 5-6-year-olds as their youngest child.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3882365/v1/8babd4923a52b80596c1c9d5.jpg"},{"id":50462399,"identity":"6c183160-9adf-482f-8987-e6ce7c0f39f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 21:52:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":737846,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3882365/v1/89979f1b-f085-4eb0-bed9-3d529f904886.pdf"},{"id":50117250,"identity":"effb35f3-006e-459d-8dbb-7f59a3ba3ae4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-24 18:55:58","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":64316,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3882365/v1/4df70c07b83c1e698d00574e.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"School starting age and mothers’ labour supply: Causal evidence from the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThere is a strong correlation between maternal labour supply and the age of a woman's youngest child, suggesting that mothers are more likely to participate in the labour market once their youngest child reaches school age (Cascio,2009). This universal phenomenon highlights publicly subsidised childcare as an important driver in boosting maternal labour supply, particularly when mothers are not able to afford private childcare services. Numerous studies have documented the positive labour supply responses of mothers to various childcare policies, whether in the form of direct childcare programs or extensions of public schooling (Berger et al.,1992; Gelbach,2002; Berlinski et al., 2007; Berlinski et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Fitzpatrick,2012; Hardoy et al., 2013; Bettendorf et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the absence of direct childcare policies, researchers can use reductions in compulsory school starting age as an implicit childcare subsidy to study how mothers would respond when childcare prices decrease (Finseraas, 2017). The idea is that public schools offer free childcare during the school day and lower the cost of childcare.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe theoretical foundation of the connection between childcare costs and maternal labour supply relies on a straightforward cost-benefit analysis of mothers at the employment margin. According to Gelbach (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), public schooling functions as a full-price subsidy for mothers who might not otherwise have worked, increasing the cost of leisure and encouraging them to shift toward employment. It is crucial to note that the marginal price subsidy may indicate an income effect for mothers already working more hours than the school day. As income and substitution effects operate in opposite directions, the net program impact on employment and working hours becomes ambiguous (Gelbach,2002; Berlinski, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, establishing a causal relationship between childcare costs and maternal labour supply in various country contexts becomes an empirical question.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2012, a major transformation in the Turkish Education System took place. Alongside the extension of compulsory education to the high school level, the starting age for primary school was lowered from seven to six. Notably, school age calculations were revised to a monthly basis, decreasing from 72 to 66 months. Moreover, children aged 60\u0026ndash;66 months were encouraged to enrol in primary education based on their cognitive development and parental permission. Consequently, children turning 5 and 6 years old became eligible for primary school enrolment. This exogenous change in school starting age provides us with a quasi-experimental design to study the causal link between childcare costs and maternal employment, as it implies a reduction in childcare costs by offering full or, at least, part-time public schooling. Considering the persistently low rates of female labour force participation in Turkey (as of 2022, female labour force participation in Turkey stands at 34 percent), our research focuses on the following question: Does the absence of accessible childcare constitute a barrier for the stagnant female labour force participation (FLFP) in Turkey?\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUtilising data from the 2004\u0026ndash;2019 Household Labour Force Surveys (HLFS), we employed a difference-in-differences estimation to investigate the impact of a reduction in childcare cost and maternal labour supply of women in Turkey after the 2012 Education Reform, which lowered the primary school starting age. Our findings indicate that neither married nor single women are responsive to education reform.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents the relevant literature and outlines our contribution. Section 3 summarises the background information regarding childcare services and education reform in Turkey. Section 4 includes our identification strategy, hypotheses, and details on data and variables. Section 5 demonstrates the empirical model. Section 6 presents the main findings, and Section 7 concludes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Childcare and Female Labour Supply","content":"\u003cp\u003eAfter the mid-1960s, many state governments initiated childcare programs by subsidising the integration of kindergartens into public schools. These programs aimed to enhance access to preschool education and render kindergartens more affordable for mothers with eligible children. Building on this, Gelbach (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) utilised a theoretical model to estimate how the extension of preschool eligibility in the United States affected maternal labour supply. He employed an instrumental variable (IV) strategy with mothers of 5-year-olds and found a positive response in labour supply for mothers whose youngest child was 5. In a similar investigation, Cascio (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) explored the impact of a comparable program by leveraging variations in the introduction of kindergartens into American public schools. She compared the labour supply choices of mothers with 5- or 6-year-olds to those with slightly younger and older children. Her analysis revealed that the labour supply of single mothers without children younger than 5 increased, but there was no effect on the labour supply of other women with eligible children. Despite being limited in number, several important papers address the gap in the literature by focusing on whether child-related subsidies can support female employment in developing countries. For instance, Berlinski (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) estimated the causal impact of a preschool construction program in Argentina on preschool attendance and maternal labour supply. By leveraging the gradual increase in the supply of schools that varies by geographical regions, they demonstrated a positive effect on maternal labour supply. In a similar vein, Schlosser (2011) exploited a public policy initiative that introduced free public preschool for children aged 3 and 4. Her study examined the response of Arab mothers' labour supply to a decrease in childcare costs and found that highly educated mothers responded significantly in Israel.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese papers serve as important examples of maternal responses to direct childcare policies. However, in the absence of direct childcare subsidies, researchers turn their attention to implicit childcare subsidies, such as extensions in compulsory education covering preschool education or reductions in school starting age. Primarily, researchers focus on compulsory education reforms and reductions in school starting age as implicit childcare subsidies, given that public schools offer free education and lower the cost of preschool education for eligible children. For instance, Finseraas et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) utilised the change in the statutory school starting age in Norway from seven to six to analyse how mothers respond to a change in the price of public childcare. The study exhibited a positive effect on mothers' labour supply, particularly those with lower earning potential.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur contribution to the relevant strand of literature is threefold. First, this paper represents the first empirical study using the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey to understand the link between childcare cost and maternal labour supply by exploiting an exogenous change in school starting age as an implied free childcare. Second, we provide evidence for a developing country with a very low level of FLFP, in contrast to the dominant literature on developed countries where FLFP is high and generous family policy arrangements are already in place. Third, given the persistently low rates of FLFP in Turkey, our results have importance for education and labour market policies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Background","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Care work, childcare facilities and female employment in Turkey\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe strong negative association between unpaid care work and women's employment prospects is universal. However, it particularly constitutes an obstacle for female labour market activity in countries where female labour force participation is excessively low, gender inequalities are more prevalent, women are often considered the primary care providers, and the time women spend on unpaid caregiving significantly exceeds that of men (ILO, 2018). Undoubtedly, the lack of formal care services for dependent children, as well as elderly and sick individuals, also contributes to gender inequalities in care burden in these countries (İlkkaracan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). On average, in OECD countries, 20% of women's time is devoted to household chores and care work. In Turkey, however, women spend 25% of their time, on average, on these unpaid activities, making Turkey second after Mexico in terms of female care burden. Care work is argued to be a significant factor contributing to Turkey\u0026rsquo;s stagnant FLFP, implying a substantial efficiency cost for the economy. As of 2022, recent FLFP in Turkey is only 34 percent, significantly lower than the OECD average (OECD, 2023). Additionally, the market value of female unpaid care activities is not negligible, estimated between 1.3\u0026ndash;3.34% of Turkey\u0026rsquo;s GDP as of 2011 (Aran and Aktakke, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile care work encompasses various responsibilities for dependent household members, our analysis specifically focuses on childcare responsibilities. A recent report on childcare services in Turkey highlights that, despite one out of three women not being active in the labour force due to childcare responsibilities, public childcare provision or financing is insufficient to meet the existing demand. The report sheds light on crucial aspects of the childcare market in Turkey, pointing out two major barriers to entry. High rental costs and a scarcity of available spaces in urban centres present substantial challenges in increasing market supply. Childcare providers, adhering to regulations such as garden requirements, find compliance difficult in densely populated urban areas. Additionally, the associated high rental costs significantly elevate the fixed costs for suppliers. With demand surpassing supply, high market prices become unaffordable for many mothers, especially those with low willingness and ability to pay for childcare services. As of 2010, only 17 percent of those in the bottom income decile had access to preschool or centre-based childcare facilities. Another source of inefficiency arises due to the fact that most private childcare facilities do not offer full-day care or do not operate during summer holidays, further limiting mothers' ability to demand these services (Munoz-Boudet and Aran, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs we provide a brief overview of the current situation and challenges in childcare services, highlighting its strong correlation with female employment, one might expect that limited access to childcare services may be a major impediment for the low FLFP in Turkey. However, it is noteworthy that there has not been any comprehensive childcare subsidy program implemented in Turkey. This absence hinders researchers from investigating its labour market consequences and establishing a causal link between childcare prices and mothers' labour supply. Therefore, following the latest literature, we have leveraged an exogenous change in compulsory school starting age in Turkey after the 2012 Education Reform to study the causal link between childcare cost and maternal labour supply. In the next section, we elaborate on how the reform changed the structure of the education system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 The 2012 Education Reform\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fundamental principles and purposes of national education in Turkey are governed by the Basic Law of National Education (Law No. 1739), with the Ministry of Education being the primary institution responsible for enforcing its provisions. According to the Basic Law of National Education, formal education in the Turkish National Education System encompasses pre-school education, primary and secondary education, as well as higher education. A significant reform in the national education system occurred in 1997 when compulsory education, which had been only 5 years prior to the reform, was extended to 8 years (Law No. 4306). The implementation of this reform was primarily motivated by political concerns. The main purpose of the secular government at the time was to limit religious education, which was then available at the lower secondary level. The extension of compulsory education by 3 more years aimed to prevent students from accessing religious schools (\u003cem\u003eİmam-Hatip schools\u003c/em\u003e) before the upper secondary level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA similar reform was undertaken in 2012, extending compulsory education to 12 years. While the reform was introduced with the stated goal of enhancing international competitiveness, the political aim of the conservative government was to revive religious education, which had been restricted by the 1997 Education Reform. Regardless of its claimed purposes, this reform substantially transformed the structure of the national education system, affecting elements such as school starting age, duration of course hours, and the length of education levels. Additionally, it altered the length of compulsory education. The reform, known as the 4\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;4\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;4 system, replaced the continuous structure of 8 years of mandatory education before 2012 and introduced a discrete four-year primary school education, four-year lower school education, and four-year high school education as the legally enforced compulsory schooling duration (Law No. 6287).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven that the primary purpose of this study is to explore the labour market consequences for mothers with eligible children exposed to the reform, we will delve into the regulations regarding school starting age. Before the 2012 Education Reform, primary education covered the ages 6\u0026ndash;14. However, with the new regulation, the school starting age is now calculated on a monthly basis. According to the related law, starting from the end of September 2012, children who turn 5 and enter the age of 6 (older than 66 months) are obligated to begin primary education. The regulation also permits children aged between 60\u0026ndash;66 months to enrol in primary education based on their physical and cognitive development. The regulation amendment dated July 21, 2012, from the Ministry of National Education introduced the following changes: Children who turn 66 months by the end of September during the registration year are enrolled in the first grade of primary schools. Additionally, children aged 60 to 66 months and developmentally ready for primary school may also register in the first grade upon parental request. Suppose children meet the age requirement but lack physical or mental development for school and are 66 months or older. In that case they can either attend preschool with medical reports proving their immaturity until the end of November or postpone enrolment for one year. Despite being subjected to some exceptions, the reform has mostly affected the age cohort of 5 and 6-year-old children.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Empirical Approach","content":"\u003cp\u003eMethodologically, a well-known endogeneity problem arises when a child\u0026apos;s age might be related to other factors that are also correlated with a mother\u0026apos;s labour supply decision. Therefore, in most examples, researchers employ instrumental variable (IV) or quasi-experimental techniques to investigate the link between childcare costs and maternal employment. Some researchers address this issue by using the quarter of birth as an instrument variable for preschool eligibility (Angrist and Krueger, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Gelbach, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Other researchers tackle the endogeneity problem by leveraging the exogenous implementation of public-school programs, which may vary across geographical areas. They employ quasi-experimental research designs to estimate maternal labour supply responses (Berlinski, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Baker et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Schlosser, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo establish a solid theoretical foundation for our empirical approach, the initial step is to demonstrate the \u0026quot;first stage,\u0026quot; illustrating the treatment\u0026apos;s impact on usage following causal inference terminology (Cunningham, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The 2012 education reform, while changing the mandatory school starting age, has not been strictly enforced and, therefore, introduced some fuzziness in compliance due to the provision of a dual option for 5-year-old children. Demonstrating the compliance ratio (first stage) by age cohort is crucial for the robustness of the methodology to be employed. As the age cohorts theoretically affected by the reform are 5 and 6-year-old children, we will show their compliance rate in terms of primary school enrolment using several statistics. It is important to note that, before 2013, the Household Labour Force Survey (HLFS) provided information regarding the current educational status conditional on being at least 6 years old because, at that time, the compulsory schooling age was 72 months. Only after 2013, respondents were asked for their current educational status conditional on being at least 5 years old when compulsory schooling also became eligible for children aged 5 (60 months). Consequently, we are unable to provide crucial information regarding the percentage of school enrolment for 5-year-old children (either pre-primary or primary) before 2013, using HLFS statistics. Besides, HLFS does not record pre-primary education statistics. Therefore, we provide evidence for the compliance of 5-year-olds by exploiting Ministry of National Education (MONE) pre-primary education statistics. Figure\u0026nbsp;1 shows pre-primary school enrolment of 5 years old children by exploiting two statistics, net enrolment rates and gross enrolment rates\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. However, for 2011-12 academic year, there is only one statistic that we cannot distinguish whether it is net or gross enrolment rate from the MONE records. For this year, the pre-primary school enrolment is reported as 65.69. Still, we can notice a sharp drop in both statistics in the treatment year. In 2012-13 academic year, the net enrolment rate has decreased to 39.72 percent while gross enrolment rate has fallen to 55.35 percent. The considerable amount of decrease between two consecutive years might imply that some families preferred enrolling their children in primary education instead of pre-primary education when their children turn 5, complying with the reform.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNext, we demonstrate how 6 years old children have been affected by the reform in terms of primary school enrolment in Fig. 2, using HLFS questions related to the current educational status of the household members. As seen, the enrolment rates of children aged 7 to 9 remain relatively smooth around the treatment year. However, there is a noticeable jump in the school enrolment rates of 6-year-olds after 2013 when the treatment was initiated. The primary school enrolment, which was 64.87 percent in 2012, increased to 80.69 percent in 2013. Finally, we visualise the overall compliance regardless of the children\u0026apos;s age. Fig. 3 shows dramatic increases in the number of children enrolling in the 1st grade during the academic year following the reform. Before the treatment, children aged 72 months were eligible to enrol in the first grade. However, in the academic year following the reform, several age cohorts overlapped in terms of starting the 1st grade (children above 60 months became eligible), resulting in a substantial increase in enrolment numbers. While 1,404,857 students were enrolled in the 1st grade during the 2011-2012 school year, this number rose to 1,870,705 in the 2012-2013 academic year, reflecting a 33 percent increase in the number of enrolled students. This suggests that, overall, the compliance ratio is not negligible, and the descriptive statistics shows that the number of families complying with the reform is considerable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven these evidences, we grouped 5 and 6-year-old children as eligible children and assigned the mothers with those children to the treatment group. The treatment group includes all mothers potentially treated by the introduction of the education reform. As the control group we use mothers with a youngest child 4 years of age as these parents are not eligible for school enrolment but otherwise quite similar to the treatment group. We avoid assigning a control group with all mothers whose youngest child are younger than 5, because mothers\u0026apos; preferences for parental care are strongly related to the age of their children, and considering the cultural context in Turkey, mothers with 0-3-year-olds are more likely to prefer parental care. Therefore, including mothers with children aged 0-3 in the control group would be problematic due to possible confounders related to differential preferences across mothers that may be hard to control for. Put it differently, the children\u0026rsquo;s age may be related to an unobservable factor such as demand for childcare which may also be correlated with maternal labour supply (Cascio,2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sudden implementation of the 2012 Education Reform provides an opportunity to leverage exogenous variation in school starting age as a natural experiment to investigate the causal impact of free childcare on maternal labour supply in Turkey. As previously discussed, Turkey has limited childcare options for young mothers, with most institutions being privately operated and charging substantial fees. Despite the availability of free childcare services provided by the government or some municipalities, these services are limited and often do not meet market demand. Additionally, the prices are frequently too high and not affordable, especially for low-income mothers. When the demand for childcare services is not met under the prevailing market conditions, one can anticipate an increase in labour force participation either at the extensive margin, intensive margin, or both when mothers with eligible children are offered a form of childcare due to the reduction in school starting age, as public schooling offers free childcare during the school day. Therefore, our alternative hypotheses against the null are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eH1a:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e The 2012 Education Reform increases the labour supply of mothers with 5- and 6-year-olds compared to 4-year-olds at the extensive margin, resulting in increased labour force participation and/or at the intensive margin, leading to increased labour hours and/or part-time employment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eH2a\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe treatment impact might be heterogeneous such that mothers with low earning potential may be the primary beneficiaries of the 2012 Education Reform.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Data and variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe utilised individual-level cross-sectional data from the Household Labour Force Surveys for Turkey, conducted by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) since 1988. The HLFS relies on a representative sampling of households in Turkey, providing comprehensive information on demographics, educational backgrounds, and detailed labour market histories of individuals living in the same household. Given that the HLFS is a household-level dataset, each household has a unique identifier. Additionally, each household has a relationship identifier to link the household head with each member. In this study, the unit of analysis is the mother. Therefore, the first step in data arrangement is identifying mothers using the relationship identifier. Our algorithm is similar to the study conducted by Berlinski (2007), where the focus is on the children of the household head, and mothers are identified as either the female head of the household or the female spouse of a male household head. After defining mothers, we grouped them based on the age of their youngest child and utilised mothers\u0026rsquo; labour market information in the main analysis. We separately analyse married mothers and single mothers. Despite using the full sample for descriptive purposes, in the main estimations, we work with the dataset covering the years 2011-2014, which includes a 2-year time window before and after the treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHLFS includes direct questions regarding the employment status in the current year and in the previous year. Moreover, respondents are asked about the working hours in the reference week. Additionally, part-time employment status is recorded conditionally on being employed. Using this information, we construct several labour supply measures as dependent variables. \u003cem\u003eLabour force\u003c/em\u003e is a dummy variable which equals 1 when the respondent is employed or actively looking for a job (unemployed) in the current year. \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eEmployment\u003c/em\u003e is a binary variable and equal to 1 when the respondent is employed in the current year. \u0026nbsp;We also used two different dummy variables for the labour force and employment status in the previous year keeping their definition the same. These variables are denoted as \u003cem\u003eLabour force previous\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eEmployment_previous.\u003c/em\u003e As measures for intensive labour supply, we define a continuous variable, \u003cem\u003eHours worked\u003c/em\u003e, which indicates the labour hours past in the main job in a week. We also used the part-time employment indicator for the variable \u003cem\u003ePart_time,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eas the second measure of intensive labour supply. We follow Angrist and Pischke (2009) and coded zero work hours for those who are not in employment. Similarly, we denote part-time employment as zero for these individuals to be able to use the same number of observations in each equation. Consequently, we would be able to analyse potential changes in working hours and part-time employment due to any marginal change at the intensive as well as extensive margin. Finally, we define a broad labour supply measure which is more in line with the theoretical model of Gelbach (2002) formalising an income effect for the mothers with longer working hours than the school day. Accordingly, we created a variable, \u003cem\u003eLabour_Supply_30,\u003c/em\u003e denoting 1 if the mother is employed and works more than 30 hours and 0 if the mother is employed and works less than 30 hours or the mother is not in employment, assuming that a regular school day is 6 hours and children spend 30 hours at the school in a week. Our main variables of interest are \u003cem\u003eLabour_Supply_30\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Hours worked\u003c/em\u003e, but we also estimated the response to the conventional labour supply and employment measures to check any possible variation. Finally, we constructed household-level variables such as the number of children aged 0-15, the number of adults (defined as the household members above 15) and the presence of children aged 7-15 by exploiting household identifiers. Similarly, we used partner identifiers to construct the employment status of the spouse for each mother when estimating the regressions with the sample of married mothers. We show the descriptive statistics in Table 1 and Table 2, for married and single mothers, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSummary statistics provide information about the treatment and control group during the pre-treatment period (for the years 2004-2012) in Table 1 for married mothers and Table 2 for single mothers who are 18-49 years old. In Table 1 although there are no large differences across the control and treatment groups, mean differences for each variable are statistically significant. As expected, mothers in the control group are, on average, slightly younger than the treated mothers, and their educational attainment is higher, indicating that mothers in the control group are more likely to have graduated from high school or upper high school compared to lower high school. Regarding household characteristics, mothers whose youngest child is 4 years old are less likely to have older children who are 7-15 years old. The number of adults in households with the mothers with 4-year-olds tends to be fewer, but the number of children aged 0-15 is higher. Moreover, partners of the women with 4-year-olds are more likely to be employed. Due to the small but statistically significant differences in observables across the groups for married mothers, we control for demographic and household-level variables in each regression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the lower part Table 1, mean differences of the dependent variables are also presented. For labour supply measures except part-time employment, the means of the control group are lower, which implies that mothers with 4-year-olds are less likely to be in the labour force or employment and, conditional on employment, tend to work fewer hours. Table 2 also compares the control and treatment groups which are constructed among single mothers. The observable characteristics are very similar across single mothers with 4 years old and single mothers with 5- and 6-years old children. However, control group members are also younger as younger women are more likely to have younger children. The presence of older children when single mothers have 4 years old as their youngest is less likely compared to the treatment group. But the number of children below 15 is higher. Finally, the probability of part-time employment is higher when single mothers have 4-year-old children.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Estimation","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur identification strategy relies on an exogenous variation in school starting age, shifting from 72 months to 60 months after the 2012 Education Reform. The abrupt implementation of the reform, independent of economic conditions and driven by the political mindset of the time, allows us to exploit it as a natural experiment to study the causal relationship between childcare costs and maternal labour supply. We compare the labour supply choices of mothers with children aged 5 and 6 (\u003cem\u003etreatment group\u003c/em\u003e) to those with children aged 4 (\u003cem\u003econtrol group\u003c/em\u003e) before and after the policy change in 2013 within a difference-in-differences (DD) framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, we work with a baseline model in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1) with mothers of eligible children and regress each labour market variable on the treatment dummy (defined as 1 for the years after 2012) to estimate the impact of the treatment on eligible mothers with OLS regressions. Then, we estimate Eq.\u0026nbsp;(2) where i, j, t index individual, mother groups and survey time, respectively. Y represents a set of dependent variables that we described earlier. Each measure will be used in a separate regression. Reform is a dummy variable equal to 1 for the years after 2012 and 0 for the years before 2013. Treat is a dummy variable and is equal to 1 for the mothers with 5 and 6 years-olds (eligible children) and 0 for the mothers with 4-years-olds. We specified 2013 as the first treatment year as the 2012\u0026ndash;2013 school calendar lasts from September 2012 to June 2013 and provides childcare during this period. From the surveys, we are able to convey information regarding the current state of employment and employment status of the previous year. To take into account possible delays in finding employment, we examine both outcomes. We estimate the Eq.\u0026nbsp;(2) with a 2-year time window to make a proper counterfactual analysis. \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(X\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the vector of individual and household-level variables which include mother\u0026rsquo;s age, binary variables for lower high school, high school, upper high school completions, an indicator for the presence of children aged 7\u0026ndash;15, the number of children aged 0\u0026ndash;15, the number of adults (defined as the household members older than 15) and employment status of the spouse. These variables are used to control the supply-side factors. We also include the regional unemployment rate which varies by year to control demand-side factors (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(w)\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. The main parameter of interest, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({ \\rho }_{3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, measures the treatment impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({Y}_{ijt}={ \\gamma }_{0}+{ \\gamma }_{1} I ({Reform}_{t}=1)+{X}_{it}{\\prime }{ \\gamma }_{2}+{w}_{t}{\\prime }{ \\gamma }_{3}+{\\eta }_{ijt}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e (Eq.\u0026nbsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({Y}_{ijt} = { \\rho }_{0}+ { \\rho }_{1}I {(Treat}_{j}=1)+ { \\rho }_{2}I\\left({Reform}_{t}=1\\right)+{ \\rho }_{3} {(Treat}_{j}=1)*{(Reform}_{t}=1)+{ {X}^{{\\prime }}}_{it}{ \\rho }_{4} + {w}_{t}{\\prime }{ \\rho }_{5} + {\\nu }_{ijt}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e (Eq.\u0026nbsp;2)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore proceeding, we outline the underlying assumptions of the DD estimator and assess their validity in our case. The key assumption in the DD design is the parallel trends assumption. While not directly testable, one approach to examine the pre-treatment dynamics is plotting the raw data and conducting a visual inspection for the pre-treatment periods. Figure\u0026nbsp;4 visualises the parallel trends across the groups before the reform for each variable of interest. We also report the descriptive statistics across the groups before the treatment in Table\u0026nbsp;1 and Table\u0026nbsp;2. Despite significant differences, they are not too large to suspect for unbalanced comparison groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe second critical assumption in DD analysis is the Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption (SUTVA), which stipulates that potential outcomes for a specific units should not vary with the treatments assigned to the other units. Therefore, for SUTVA to hold, we should choose a control group that is not so close to the treatment group as to cause any spillover effects, yet close enough to maintain common trends. As we used the mothers with 4-year-olds in the counterfactual scenario, concerns may arise about the identification and validity of SUTVA. If there were any spillover effects on the mothers with 4-year-olds due to the reduction in the school starting age to 5, DD estimates could be downward biased. To address such concerns, we conducted a robustness check by estimating each regression with an alternative control group of mothers covering the women with both 3- and 4-year-olds. The results are reported in Table\u0026nbsp;6 and Table\u0026nbsp;7 in the \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eAppendix\u003c/span\u003e and do not change the main results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne might also question the potential impact of the reform on the schooling distribution of women, considering that the reform also made high school education compulsory. It can be argued that exclusion restriction would be violated if the reform had influenced the fertility patterns or labour supply variables of women through increased human capital accumulation, potentially confounding our estimates. Notably, the first cohort affected by the new policy, in terms of the extension of compulsory schooling to 12 years, was born in 1998. However, in our DD estimates using a 2-time window (2011\u0026ndash;2014), the youngest cohort under consideration was born in 1996. Therefore, it is unlikely that, at least in our samples, the same reform influences maternal labour supply outcomes through variables other than the compulsory school enrolment of their children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, one of the assumptions of the DD analysis might be violated if control group mothers (with 4-year-olds) could anticipate a change in the compulsory schooling age and adjust their labour supply behaviour in advance. However, the implementation of the 2012 Education Reform was very sudden and unexpected, making the anticipation issue unlikely. Therefore, the exogeneity of the reform ensures that mothers were unable to adapt their behaviour in response to the legal change before its implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, a potential threat to identification could be related to the endogenous selection of motherhood. The common trend assumption is violated if the composition of characteristics related to our outcomes across the groups is unstable. This could occur, for example, if the education reform led to a change in fertility rates. To address this issue, we examined fertility rates by estimating the likelihood of being a mother based on the actual treatment indicator and several placebo treatment dummies. Our estimates reveal a decline in the fertility rate in each regression, albeit very small in magnitude. Therefore, we conclude that this pattern has emerged due to a time effect rather than a treatment impact, which was expected to be specific to the year 2013. Table\u0026nbsp;12 in the \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eAppendix\u003c/span\u003e displays the coefficients of actual and placebo treatment dummies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe begin by presenting the reduced-form estimates (intention-to-treat) of the legal enforcement after 2013 on a set of labour supply measures using data from the 2004-2019 HLFS of Turkey. In this baseline regression, only mothers with 5- and 6-year-olds are included. Table 3 displays the OLS coefficients for seven dependent variables outlined in the far-left column. The top row indicates the samples used in each regression. Initially, we estimated the full sample, followed by three additional subsamples categorised by educational level. The second row further divides the sample by marital status, with Panel A showing estimates for married mothers with eligible children, and Panel B presenting results for single mothers. In each regression, the labour supply measure is regressed on a treatment dummy (defined as 1 for the years after 2012). Additionally, each regression is linearly controlled for the mother\u0026rsquo;s age, the number of children aged 0-15, the number of adults (older than 15), the presence of children between 7-15, partner employment, and regional unemployment rates (NUTS2- level). Robust standard errors are used to account for potential heteroskedasticity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the baseline model, the main parameter of interest, denoted by , signifies an increase in each labour supply measure for the full sample of married women. The estimates revolve around 2-8 percentage points (pp.) for binary outcome variables and 1.51 hours increase in labour hours (Columns 1 in Table 3). More clearly, based on conventional labour supply measures, mothers with eligible children are more likely to engage the labour market by 7 percentage points and more likely be in paid employment by 5 pp. Our main labour supply measure, \u003cem\u003eLabour_supply30\u003c/em\u003e, displays 2pp. increase after the reform. Moreover, the likelihood of part-time employment raises by 2 pp. and working hours tend to be longer by 1.5 hours. When we apply a heterogeneity test by educational attainment, intention-to-treat effect is positive for low-skilled and semi-skilled married mothers (Column 2 and 3 in Table 3). In terms of magnitude, the positive effect is higher for low-skilled married mothers compared to the middle skilled group. On the contrary, high skilled married mothers\u0026rsquo; response is significantly negative (Column 4 in Table 3). From the baseline estimates, we find no evidence for a significant response for single mothers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the parameter does not yield an unbiased estimate because first differencing alone cannot eliminate the inherent changes in maternal labour supply over time. Consequently, the OLS estimate is not consistent and tends to overestimate the true impact of the reform when the time trend was not taken into account. To address this, we employ a DD setup to estimate the treatment response of mothers. This involves using a control group to derive counterfactual outcomes for treated mothers if they had not been offered a childcare by their children\u0026rsquo;s early school enrolment. Relying on common support, the DD estimate allows us to uncover the causal impact of the education reform (and its implied reduction in childcare cost) on maternal labour supply. This method provides a consistent estimate for the treatment parameter unless other shocks coincide with the reform and only affect mothers with 5 or 6-year-old children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur main findings are presented in Table 4 for married mothers and Table 5 for single mothers. The far-left columns of the tables present the main variable of interest, the first row describes the samples used in each regression. On the left panel (Panel A), results are reported with robust standard errors while on the right-hand side in Panel B, we clustered standard errors by year and child\u0026rsquo;s age (12x3=36 clusters). As can be seen in Table 4, once we control the time trend, the treatment impact of each labour supply measure for married mothers is indistinguishable from zero (Column 1). The coefficients fluctuate between slightly negative and zero; however, none of them turns out to be statistically significant. There is only a slight statistically significant decrease in labour hours for the full sample by 0.7 hours. Next, we explore whether free childcare has heterogeneous effects depending on mothers\u0026rsquo; skill level. As HLFS only reports wage information of the wage earner, we categorised the mothers based on their educational attainment to avoid sample bias. Subsequently, we examine whether the response of mothers with low earning potential differs from the main sample. The results of the heterogeneity analysis are presented in Table 4 in Column 2-4. As seen in Column 2, low-skilled mothers respond by decreasing their labour supply by 1 pp. and working hours by 1 hour. Considering the construction of \u003cem\u003eLabour_supply_30\u003c/em\u003e variable, the negative response may come from the mothers who were already working more than 30 hours before the reform and adjust their working hours slightly after. Overall, when splitting the married mothers according to their skill level, we do not find a positive response in any subgroup. The literature on the response of married mothers to various childcare policies yields mixed findings. Bettendorf (2015) documented a 2.0 percentage point increase in the participation rate among married mothers with children aged 0-11 in the Netherlands following a substantial rise in public spending on after-school care. Similarly, Havnes and Mogstad (2011) highlighted a 1.1 pp. increase among married mothers with low-income potential in Norway after a staggered implementation of a childcare expansion program. Gelbach (2002) reported a 5-pp. increase in the United States, utilising the quarter of birth as an instrumental variable for public school eligibility. Notably, positive treatment impacts are not exclusive to developed countries; Scholsser (2005) documented a substantial response from Arab mothers in Israel to the extension of public schooling to 3- and 4-year-old children. However, the absence of a response from married mothers is not unexpected, as supporting evidence for null effects of childcare policies in different settings also exists. Recent data, for instance, indicates that married mothers are unresponsive to universal pre-K availability (Fitzpatrick, 2010; Fitzpatrick, 2012) and to an increase in the supply of schools (Cascio, 2009) in the United States. Regarding this, our null findings are more aligned with the latter branch of literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 presents the results for single mothers with eligible children. We estimate the impact of the education reform as 9 pp. or 23 percent increase given that the baseline participation rate is 39 percent for single mothers. The treatment impact for single mothers of 5\u0026ndash;6-year-olds is higher than the estimates obtained from the sample of married mothers. However, our estimates are not statistically significant despite being positive so we cannot reject the null hypothesis that treatment responses of the two groups of women are equal. When we rely on our main labour supply measure (\u003cem\u003eLabour_suppy30\u003c/em\u003e), our estimated 9 pp. increase is close to the coefficient reported in the previous studies. For example, Gelbach (2002) estimated 5.1 pp. increase in labour force participation of single mothers in US, Cascio (2009) find a behavioural change in labour supply of single mothers by 6.9 pp., Goux and Maurin (2010) provides causal evidence for a 3.6 pp. increase in maternal labour force participation for mothers without a spouse even though most of these studies do not show a statistically significant impact of childcare policies on married mothers\u0026rsquo; labour supply behaviour. Similarly, these studies report an increase in working hours ranging from 0 to 3.6 hours in a week. Our model estimates 3.9 hours increase for the full sample of single mothers as a lower bound since the coefficient becomes larger when splitting the sample of single mothers by educational attainment (4.4 hours for low-skilled mothers, 5.7 hours for semi-skilled mothers and 4.2 hours for highly skilled mothers). It is important to note that our coefficients are not statistically significant and standard errors are very large, possibly due to the small sample size we have for single mothers since the occurrence of lone women with children in Turkey is very rare. Indeed, Fitzpatrick (2012) used 23,066 single mothers in a regression discontinuity design (1,382 single mothers even in the narrowest bandwidth), the sample size in the study of Cascio (2009) is 19,248 for 90s Census data and Goux and Maurin (2010) exploits the information for 10,188 single mothers in his study which are more likely to yield more efficient estimates with larger sample size.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe provide several mechanisms to explain why mothers have not been responsive. When interpreting the null findings, it is essential to consider the counterfactual mode of care when the reform was absent (Havnes and Mogstad, 2011). Previous studies offer three primary arguments to justify why mothers are not responsive to relevant childcare subsidies in various settings. The first argument involves a substitution from informal childcare arrangements to public childcare. For instance, Baker et al. (2008) provides supporting evidence that almost one-third of the beneficiaries of Canadian childcare coverage for 4- and 5-year-olds appear to be women who had a job before the reform but used informal childcare arrangements. This argument is also pertinent to debates about subsidized childcare in the US and Sweden, where scholars do not report significant responses for married mothers (Cascio, 2009; Lundin et al., 2008). The second mechanism is the crowding-out argument, which refers to families shifting from private childcare arrangements to public kindergartens or schools. In line with the ideas of Guox et al. (2010), pre-elementary schools or early school enrolment may crowd out private modes of childcare, especially for dual-parent families with larger access to these non-parental private options. Therefore, this argument is more likely to be the underlying mechanism behind the empirical results for married mothers. Finally, Lundin et al. (2008) argue that the impact of the Swedish childcare reform on maternal employment was negligible as Sweden is a developed country and was highly subsidized even before the reform, so further reduction did not cause an additional pushing effect. So, one potential argument may be the initial development level and female labour force participation rates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven these discussions, the first two arguments seem more relevant to our case. Firstly, there is an extensive informal childcare market in Turkey. Grandmothers often provide free care for their grandchildren, independent of the availability of any public childcare. This suggests that mothers unaffected by the reform may still opt for grandparental care if they wish to enter paid employment. Thus, an informal childcare arrangement may be one of the underlying channels of why mothers are unresponsive, despite a substantial increase in children\u0026rsquo;s school enrolment rates. Even though we do not explicitly show the rates of informal childcare usage for the compliers before the reform, as demonstrated by a recent study, women\u0026apos;s likelihood of being in paid employment substantially increases once they benefit from informal childcare arrangements (G\u0026ouml;kmen, 2022). This argument may be applicable to both single and married mothers. However, we argue that the crowding-out argument is more relevant for married women with reform-eligible children, as families may need more resources for private modes of childcare facilities, which is more likely to be seen in two-parent families.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, the limited representation of single mothers in our samples, comprising almost 2 percent of the married sample, may contribute to the fact that our results do not yield a significant response despite the positive estimates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne last thing to note is that, once monthly date of birth data is available for children, it would be good practice to check the robustness of our findings within a regression discontinuity design. We believe that this approach would be more appropriate to address SUTVA (Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption) and increase the internal validity of the estimates. We mention this here for future suggestions and discussions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by G\u0026uuml;len Derya Zayim. The first draft of the manuscript was written G\u0026uuml;len Derya Zayim and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are thankful to the Turkish Statistical Institute for granting permission to use Household Labour Force Surveys, 2004-2019.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAngrist, J. D., \u0026amp; Krueger, A. B. (1991). Does compulsory school attendance affect schooling and earnings?. \u003cem\u003eThe Quarterly Journal of Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e106\u003c/em\u003e(4), 979-1014. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937954\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAngrist, J. D., \u0026amp; Pischke, J. S. (2009). \u003cem\u003eMostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist\u0026apos;s companion\u003c/em\u003e. Princeton university press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAran, Meltem A.; Aktakke,Nazlı. \u003cem\u003eKadinlarin g\u0026ouml;r\u0026uuml;nmeyen katkisi : T\u0026uuml;rkiye\u0026rsquo;de kadınların \u0026uuml;cretsiz \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ebakım faaliyetlerinin ekonomik değerinin belirlenmesi ve kadınlar \u0026uuml;zerindeki bakım y\u0026uuml;k\u0026uuml;n\u0026uuml;n azaltılmasına y\u0026ouml;nelik politika se\u0026ccedil;enekleri (Turkish). \u003c/em\u003eWashington, D.C. : World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/402341479489714245/T\u0026uuml;rkiye-de-kadınların-\u0026uuml;cretsiz-bakımfaaliyetlerinin-ekonomik-değerinin-belirlenmesi-ve-kadınlar-\u0026uuml;zerindeki-bakım-y\u0026uuml;k\u0026uuml;n\u0026uuml;n-azaltılmasına-y\u0026ouml;nelik-politika-se\u0026ccedil;enekleri\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaker, M., Gruber, J., \u0026amp; Milligan, K. (2008). Universal child care, maternal labor supply, and family well-being. \u003cem\u003eJournal of political Economy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e116\u003c/em\u003e(4), 709-745. https://doi.org/10.1086/591908\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBerger, L. M., \u0026amp; Waldfogel, J. (2004). Maternity leave and the employment of new mothers in the United States. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Population Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(2), 331-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-003-0159-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBerlinski, S., \u0026amp; Galiani, S. (2007). The effect of a large expansion of pre-primary school facilities on preschool attendance and maternal employment. \u003cem\u003eLabour Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(3), 665-680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2007.01.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBerlinski, S., Galiani, S., \u0026amp; Mc Ewan, P. J. (2011). Preschool and maternal labor market outcomes: Evidence from a regression discontinuity design. \u003cem\u003eEconomic Development and Cultural Change\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e59\u003c/em\u003e(2), 313-344. https://doi.org/10.1086/657124\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBettendorf, L. J., Jongen, E. L., \u0026amp; Muller, P. (2015). Childcare subsidies and labour supply\u0026mdash;Evidence from a large Dutch reform. \u003cem\u003eLabour Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e, 112-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2015.03.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCascio, E. U. (2009). Maternal labor supply and the introduction of kindergartens into American public schools. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Human resources\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e(1), 140-170. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.44.1.140\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCunningham, S. (2021). \u003cem\u003eCausal inference: The mixtape\u003c/em\u003e. Yale university press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEkiz G\u0026ouml;kmen, \u0026Ccedil;. (2022). A new perspective on women\u0026apos;s care burden and employment in Turkey. New Perspectives on Turkey, 66. https://doi.org/10.1017/npt.2021.21\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFinseraas, H., Hardoy, I., \u0026amp; Sch\u0026oslash;ne, P. (2017). School enrolment and mothers\u0026rsquo; labor supply: evidence from a regression discontinuity approach. \u003cem\u003eReview of Economics of the Household\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(2), 621-638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9350-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFitzpatrick, M. D. (2010). Preschoolers enrolled and mothers at work? The effects of universal prekindergarten. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Labor Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e28\u003c/em\u003e(1), 51-85. https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/648666\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFitzpatrick, M. D. (2012). Revising our thinking about the relationship between maternal labor supply and preschool. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Human Resources\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e(3), 583-612. https://jhr.uwpress.org/content/47/3/583\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGelbach, J. B. (1999). \u003cem\u003eHow large an effect do child care costs have on single mother\u0026apos;s labor supply?\u003c/em\u003e. University of Maryland, Department of Economics.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGelbach, J. B. (2002). Public schooling for young children and maternal labor supply. \u003cem\u003eAmerican Economic Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e92\u003c/em\u003e(1), 307-322. \u003cu\u003eDOI: 10.1257/000282802760015748\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGoux, D., \u0026amp; Maurin, E. (2010). Public school availability for two-year olds and mothers\u0026apos; labour supply. \u003cem\u003eLabour Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(6), 951-962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2010.04.012\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHardoy, I., \u0026amp; Sch\u0026oslash;ne, P. (2015). Enticing even higher female labor supply: the impact of cheaper day care. \u003cem\u003eReview of Economics of the Household\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e, 815-836. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-013-9215-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHavnes, T., \u0026amp; Mogstad, M. (2011). Money for nothing? Universal child care and maternal employment. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Public Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e95\u003c/em\u003e(11-12), 1455-1465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.05.016\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eILO. Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work. Geneva: ILO, 2018. Accessed December 24, 2023. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/\u0026mdash;dgreports/\u0026mdash;dcomm/\u0026mdash;publ/documents/publication/ wcms_633135.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eİlkkaracan, İpek, ed. Emek Piyasasında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliğine Doğru İş ve Aile Yaşamını Uzlaştırma Politikaları. İstanbul: Kadının İnsan Hakları Yeni Çözümler Derneği ve İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi BMT-KAUM, 2010. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eİlkkaracan, İ. (2012). Why so few women in the labor market in Turkey?. \u003cem\u003eFeminist Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2011.649358\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLundin, D., M\u0026ouml;rk, E., \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;ckert, B. (2008). How far can reduced childcare prices push female labour supply?. \u003cem\u003eLabour Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(4), 647-659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2008.04.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMunoz-Boudet, Ana M.; Aran M., \u003cem\u003eInvesting in women and the next generation: The case for expanding childcare in Turkey. \u003c/em\u003eWorld Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/investing-women-and-next-generation-case-expanding-childcare-turkey\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOECD Database. \u0026ldquo;Labour force participation rate\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eEmployment statistics\u003c/em\u003e, https://data.oecd.org\u003cu\u003e. \u003c/u\u003eAccessed 24 Dec. 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchlosser, A. (2005). Public preschool and the labor supply of Arab mothers: Evidence from a natural experiment. \u003cem\u003eManuscript, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTurkish Statistical Institute. (2023); Household Labour Force Surveys 2004-2019.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col start=\"3\"\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Net enrolment rate is obtained by dividing the number of students of a theoretical age group enrolled in a specific level of education by the population in that age group. Gross enrolment rate is obtained by dividing the total number of students in a specific level of education by the population in the theoretical age group.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eDescriptive statistics by control vs. treatment group before 2012 Education Reform \u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003e(\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003emarried mothers\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eControl\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(Mothers with 4 years olds)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eTreatment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(Mothers with 5 or 6 years olds)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eControl vs. Treatment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eIndependent variables\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eObs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eMean\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eStd. Dev.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eObs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eMean\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eStd. Dev.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eDifference\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s age\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e32.38\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5.76\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e34.14\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5.68\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-1.75***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLower high school\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.77\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.41\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.79\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.40\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.01***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHighschool\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.15\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.35\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.14\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.34\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.008***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eUpper high school\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.07\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.25\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.06\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.007***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePresence of children aged 7\u0026ndash;15\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.62\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.48\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.71\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.45\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.09***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e# of adults\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.38\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.85\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.47\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.91\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.087***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e# of children aged 0\u0026ndash;15\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.26\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.20\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.20\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.07\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.060***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePartner employment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,483\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.86\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.33\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e70,905\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.85\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.35\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.011***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eUnemployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e10.84\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e3.65\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e10.75\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e3.62\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.092***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eDependent variables\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.42\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.26\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.44\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.021***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.21\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.41\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.42\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.021***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force last\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.42\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.42\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.024***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment last\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.20\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.40\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.23\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.42\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.023***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePart time employment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e9,123\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.25\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.43\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e17,175\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.25\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.43\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHours worked\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e9,123\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e39.63\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e16.65\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e17,175\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e40.09\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e16.89\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.454**\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour supply_30\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41,700\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.15\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.35\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71,368\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.16\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.37\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.016***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Authors\u0026rsquo; calculation based on 2004-2012 Household Labour Force Surveys. Only 18-49 aged married mothers are included.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eDescriptive statistics by control vs. treatment group before 2012 Education Reform \u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003e(\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003esingle mothers\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eControl\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(Mothers with 4 years olds)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eTreatment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(Mothers with 5 or 6 years olds)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eControl vs. Treatment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eIndependent variables\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eObs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eMean\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eStd. Dev.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eObs.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eMean\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eStd. Dev.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Bold\"\u003eDifference\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s age\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e35.30\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5.75\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e36.39\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5.78\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-1.094***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLower high school\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.68\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.46\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.69\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.46\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.007\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHighschool\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.16\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.37\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.16\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.37\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eUpper high school\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.14\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.35\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.14\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.34\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.005\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePresence of children ages 7\u0026ndash;15\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.57\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.63\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.48\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.063***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e# of adults\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.54\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.88\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.57\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.95\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.025\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e# of children aged 0\u0026ndash;15\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.18\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.27\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.09\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.10\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.092**\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eUnemployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e10.87\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e3.84\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e10.84\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e4.13\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.030\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eDependent variables\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.50\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.50\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.48\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.017\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.42\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.40\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.017\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force last\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.45\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.46\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.011\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment last\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.40\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.40\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.49\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.004\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePart time employment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e415\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.22\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.41\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1,030\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.17\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.38\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.043*\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHours worked\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e415\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e41.06\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e17.43\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1,030\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e42.03\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e15.78\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.972\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour supply_30\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e974\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.40\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.46\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2,520\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.31\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.46\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.007\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Authors\u0026rsquo; calculation based on 2004-2012 Household Labour Force Surveys. Only 18-49 aged single mothers are included.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eOLS estimates for labour supply response of mothers with eligible children (5- or 6-year-olds) by marital status and educational level\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eFull\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eLow-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSemi-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSkilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eFull\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eLow-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSemi-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSkilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003ePanel A: Married mothers\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003ePanel B: Single mothers\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(2)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(3)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(4)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(5)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(6)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(7)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(8)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour supply\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0 .023***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.034***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.026***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.067***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.011\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.011)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabe\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.007\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.013)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.006\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.024)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabg\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.031\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.040)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHours worked\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.51***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.32)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabh\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.05***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.12)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabi\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.54***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.30)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabj\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-2.50***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.36)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabk\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.76*\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.43)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabl\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.61\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.55)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabm\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-1.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.93)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabn\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.82\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1.09)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePart-time employment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0 .029***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.001)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabo\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.035***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.001)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabp\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.0153***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabq\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.004)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabr\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.011\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.010)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabs\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.013\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.012)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabt\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.005\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.022)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabu\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.005\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.026)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.072***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabv\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.088***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabw\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.063***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabx\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.032***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.008)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Taby\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.010\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.013)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabz\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.012\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.015)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabaa\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.015\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.040)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabab\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.016\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.026)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.052***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabac\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.069***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabad\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.044***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabae\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.058***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.008)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabaf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabag\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.003)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.000)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabah\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.006\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force (previous)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.076***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabai\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.091***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabaj\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.073***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabak\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.033***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.008)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabal\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.044***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.016)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabam\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.052***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.019)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Taban\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.056\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.047)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabao\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.018\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.030)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment (previous)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.058***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabap\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.076***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.002)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabaq\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.047***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabar\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.059***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.008)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabas\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.015)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabat\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.047***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.018)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabau\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.155***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.047)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabav\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.077**\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.030)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eObs.\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e121,832\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e91,584\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e19,002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e11,246\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1,980\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1,344\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e339\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e297\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eNotes\u003c/span\u003e: OLS estimates are shown for each labour market variable. The sample used in each regression is shown in the top row which covers full sample, low-skilled mothers, semi-skilled mothers and skilled mothers, respectively. Panel A shows the estimates for the married mothers while Panel B demonstrates the estimates for the single mothers. Each regression is controlled for the number of children younger than 16, number of adults older than 15, presence of children between 7\u0026ndash;15, partner employment and regional unemployment rates (NUTS2 level). The regression with full samples is also controlled for mother\u0026rsquo;s education. Besides, 6 age categories have been added to each regression to control mothers\u0026rsquo; age. 18\u0026ndash;20 aged mothers are the baseline group. Age categories: 20\u0026ndash;25, 26\u0026ndash;30, 31\u0026ndash;35, 36\u0026ndash;40, 41\u0026ndash;45, 46\u0026ndash;49. Mothers are either the household head or the spouse of the household head. Only married mothers and 18\u0026ndash;49 years old and having youngest children 5- or 6-years old are included in the samples. Robust standard errors in parentheses: *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eDD estimates for labour supply response of \u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003emarried\u003c/span\u003e women with 5- and 6-year-olds (\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003econtrol group: 4-year-olds\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eFull\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eLow-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSemi-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSkilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eFull\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eLow-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSemi-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSkilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003ePanel A: Robust standard errors\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003ePanel B: Clustered standard errors\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(2)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(3)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(4)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(5)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(6)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(7)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(8)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour supply\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(Hours\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabaw\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.008\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabax\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.015**\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.007)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabay\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.013\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.018)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabaz\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.028)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.008\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.015\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.013\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.021)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.025)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHours worked\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbe\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.74**\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.34)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-1.08***\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.39)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbg\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.58\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.91)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbh\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.20\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1.08)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbi\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.74\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.55)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbj\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-1.08*\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.49)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbk\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.58\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1.10)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbl\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e1.20\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1.09)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePart time employment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbm\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.005)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbn\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.001\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbo\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.012\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbp\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.009\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.014)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbq\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.004)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbr\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.001\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.006)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbs\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.012*\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.005)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbt\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.009\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.013)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbu\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.010\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.008)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbv\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.013\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbw\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.021)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbx\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.023)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabby\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.010\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.012)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabbz\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.013\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.012)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabca\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.022)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.0146\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.024)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force (previous)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.003\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.007)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.003\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabce\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.006\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.020)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.006\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.024)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcg\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.003\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.015)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabch\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.003\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.017)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabci\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.006\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.025)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcj\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.006\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.021)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabck\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.009\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.007)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcl\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcm\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.019)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcn\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.025)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabco\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.009\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.011)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcp\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.011)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcq\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.020)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcr\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.023)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment (previous)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcs\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.007)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabct\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.009)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcu\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.019)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcv\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.025)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcw\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.013)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcx\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.002\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.016)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcy\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.000\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.022)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabcz\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.016)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eObs.\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e48,559\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e35,242\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e8,131\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5,186\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e48,559\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e35,242\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e8,131\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5,186\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eNotes\u003c/span\u003e: Differences-in-differences estimates are presented for each labour market variable. The top row indicates the sample used in each regression, encompassing the full sample of mothers, low-skilled mothers, semi-skilled mothers, and skilled mothers, respectively. In Panel A, estimates with robust standard errors are displayed. Panel B shows estimates with standard errors clustered by year and children\u0026rsquo;s age. Each regression controls for the number of children younger than 16, the number of adults older than 15, the presence of children between 7\u0026ndash;15, partner employment, and regional unemployment rates at the NUTS2 level. Regressions with full samples also control for mother\u0026rsquo;s education. Additionally, each regression includes 6 age categories to control for mothers\u0026rsquo; age, with 18\u0026ndash;20 aged mothers as the baseline group. The age categories are 20\u0026ndash;25, 26\u0026ndash;30, 31\u0026ndash;35, 36\u0026ndash;40, 41\u0026ndash;45, and 46\u0026ndash;49. The treatment group comprises mothers with 5-6-year-olds, and the control group consists of mothers with 4-year-olds as their youngest child. The years 2011\u0026ndash;2012 represent pre-treatment, while 2013\u0026ndash;2014 are post-treatment. Mothers are either the household head or the spouse of the household head. Only married mothers aged 18\u0026ndash;49 are included in the samples. Robust standard errors in parentheses: *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eDD estimates for labour supply response of \u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003esingle\u003c/span\u003e women with 5- and 6-year-olds (\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003econtrol group: 4 years olds\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eFull\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eLow-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSemi-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSkilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eFull\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eLow-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSemi-skilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003eSkilled\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003ePanel A: Robust standard errors\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"Italic\"\u003ePanel B: Clustered standard errors\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(1)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(2)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(3)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(4)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(5)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(6)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(7)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(8)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour supply\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(Hours\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabda\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.090\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.0670)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.067\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.077)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.134\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.222)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.204\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.170)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabde\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.090\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.058)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.067\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.052)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdg\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.134\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.137)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdh\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.204\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.162)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eHours worked\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdi\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e3.95\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(3.56)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdj\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e4.45\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(4.45)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdk\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5.78\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(11.37)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdl\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e4.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(6.13)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdm\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e3.95\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(2.81)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdn\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e4.45\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(2.56)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdo\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e5.78\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(7.77)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdp\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e4.24\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(5.38)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePart time employment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdq\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.028\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.048)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdr\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.0243\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.062)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabds\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.0975\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.102)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdt\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.0867\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.089)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdu\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.0280\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.047)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdv\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.0243\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.063)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdw\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.0975\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.061)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdx\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.0867\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.152)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdy\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.025\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.070)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabdz\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.092)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabea\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.068\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.199)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabeb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.042\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.103)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabec\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.025\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.036)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabed\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.014\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.059)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabee\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e-0.068\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.146)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabef\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.042\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.117)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eLabour force (previous)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabeg\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.032\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.070)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabeh\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.059\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.090)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabei\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.204)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabej\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.099\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.131)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabek\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.032\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.029)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabel\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.059\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.046)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabem\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.134)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Taben\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.099\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.122)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabeo\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.055\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.070)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabep\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.088)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabeq\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.192\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.217)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Taber\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.143\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.123)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabes\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.055\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.057)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabet\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.045\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.085)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabeu\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.192\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.127)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabev\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.143\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.112)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eEmployment (previous)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabew\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.080\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.070)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabex\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.085\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.086)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabey\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.243\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.214)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabez\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.089\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.148)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabfa\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.080*\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.041)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabfb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.085\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.053)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabfc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.243*\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.116)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tabfd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.089\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e(0.145)\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eObs.\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e906\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e612\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e150\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e144\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e906\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e612\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e150\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e144\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"BoldItalic\"\u003eNotes\u003c/span\u003e: Differences-in-differences estimates are presented for each labour market variable. The top row indicates the sample used in each regression, encompassing the full sample of mothers, low-skilled mothers, semi-skilled mothers, and skilled mothers, respectively. In Panel A, estimates with robust standard errors are displayed. Panel B shows estimates with standard errors clustered by year and children\u0026rsquo;s age. Each regression controls for the number of children younger than 16, the number of adults older than 15, the presence of children between 7\u0026ndash;15, partner employment, and regional unemployment rates at the NUTS2 level. Regressions with full samples also control for mother\u0026rsquo;s education. Additionally, each regression includes 6 age categories to control for mothers\u0026rsquo; age, with 18\u0026ndash;20 aged mothers as the baseline group. The age categories are 20\u0026ndash;25, 26\u0026ndash;30, 31\u0026ndash;35, 36\u0026ndash;40, 41\u0026ndash;45, and 46\u0026ndash;49. The treatment group comprises mothers with 5-6-year-olds, and the control group consists of mothers with 4-year-olds as their youngest child. The years 2011\u0026ndash;2012 represent pre-treatment, while 2013\u0026ndash;2014 are post-treatment. Mothers are either the household head or the spouse of the household head. Only single mothers aged 18\u0026ndash;49 are included in the samples. Robust standard errors in parentheses: *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Labour supply, childcare, motherhood penalty, differences in differences","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3882365/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3882365/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe 2012 Education Reform has significantly transformed the education system in Turkey in various ways. It extended compulsory schooling to 12 years, replacing a discrete structure across educational levels. As a part of this change, the primary school starting age has been adjusted, allowing up to 60-month-old children to be accepted in primary schools. Prior to this reform, the compulsory schooling starting age was seven years old, corresponding to 72-month-old children. By utilizing this exogenous variation in school starting age following the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey, we investigate the impact of childcare cost on maternal labour supply. The results reveal that the reform did not alter the labour supply behaviour of mothers, even after splitting them based on educational attainment or marital status. The findings for married mothers align with previous literature; however, for single mothers, our results, despite being positive in magnitude, are not statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJEL Codes: \u003c/strong\u003eI21, J22\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"School starting age and mothers’ labour supply: Causal evidence from the 2012 Education Reform in Turkey","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-24 18:55:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3882365/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"75888a01-0abc-4900-b8b2-58d590735672","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 24th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-01-31T21:44:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-24 18:55:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3882365","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3882365","identity":"rs-3882365","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}