Pathways to Water Stewardship in Mining Regions: Promoting Processes for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Gobi Desert

Pathways to Water Stewardship in Mining Regions: Promoting Processes for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Gobi Desert | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Pathways to Water Stewardship in Mining Regions: Promoting Processes for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Gobi Desert Bolormaa Purevjav, Bern Klein, Julian Dierkes, Nadja Kunz, André Xavier, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4842443/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 28 Feb, 2025 Read the published version in Discover Water → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The mining industry is an important sector that contributes to economic growth and employment creation in many developing countries, including in Mongolia. Water access, water quality, and community engagement in mining regions are among the major challenges faced by the Mongolian mining industry. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a holistic water management approach that applies principles of economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental sustainability to ensure water sustainability. A research study was carried out to understand stakeholders’ views and perspectives on IWRM and to identify water use practices, challenges, and barriers in the Gobi Desert mining region. The aim of the goal was to identify processes that help to improve access to water in the Gobi Desert region. This research applied a qualitative approach and employed three data collection methods: 1) semi-structured interviews; and 2) field observations and 3) documents and academic articles reviews. Research participants were representatives from mining companies, local communities, government, and river basin administrations. In the Gobi Desert region, processes contributing to improving water management are: 1) participatory water monitoring, 2) coal processing plant educational visits, 3) local stakeholders council’s meetings, 4) herder’s well improvement projects, 5) independent water auditing, and 6) water advocacy events. Mine water IWRM stakeholder engagement sustainability water use practices Figures Figure 1 Introduction With population growth and economic development, the demand for water increases dramatically (UN World Water Report, 2018 ). IWRM is a paradigm for addressing the broad economic, social, and environmental aspects of water and serves as a framework with applicability at the local level to tackle specific water-related issues (Global Water Partnership, 2000 ; Leendertse et al., 2009 ; Mitchell et al., 2015 ). The interactions of the mining industry with water resources are highly complex and site-specific, with potential impacts on both water access and quality occurring at all stages of a mine's life (Liphadzi & Vermaak, 2017 ; Masood et al., 2020 ; Punkkinen et al., 2016 ). Water access and quality issues are among the main causes of conflicts between mining companies and communities (Davis & Franks, 2011 ; Kemp & Owen, 2013 ; Soni & Wolkersdorfer, 2016 ). The industry employs a variety of water management strategies such as water conservation practices, treatment technologies, and enhanced monitoring to minimize the potential risks of adverse water impacts including pollution, scarcity, and water quality concerns (Hamilton, 2019 ; ICMM, 2012 ). Managing water resources requires considering various aspects such as water availability, quality, ecosystems, human needs, and potential risks. The Dublin principles (1992) state that the most appropriate geographical entity for the planning and management of water resources is the river basin, including surface and groundwater (Fan & Schaller, 2009 ; Uzbekov et al., 2021 ). The river basin approach requires stakeholders to collaborate, coordinate, and collectively manage water resources by facilitating equitable distribution, water allocation, conservation and sustainable use across different sectors (Capon et al., 2013 ; Hoekstra, 2014 ; Ibisch et al., 2016 ; Pathak et al., 2022 ; Wehn et al., 2018 ) and minimizing conflicts (Arjoon et al., 2016 ). Mining in Mongolia is often operated in remote locations where local communities are engaged in traditional nomadic pastoralism. Mongolian pastoralism, herders, and mining are interconnected aspects of Mongolia's economy and traditional way of life. Pastoralism, a traditional livelihood, has been a fundamental aspect of Mongolian cultural heritage and identity (Kakinuma et al., 2019 ; Upton, 2010 ). Water holds immense significance in Mongolian culture due to its essential role in the survival of the Mongolian people in the vast and arid landscapes of Mongolia (Seele et al., 2019 ). Numerous Mongolian songs pay respect to water, exemplifying the deep connection between Mongolians and this vital element. The “Usny Tungalag Tamiryn River” song expresses admiration for the river's pure water, praising its beauty and its vital role in sustaining life. Mongolian traditional long songs, called "urtiin duu," narrate stories of nomadic life and the profound connection with nature. These songs often depict herding animals near watering holes, crossing rivers, or emphasizing the importance of water for survival. Such narratives stress the significance of water in the daily lives and cultural heritage of the Mongolian people. Mongolia is rich in mineral resources, including coal, copper, gold, fluorspar, and rare earth elements (Dostal & Gerel, 2023 ; Gerel et al., 2021 ). As a consequence, the mining industry experienced significant growth and became an important economic sector in Mongolia (Dagys et al., 2020 ). The mining sector has brought both opportunities and challenges for Mongolia (Intergovernmental Forum (IGF), 2017 ). Opportunities include employment generation, infrastructure development and a source of government revenue through taxes, royalties, and licensing fees. However, mining activities have also raised concerns about environmental degradation, land use conflicts, and socio-economic impacts on local communities (Cane et al., 2015 ; McIntyre et al., 2016 ; Pecina et al., 2023 ). Mongolia faces significant challenges due to its limited water resources such as meeting the population’s expectations for reliable drinking water services, facilitating economic activities, and safeguarding the environment from the impacts of droughts, floods, and water pollution (ADB, 2020). Finding a balance between mining activities and preserving pastoralism is an ongoing challenge for Mongolia. In the Gobi Desert-steppe mining region water scarcity is one of the main issues that local herding communities face. Methods The study employed an interpretivist research philosophy to acknowledge and embrace the complexity of social dynamics, diverse perspectives, and subjective meanings associated with IWRM paradigm. It recognizes that stakeholders' views are shaped by their unique contexts and experiences and allows a nuanced understanding of the diverse perspectives, values, and interests held by stakeholders. Research problem: In the Gobi Desert-steppe mining region water access creates significant social and environmental issue. The primary aim of this research is to identify processes that can enhance access to water in the Gobi Desert mining region. Research questions were: What are current water use practices, challenges, and barriers? What facilitates improved water access in the Gobi Desert mining region? This research utilized semi-structured interviews, field observations, and a review of documents and academic articles to investigate the views and experiences of stakeholders regarding IWRM. The combination of these methods aimed to get a comprehensive understanding of stakeholders' perspectives, the existing water use practices in the Gobi Desert mining region, and the broader contextual factors influencing water management practices. Data collection spanned from February to September 2022 and field observations in August 2022. The study employed purposive sampling, selecting research participants who were representatives of the water stakeholders in the mining region within the specific river basin area. The research participants included representatives from four stakeholder groups: mining companies, local communities (including herders), local government officials and river basin administrations. The grounded theory method by K. Charmaz was used for data analysis. This method is in line with the interpretive paradigm and is suitable for exploring social processes and interactions. Interview transcripts were hand-coded to identify relevant information, common categories, and recurring themes. This analytical process enabled the extraction of nuanced data regarding barriers and challenges in effective water management while identifying processes to improve water use practices in mining regions. Field observations yielded insights into the on-the-ground realities of IWRM, complementing the information gathered through interviews. Furthermore, a thorough review of documents and academic literature was used as essential complementary sources of evidence. This step allowed for the triangulation of findings from interviews and field observations, enhancing the validity, depth, and robustness of the study. The research investigation was geographically focused on the Gobi Desert region. In this research a mining region is defined as an area where the extraction of minerals, including gold, copper, coal, silver, fluorspar, and other minerals, constitutes a significant economic activity. The river basin is regarded as an appropriate unit for water resources planning and management due to its distinctive geographic and hydrological features, which are interconnected and interdependent within a defined geographical area. Research context Climate Mongolia experiences a pronounced continental climate (An et al. 2008), marked by harsh, dry winters and limited precipitation, and regional variations dictated by latitude and altitude. Climatic conditions show seasonal changes, with over 250 cloudless days per year, and extreme temperatures ranging from freezing temperatures of minus 40 degrees Celsius (°C) in winter to hot temperatures of 35°C in summer. The average annual precipitation varies considerably along a north-south transect, ranging from nearly 500 mm to less than 100 mm. For example, the Gobi Desert receives 40–100 mm, and the mountainous area receives 350–500 mm of rainfall annually. 65–75% of this precipitation is concentrated in the summer (Caves et al., 2014; Meng et al., 2020). The Gobi Desert witnesses mean January and July temperatures of around − 15°C and + 21°C, respectively. Rainfall exhibits considerable variability, with mean annual precipitation rates recorded at 127 mm, throughout the winter months, the climate experiences low temperatures and aridity (Felauer et al., 2012 ). In the Gobi Desert limited precipitation and high evaporation rates pose challenges for water availability. Pastureland Mongolia's pasturelands, constituting a substantial portion of the nation's land area, have historically been state-owned but functioned as common resources managed effectively by diverse local entities. The changing landscape since de-collectivization has prompted herders to be increasingly concerned about safeguarding their use rights to pastures, given the erosion of tight land-use control exercised by local officials (Sneath, 2003 ). Reflecting a prolonged tradition of flexible access to extensive grazing lands regulated by local political authorities, Mongolian attitudes toward land emphasize the rejection of private ownership, a sentiment shared by pastoralists and much of the public (Sneath, 2012 ). A shift toward promoting customary land-tenure and management strategies has emerged in Mongolia since the late 1990s. The country has experimented with a delegated management model, wherein the state retains ownership of the land but entrusts management to local groups (Barcus Holy, 2017). Mongolia's pasturelands, covering nearly 83 percent of the total land area, play a pivotal role in supporting almost 30 percent of the population – herders (Upton 2009). As Mongolia undergoes rapid urbanization and societal changes, these extensive pasture landscapes embody a way of life deeply connected to the collective identity of modern Mongolia (Myadar 2009; Sneath 2010). Mining Operations in the Gobi Desert and Forest-Steppe Regions The Gobi Desert stands as a significant mining region, particularly in the extraction of coal, copper, and gold. Prominent among these ventures are the Nariin Sukhait, Ukhaa Khudag and Tavan Tolgoi coal mines, the Oyu Tolgoi (OT) copper mine and the Tsairt Minerals- zinc mine. The OT mine produced 359.4 million pounds of copper, 468,000 ounces of gold, and 977,000 ounces of silver in 2021. Projections suggest an average annual copper production of around 500,000 tons from both open pit and recently launched underground mines. Energy Resources LLC of MMC (Mongolian Mining Corporation) owns and operates an open-pit mining venture in the Tavan Tolgoi coal basin at the Ukhaa Khudag (UKh) deposit. Its reserves are estimated at 505.5 million tons, with a current production of 10 million tons and the potential to produce up to 15 million tons of coal annually (Sokolov et al., 2020). Mongolian Alt Company's Nariin Sukhait Mine, is situated near the Mongolia-China border in the Gurvantes soum in the Gobi Desert and emerges as another big player in the country's coal mining landscape. Its reserves are estimated at 587.5 million tons, with current production of 3.6 million tons and the potential to produce up to 14 million tons of coal annually (Sokolov et al., 2020). Tsairt Mineral LLC was established in 1998 through a partnership between Mongolian "Metal Impex" Co., Ltd and China's Non-ferrous Metal Industry’s Foreign Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd (NFC). The mines are situated 13 km north of Baruun-Urt, the center of Sukhbaatar province. Tsairt Mineral LLC boasts large zinc ore reserves, totalling 7.57 million tons, with an average grade of 13.6% zinc. Utilizing an open-pit method, Tsairt Mineral LLC mines and processes 300,000 tons/year of zinc ore, yielding 66,000 tons/year of zinc concentrate and 33,000 tons/year of refined zinc. Water stakeholders Water stakeholders within a given basin include individuals, companies that use water and government agencies that have the authority to regulate and manage water use within the basin. Research findings Water access and water use practices in the Gobi Desert mining region Water access and water use practices vary among different water users in the Gobi Desert mining region. Water regulations, climatic conditions and availability of water infrastructure shape water access and use practices. Mining companies Mining companies obtain water use permits for 10 years and more if the mine is a classified as a strategic deposit. These permits form the basis for annual water use contracts between mining companies and river basin administrations. Contracts are renewable yearly, depending on the company's performance to meet its obligations and timely payment for water usage. It was a standard practice among all participating companies to conduct groundwater exploration before commencing mining activities. This was done to obtain approval for mine water permits from the National Water Committee. Additionally, each company adheres to a mine water policy aimed at minimizing water consumption through strategies such as reuse and recycling. For instance, the OT company recycles mine water. As a result, water usage is reduced to around 450 m 3 per second compared to the approved mine limit of 918 m 3 per second. The Nariin Sukhait Coal mine collects rainwater and uses it for their mining operations by taking advantage of the mine site's geographical location and landscape conditions. Nariin Sukhait Coal Mine's adoption of rainwater for mining operations showcases an innovative approach to water management. Initially faced with local community resistance due to concerns about groundwater use, the company's decision to explore alternative water sources - rainwater not only addressed the community’s opposition to the mine but also yielded financial benefits to the company. Local communities and herders Local communities in the sub-provinces centres Tsogttsetsii, Khanbogd, Gurvantes and Dalanzadgad rely on water access from wells managed by the local government. In contrast, herders live with livestock outside of the town and use manual shallow wells for drinking and livestock watering. However, recent years have witnessed a decline in the functionality of many shallow wells, leaving them dry. To address this challenge, deep wells have been excavated to support livestock watering. However, even newly constructed deep wells are experiencing depletion, leading to concerns about the sustainability of groundwater usage for livestock husbandry in the near future. Furthermore, the lack of water in pastures leads to their transformation into barren land. Exacerbating the situation, this forces herders to remain near wells instead of moving to new grazing land. Local government The local government collects revenues from water use fees. In 2022, seven mining companies in the Gobi Desert region paid over 4 million USD for water use. Views and perspectives on IWRM Company’ views and perspectives on IWRM The mining companies interviewed perceive Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as a state policy, with the expectation that the government bears the responsibility for its implementation. The companies’ role is to follow the legal requirements such as using water within approved water reserves, prevent water overuse, and be aware of ecological balance. Although all participating companies viewed IWRM as a state duty, some companies also emphasized its essence in fostering the participation of all water stakeholders, acknowledging diverse perspectives, safeguarding herders' rights, and highlighting clear responsibilities for each involved party. These views are guided by corporate water and community engagement policies as well as government regulations. Herder views and perspectives on IWRM Local communities perceive water as both a precious and strategic resource, recognizing its fundamental role in sustaining human, animal, and plant life. Among herding communities specifically, water holds significance as a common asset, essential for communal well-being and thus must be accessible to all members. This perspective reflects a holistic worldview that acknowledges the interdependence between water availability and the broader ecosystem's health. Water is essential for human use, for sustaining the natural environment and its biodiversity. Local Government views and perspectives on IWRM Local government officials' perspectives on water management reflects a dual commitment: first, to ensure the provision of water for household consumption and livestock watering, and second, to promote local development. The current state of water management indicates that the Government has not met its obligation to provide water, as evidenced by the challenges faced by herders and their livestock in accessing water. Consequently, the implementation of IWRM is regarded as unsatisfactory. This situation illustrates a discrepancy between the mandate for water provision and the realities experienced by herders. The Galba-Uush Doloodyn Gobi River Basin (GUDGB) Administration views and perspectives on IWRM The GUDGB Administration see IWRM as a road map to ensure long term water sustainability in the basin by promoting water efficiency and conservation. Challenges for effective water management in the region Common challenges that were identified by stakeholders include: lack of information on available water reserves, dissemination of inaccurate information through social media, insufficient coordination among government agencies and inconsistent explanations of regulations, lack of funding for improving water access and water conservation. Challenges faced by mining companies Imprecise government regulations were identified as a major obstacle to the efficient utilization of water resources. The challenge stems from inconsistencies in the implementation of regulations across various government departments. For instance, the GUDGB Administration mandates that mining companies pay water fees based on actual water usage, whereas the provincial environmental department base fees on estimated assessments. The Water Authority's fees include seepage water charges. These discrepancies have resulted in instances where one mining company paid higher water fees despite actual usage was lower than estimated. The company’s water conservation efforts throughout the year did not lead to reduced fee payments and this fact might discourage further water saving efforts. Mining companies note that inconsistent and inaccurate regulation is a widespread issue, and it allows officials to interpret regulations subjectively. Another challenge that mining companies encounter is difficulties in obtaining environmental performance assessments from local government authorities for their annual environmental management plans; this is primarily due to the lack of effective coordination among officials. This coordination deficit leads to challenges in scheduling simultaneous visits to mine sites for assessment purposes. Additionally, mining companies are confronted with the dissemination of misleading and inaccurate information through social media platforms by politicians or other special interest groups, related to mine water usage practices. Challenges identified by herders and local officials Insufficient access to water for livestock was the most cited problem by herders and local officials. There is a tense relationship between the local community, government, and mining companies. This is due to a lack of transparency from mining companies and the absence of community support programs. Herders express stress and uncertainty attributed to the absence of information regarding the precise locations of groundwater sources in the area. All herders rely on wells for livestock watering, but they face several concerns: • Inadequate availability of wells within grazing areas High expenses associated with well drilling and new well construction. • Poor maintenance of shallow wells • Declining water levels in existing wells Inter-herder competition arising from water scarcity. Challenges faced by the GUDGB administration The lack of funding, human resources and authority are the main challenges faced by the GUDGB administration. According to GUDGB staff, inadequate funding presents a significant barrier to the effective functioning of the basin administration and the fulfilment of its mission. For example, there are incidents of groundwater overuse by the mining companies but limited financial resources restrict the frequency of field visits to mine sites, impeding the monitoring of mine water usage. Planned hydrological and hydrogeological studies, and other relevant research initiatives, are often delayed or altogether unrealized due to funding constraints. Moreover, the absence of financial support and lack of professional human resources constrain the capacity of GUDGB staff to assist herders in enhancing access to water for livestock and pasture irrigation. The GUDGB administration does not possess the legal authority to directly cease illegal water use activities. This responsibility lies with environmental inspectors who have the necessary legal mandate for enforcement. As a result, illegal water users exploit this regulatory gap, continuing their activities until environmental inspectors intervene to halt operations. The lack of authority to halt illegal water usage by mining operations was identified as a significant barrier to effective water management. Another significant barrier mentioned by GUDGB staff is the inability to obtain budget approval for GUDGB from the fees collected from mining companies for water usage. Despite the requirement under the Natural Resource Use Fee Law to allocate up to 35% of collected water fees to improve water resource conditions, the provincial Citizen’s Representative Khural does not approve the budget allocation for the GUDGB. Stakeholders’ engagement in water resources management Participatory water monitoring (PWM) with local communities was mentioned by two mining companies and local herders. PWM is a flagship activity that helps mining companies (OT LLC and the Energy Resources) to establish long-term relationships with the local community and build trust. For instance, the participatory water monitoring program continued for almost 20 years in Khanbogd sub-province, indicating its effectiveness and importance. Recently local herders in the Khanbogd sub-province formed Munkh Nogoon Galba, a non-governmental organization (NGO) to continue well water monitoring but also to expand activities toward broader environmental conservation, including pasture improvements and biodiversity monitoring. Reports of independent environmental audit conducted every 5 years at OT LLC, provided alternative perspectives to improve mine water management. The availability of reports publicly on website contributes to transparency, building community confidence and trust, and improving the mine water monitoring. The Triparty Committee in Khanbogd sub-province also supports the collaboration of stakeholders and trust building. The triparty committee consists of local herders, OT LLC and the local Khanbogd government and make decisions jointly informed by the needs of local herders and community. Mining companies provide funding, technical expertise for the committee's initiatives, which are implemented through the active participation of the local government, herders, and local community. For example, in 2019, the committee addressed herders' complaints by renovating old, damaged wells, with a total of 20 manual herder wells repaired annually; a total of 56 herders’ wells for livestock watering have been repaired since 2019, demonstrating the committee's ongoing commitment to improving water access for herders and livestock (TPC 2021 , n.d.) Community educational activities such as “Mine processing plant visit” and “Mine open day” events were mentioned by Energy Resource LLC in the Tsotgtsetsii sub-province as approaches to engage the local community. These activities resulted in an improved understanding and public awareness of mining and processing plants by local people. Table 4: Stakeholders engagement activities in water management Activities Ways of engagement Participatory water monitoring Herders measure water level in their wells and conduct the monitoring measurement on daily basis. The mining company and herders meet and verify wells’ monitoring results. Local NGO representing herders holds almost 20 years’ worth of water monitoring data. Mine processing plant visit The company organizes educational coal processing plant visits for local herders, community and youth. These educational visits improve understanding of mine processing operations. These visits organized for the last 10 years and contributed to building transparent community-mining relationships and trust. Independent auditing Contracted independent professional entities to do environmental auditing with an aim to get unbiased technical recommendations and perspectives on reducing and mitigating negative impacts. Khanbogd soum Triparty council TPC of Khanbogd soum was founded on June 8, 2015, includes equal representation from local administration, herders, and OT LLC. Operating under a jointly agreed Memorandum of Understanding, the TPC develops and enforces its regulations. (TPC) meetings It provides the opportunity to gather, and share information, address water and environmental concerns, allocate funds and make joint decisions. Herders’ well projects The company provided technical expertise, allocated funding for relevant cost and in collaboration with herders improved herders’ shallow wells, thus increased access to water for livestock. Water advocacy events Celebrating World Water and World Water Monitoring Days, increased stakeholders’ engagement in dialogues in responsible water resources management. Discussion It is evident from research findings that herders in the Gobi Desert mining regions are experiencing water access issues due to the impacts of climate change and development of mining activities. Participatory water monitoring, educational processing plant visits, independent environmental auditing, triparty committee meetings and water advocacy events are identified as processes that develop relationship between water stakeholders, support joint decision making and collaboration for effective water management in the region. The participatory water monitoring (PWM) program has empowered herders by providing them with data in real-time on water levels, enabling them to promptly respond to emerging issues. Over 80 herders are involved in water level measurements across 87 wells. This initiative not only gives them a voice in water management decisions but also equips them with skills and allows traditional knowledge to be incorporated into data interpretation, thereby promoting community ownership. Collaborative verification with mining companies ensures data accuracy and transparency. For instance, there is currently a discrepancy of 0.05–0.2 meters in water level measurements between the company and local herders. This process strengthens collective capacity to address water challenges and builds trust between companies and herders. Moreover, a local NGO, representing herders, possesses 20 years’ worth of monitoring data, facilitating trend tracking and supporting long-term water resource management and informed decision-making. Since 2019, repairs to 56 herder wells have improved livestock water access. Other studies have highlighted the role of PWM in improving relationships between industry and communities, fostering trust among water stakeholders (Mgoba & Kabote, 2020 ; Pareja et al., 2018 ; The International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2022 ). PWM achieves this by involving communities in the measurement of water levels, promoting transparency, and opening communication channels. The current research findings align with international studies on PWM, emphasizing its capacity to enhance collaboration and transparency among stakeholders. The processing plant visit to the Ukhaa Khudag coal mine, organized by Energy Resources for the local community, serves as an educational platform aimed at promoting awareness of mine water practices. During the visit, participants are guided through the plant's water treatment facilities and technologies, where the various stages of water treatment such as filtration, purification, and recycling are explained. Additionally, the company introduces the plant's water consumption patterns, emphasizing the imperative of water savings. The company employs a dry cooling technology and reduces water consumption by utilizing air cooling mechanisms, minimizing reliance on freshwater resources. Over the past decade, this educational visit has been a regular initiative, originally occurring monthly, then transitioning to quarterly visits, and most recently reduced to biannual occurrences. This reduction is primarily because most locals have already visited the plant several times and have become very familiar with its operations. These educational visits have played a pivotal role in developing relationships and facilitating the successful implementation of local development programs by the company. Furthermore, during times of water scarcity, the company has assisted herders by providing access to one of its wells. Overall, the processing plant visit effectively disseminates knowledge, contributing to community awareness and engagement in water resource conservation and management. Many research studies in the field of sustainable water management emphasize stakeholder engagement as a prerequisite or key element for achieving sustainability. The findings of this research align with those of other studies in the field. Independent environmental audits identified gaps and shortcomings in mine water management practices. For instance, the audit identified a seepage from tailings storage facility (TSF) Cell #1. To address this issue the company installed a seepage collection system under TSF Cell #2 and created a deep clay trench around it as per the audit recommendations. The OT mine built a new seepage pond away from existing structures and dug trenches to redirect drainage. The OT mine also improved the (Dugt/Khaliv) surface water diversion. The most recent audit report suggests installing permanent or semi-permanent groundwater monitoring wells downstream of mine licensed area (MLA) to track the extent of seepage migration offsite. By providing objective assessments and insights, these audits contribute to enhancing water stewardship. Local communities and the government perceive independent audits as credible sources of information, thereby enhancing trust and improving sustainability practices. Moreover, independent audits promote transparency and accountability by providing communities with access to objective assessments of mine water management practices, fostering trust in the mining companies' commitment to environmental stewardship. Other research emphasised the essential role of environmental auditing across all production companies. The research highlights the need for regular audits, particularly for those whose production processes have direct environmental implications. The insights from environmental audits assist management to mitigate adverse environmental impacts through improved designs, products, or processes and fosters innovation and leadership in environmental stewardship (Sharma & Subodh, 2020 ). Water advocacy events during World Water Day on 22 March provided platforms for local stakeholders to engage in discussions and dialogues on water-related issues, fostering active participation and knowledge sharing. The celebration of World Water Day has transformed from a traditional 1–2-day event into an extended period lasting 2–3 months. During this time, schools have become increasingly involved, playing an active role in water advocacy initiatives. Children enthusiastically participate in essay and drawing competitions, bringing fresh ideas and enthusiasm for water stewardship. Furthermore, organizations involved in the water advocacy day witness increased engagement and participation, reflecting a growing commitment to addressing water challenges. These findings align with the research in the field. Through open dialogue, stakeholders develop a common understanding, and commitment to collective action towards sustainable water management. By incorporating a broader spectrum of perspectives on needs, impacts, and options, these dialogues significantly enhance the effectiveness of sustainable water management initiatives (Huntjens et al., 2017 ). Research studies highlight the crucial role of dialogues in informing and shaping formal negotiation and decision-making processes. Khanbogd Triparty Stakeholders’ Council: The establishment of a local triparty stakeholders’ committee promotes joint decision-making and collaboration among diverse stakeholders. Through shared responsibilities, stakeholders cultivate mutual trust and strengthen relationships, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of water management. For instance, joint decisions to improve herders hand wells and pasture water supply (TPC 2021 , n.d.). As of 2019, 56 herders’ hand wells were repaired, and 12 exploration boreholes were handed over to the local government to support pasture water supply. Furthermore, a study on a triparty process illustrate that the triparty process is critical to negotiate different agreements and was described as a key element for inclusive development (Söderholm & Svahn, 2015 ). The current research findings regarding TPC are consistent with those of other studies. The triparty process implies that communities, companies and governments come together to discuss responsibilities, costs and benefits (Söderholm & Svahn, 2015 ). The 'Herder’s Well Improvement' project serves as an example of successful collaboration between the OT mine and local herders to address deficiencies of a well for livestock watering. With the technical expertise from the company, in 2021, nineteen herders’ wells in Khanbogd soum were repaired resulting in improved water access for the herders. This initiative highlights the importance of collaborative approaches in achieving sustainable water management and effectiveness of dialogue and negotiation in balancing economic interests with water resource conservation. Both the company and the herders acknowledge the project's role in promoting a balanced approach to water resource management. In summary, these processes not only facilitate improved access to water, but also address the immediate challenges posed by water scarcity and foster long-term collaboration towards water sustainability. Conclusions The water access and use practices in the Gobi Desert mining region are influenced by various factors, including water regulations, climatic conditions, and the availability of water infrastructure. Mining companies invest in groundwater exploration to secure mine water and implement water reuse and recycling measures to reduce consumption. Innovative practices, such as rainwater collection for the mine water supply , showcase the potential of alternative water sources to address community concerns and support sustainable mining operations. However, challenges persist for local herders, particularly regarding access to reliable water sources for livestock and pasture watering. The declining functionality of shallow wells and the depletion of groundwater resources pose significant threats to livestock husbandry and herders' livelihoods. The provincial government generates substantial revenue through water use fees collected from mining companies. However, the revenues generated from water use fees are not directed towards river basin administration to enhance water infrastructure, such as improving conditions of water wells or expanding groundwater sources for better water management in the region. Consequently, the GUDGB administration finds it infeasible to maintain herders' wells or identify suitable locations for new water wells to support herders and their livestock. Effective water management in the region faces multifaceted challenges. Mining companies encounter imprecise government regulations and inconsistencies in fee calculations, which discourage water conservation efforts. Herders and local officials struggle with insufficient access to water for livestock, leading to tension and competition among herders. The administration of the Gobi Desert mining region faces funding shortages, staffing constraints, and limited authority, hindering its ability to monitor and regulate water usage effectively. Legal and financial barriers further impede the administration's capacity to address illegal water use by mining operations and allocate resources for water resource improvement initiatives. Engagement processes such as participatory water monitoring programs, independent environmental audits, and mine processing plant visits and collaborative platforms like the Triparty Committee in Khanbogd sub-province, contribute to enhancing the understanding of mining operations and fostering dialogue between mining companies and communities. These efforts facilitate positive relationships and contribute to transparency and improved sustainable water practices in the Gobi Desert mining region. Recommendations As findings of the study demonstrate, the Gobi Desert mining region faces serious challenges in water access, exacerbated by climate change and mining activities. To address these challenges and safeguard water access for herders and livestock, the following recommendations and solutions are proposed. Proposed Recommendations: Conduct hydrological and hydrogeological studies to understand water availability, quality, and recharge rates and map the locations of ground water reserves. Assess the impacts of climate change and mining activities on water resources. Proposed Solutions: Develop policies that prioritize water access for herders and livestock, informed by scientific evidence. Communicate policies effectively to stakeholders through accessible and transparent channels. Establish mechanism for collecting, analysing, and disseminating reliable and up-to-date information on water resources. Implement nature-based solutions such as rainwater harvesting and natural water storage. Facilitate water planning sessions involving stakeholders. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to research participants who generously shared their experiences and knowledge. Thanks must go to anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments. The study was funded by the MITACS, SEF Canada “Application of five capitals framework to the mineral resources sector in Mongolia to support sustainable development”. Funding This research was supported through the Mitacs accelerate program (IT14843), which was co-founded by SEF Canada. Compliance with Ethical Standards The protocol was approved by the Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB) of the Office of Research Ethics at the University of British Columbia, in accordance with the Guidance Notice on Behavioural Applications and BREB Guidance Notice . Informed consent Research information was provided to all potential research participants before their involvement in the study. Their involvement was entirely voluntary, and participants gave consent by agreeing to participate in the interview. Participants were fully informed about the nature of the research, including their right to withdraw from the interview at any time without any consequences. Conflict of Interest The authors have no competing interests to declare relevant to this article's content. Consent to Publish The authors are informed and agree to publish. Authors contributions Bolormaa Purevjav and Bern Klein conceptualized the research aim and objectives. Bern Klein provided supervision. Bolormaa drafted the original manuscript. Julian Dierkes and Nadja Kunz contributed to the research methodology and data analysis. André Xavier and Suzette McFall reviewed the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript. Availability of data and materials Data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. 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R., Shrestha Pradhan, N., Guragai, S., Baksi, B., Azizi, F., & Shrestha, A. B. (2022). Complexities and Opportunities of Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships: A Case Study of Water Resource Management in Afghanistan. Sustainability (Switzerland) , 14 (23). https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315496 Pecina, V., Juřička, D., Hedbávný, J., Klimánek, M., Kynický, J., Brtnický, M., & Komendová, R. (2023). The impacts of mining on soil pollution with metal(loid)s in resource-rich Mongolia. Scientific Reports , 13 (1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29370-w Punkkinen, H., Räsänen, L., Mroueh, U.-M., Korkealaakso, J., Luoma, S., Kaipainen, T., Backnäs, S., Turunen, K., Hentinen, K., Pasanen, A., Kauppi, S., Vehviläinen, B., Krogerus, K., Backn, S., Turunen, K., Hentinen, K., Pasanen, A., Kauppi, S., Vehvil, B., & Krogerus, K. (2016). Guidelines for mine water management. In VTT Technology . http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-38-8443-7 Seele, B. C., Esler, K. J., & Cunningham, A. B. (2019). Biocultural diversity: A mongolian case study. Ecology and Society , 24 (4). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11207-240427 Sharma, D. K., & Subodh, S. . J. (2020). An Effective Implementation of Environmental Audit (A Case Study of Hindustan Copper Ltd.). Test Engineering and Management , 83 (April), 5370–5379. The Mattingley Publishing Co., Inc. Sneath, D. (2003). Land use, the environment and development in post-socialist Mongolia. Oxford Development Studies , 31 (4), 441–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360081032000146627 Sneath, D. (2012). The “age of the market” and the regime of debt: The role of credit in the transformation of pastoral Mongolia. Social Anthropology , 20 (4), 458–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8676.2012.00223.x Söderholm, P., & Svahn, N. (2015). Mining , regional development and bene fi t-sharing in. Resources Policy , 45 , 78–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.03.003 Soni, A. K., & Wolkersdorfer, C. (2016). Mine water: policy perspective for improving water management in the mining environment with respect to developing economies. International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment , 30 (2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/17480930.2015.1011372 The International Institute for Sustainable Development. (2022). Surface Water Monitoring for the Mining Sector - Frameworks for governments. In The International Institute for Sustainable Development . https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2022-02/water-monitoring-mining-sector-framework.pdf TPC 2021. (n.d.). Triparty Committee Activity report 2021 . http://tpc.mn/category/report/ UN World Water Report. (2018). Nature-based solutions for water . https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261424 Upton, C. (2010). Nomadism, identity and the politics of conservation. Central Asian Survey , 29 (3), 305–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634937.2010.518010 Uzbekov, U., Pulatov, B., Alikhanov, B., & Pulatov, A. (2021). Predicting the impact of future climate change on streamflow in the Ugam River watershed. GeoScape , 15 (2), 159–172. https://doi.org/10.2478/geosc-2021-0013 Wehn, U., Collins, K., Anema, K., Basco-Carrera, L., & Lerebours, A. (2018). Stakeholder engagement in water governance as social learning: lessons from practice. Water International , 43 (1), 34–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2018.1403083 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4842443","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":348785927,"identity":"11412f2f-0a0d-493d-a7dc-d533d5d77239","order_by":0,"name":"Bolormaa Purevjav","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwbmBmQ+GwMDewMbAS2M6Fp4DpCmBQgkEvBrMWdvbHxcmWMnzyDdY/bhYxufvMHNN2YPfjAARXAAy56DzYZntyUbNsicMZ45s43NcMPtHHPDHgagCC6H3Uhsk2zcxszYIJFjzMxzho1x5uwcM2kGhgMYDkbTUm8P1vLnDJv9zJlnwFrsCWg5nAjWwlDBltgvwQPWkohLC9gvjduOJ7fJHCtm7KlgS+7nSSs37DFITsalxZy9+eDDxm3Vtv3SzZsZfhgcs21jP7ztwY8KO1tcWuCATQJMHYM5mJB6EIBoqSFG6SgYBaNgFIwwAAA3DFK1OEHF7QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"UBC. 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Vancouver Campus","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"André","middleName":"","lastName":"Xavier","suffix":""},{"id":348785932,"identity":"16b8954c-56ca-4dbb-aba6-2d2c1cb38975","order_by":5,"name":"Suzette McFaul","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suzette","middleName":"","lastName":"McFaul","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-01 13:17:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4842443/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4842443/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00204-2","type":"published","date":"2025-02-28T15:57:24+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":66118004,"identity":"b63edf3a-2ce7-4efd-a2cd-f453a66f1805","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-08 00:57:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":593954,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProcesses that facilitate improved access to water\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4842443/v1/f9f48ed47dcc84e2e3d3ba2d.jpg"},{"id":77622683,"identity":"fc0c8d0e-bc0a-4d6a-b9d4-ed7c7af4551c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-03 16:09:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1582752,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4842443/v1/20ff061d-4b87-41b2-b8c3-3d6b1244ba0b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Pathways to Water Stewardship in Mining Regions: Promoting Processes for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Gobi Desert","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWith population growth and economic development, the demand for water increases dramatically (UN World Water Report, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). IWRM is a paradigm for addressing the broad economic, social, and environmental aspects of water and serves as a framework with applicability at the local level to tackle specific water-related issues (Global Water Partnership, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Leendertse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Mitchell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interactions of the mining industry with water resources are highly complex and site-specific, with potential impacts on both water access and quality occurring at all stages of a mine's life (Liphadzi \u0026amp; Vermaak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Masood et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Punkkinen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Water access and quality issues are among the main causes of conflicts between mining companies and communities (Davis \u0026amp; Franks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Kemp \u0026amp; Owen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Soni \u0026amp; Wolkersdorfer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The industry employs a variety of water management strategies such as water conservation practices, treatment technologies, and enhanced monitoring to minimize the potential risks of adverse water impacts including pollution, scarcity, and water quality concerns (Hamilton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; ICMM, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManaging water resources requires considering various aspects such as water availability, quality, ecosystems, human needs, and potential risks. The Dublin principles (1992) state that the most appropriate geographical entity for the planning and management of water resources is the river basin, including surface and groundwater (Fan \u0026amp; Schaller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Uzbekov et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The river basin approach requires stakeholders to collaborate, coordinate, and collectively manage water resources by facilitating equitable distribution, water allocation, conservation and sustainable use across different sectors (Capon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hoekstra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ibisch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Pathak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Wehn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and minimizing conflicts (Arjoon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMining in Mongolia is often operated in remote locations where local communities are engaged in traditional nomadic pastoralism. Mongolian pastoralism, herders, and mining are interconnected aspects of Mongolia's economy and traditional way of life. Pastoralism, a traditional livelihood, has been a fundamental aspect of Mongolian cultural heritage and identity (Kakinuma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Upton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Water holds immense significance in Mongolian culture due to its essential role in the survival of the Mongolian people in the vast and arid landscapes of Mongolia (Seele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous Mongolian songs pay respect to water, exemplifying the deep connection between Mongolians and this vital element. The \u0026ldquo;Usny Tungalag Tamiryn River\u0026rdquo; song expresses admiration for the river's pure water, praising its beauty and its vital role in sustaining life. Mongolian traditional long songs, called \"urtiin duu,\" narrate stories of nomadic life and the profound connection with nature. These songs often depict herding animals near watering holes, crossing rivers, or emphasizing the importance of water for survival. Such narratives stress the significance of water in the daily lives and cultural heritage of the Mongolian people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMongolia is rich in mineral resources, including coal, copper, gold, fluorspar, and rare earth elements (Dostal \u0026amp; Gerel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Gerel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As a consequence, the mining industry experienced significant growth and became an important economic sector in Mongolia (Dagys et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The mining sector has brought both opportunities and challenges for Mongolia (Intergovernmental Forum (IGF), \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Opportunities include employment generation, infrastructure development and a source of government revenue through taxes, royalties, and licensing fees. However, mining activities have also raised concerns about environmental degradation, land use conflicts, and socio-economic impacts on local communities (Cane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; McIntyre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Pecina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Mongolia faces significant challenges due to its limited water resources such as meeting the population\u0026rsquo;s expectations for reliable drinking water services, facilitating economic activities, and safeguarding the environment from the impacts of droughts, floods, and water pollution (ADB, 2020). Finding a balance between mining activities and preserving pastoralism is an ongoing challenge for Mongolia. In the Gobi Desert-steppe mining region water scarcity is one of the main issues that local herding communities face.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study employed an interpretivist research philosophy to acknowledge and embrace the complexity of social dynamics, diverse perspectives, and subjective meanings associated with IWRM paradigm. It recognizes that stakeholders' views are shaped by their unique contexts and experiences and allows a nuanced understanding of the diverse perspectives, values, and interests held by stakeholders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch problem: In the Gobi Desert-steppe mining region water access creates significant social and environmental issue. The primary aim of this research is to identify processes that can enhance access to water in the Gobi Desert mining region. Research questions were:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are current water use practices, challenges, and barriers?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat facilitates improved water access in the Gobi Desert mining region?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research utilized semi-structured interviews, field observations, and a review of documents and academic articles to investigate the views and experiences of stakeholders regarding IWRM. The combination of these methods aimed to get a comprehensive understanding of stakeholders' perspectives, the existing water use practices in the Gobi Desert mining region, and the broader contextual factors influencing water management practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection spanned from February to September 2022 and field observations in August 2022. The study employed purposive sampling, selecting research participants who were representatives of the water stakeholders in the mining region within the specific river basin area. The research participants included representatives from four stakeholder groups: mining companies, local communities (including herders), local government officials and river basin administrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe grounded theory method by K. Charmaz was used for data analysis. This method is in line with the interpretive paradigm and is suitable for exploring social processes and interactions. Interview transcripts were hand-coded to identify relevant information, common categories, and recurring themes. This analytical process enabled the extraction of nuanced data regarding barriers and challenges in effective water management while identifying processes to improve water use practices in mining regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eField observations yielded insights into the on-the-ground realities of IWRM, complementing the information gathered through interviews. Furthermore, a thorough review of documents and academic literature was used as essential complementary sources of evidence. This step allowed for the triangulation of findings from interviews and field observations, enhancing the validity, depth, and robustness of the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research investigation was geographically focused on the Gobi Desert region. In this research a mining region is defined as an area where the extraction of minerals, including gold, copper, coal, silver, fluorspar, and other minerals, constitutes a significant economic activity. The river basin is regarded as an appropriate unit for water resources planning and management due to its distinctive geographic and hydrological features, which are interconnected and interdependent within a defined geographical area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch context\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClimate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMongolia experiences a pronounced continental climate (An et al. 2008), marked by harsh, dry winters and limited precipitation, and regional variations dictated by latitude and altitude. Climatic conditions show seasonal changes, with over 250 cloudless days per year, and extreme temperatures ranging from freezing temperatures of minus 40 degrees Celsius (\u0026deg;C) in winter to hot temperatures of 35\u0026deg;C in summer. The average annual precipitation varies considerably along a north-south transect, ranging from nearly 500 mm to less than 100 mm. For example, the Gobi Desert receives 40\u0026ndash;100 mm, and the mountainous area receives 350\u0026ndash;500 mm of rainfall annually. 65\u0026ndash;75% of this precipitation is concentrated in the summer (Caves et al., 2014; Meng et al., 2020). The Gobi Desert witnesses mean January and July temperatures of around \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;15\u0026deg;C and +\u0026thinsp;21\u0026deg;C, respectively. Rainfall exhibits considerable variability, with mean annual precipitation rates recorded at 127 mm, throughout the winter months, the climate experiences low temperatures and aridity (Felauer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In the Gobi Desert limited precipitation and high evaporation rates pose challenges for water availability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePastureland\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMongolia's pasturelands, constituting a substantial portion of the nation's land area, have historically been state-owned but functioned as common resources managed effectively by diverse local entities. The changing landscape since de-collectivization has prompted herders to be increasingly concerned about safeguarding their use rights to pastures, given the erosion of tight land-use control exercised by local officials (Sneath, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Reflecting a prolonged tradition of flexible access to extensive grazing lands regulated by local political authorities, Mongolian attitudes toward land emphasize the rejection of private ownership, a sentiment shared by pastoralists and much of the public (Sneath, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA shift toward promoting customary land-tenure and management strategies has emerged in Mongolia since the late 1990s. The country has experimented with a delegated management model, wherein the state retains ownership of the land but entrusts management to local groups (Barcus Holy, 2017). Mongolia's pasturelands, covering nearly 83 percent of the total land area, play a pivotal role in supporting almost 30 percent of the population \u0026ndash; herders (Upton 2009). As Mongolia undergoes rapid urbanization and societal changes, these extensive pasture landscapes embody a way of life deeply connected to the collective identity of modern Mongolia (Myadar 2009; Sneath 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMining Operations in the Gobi Desert and Forest-Steppe Regions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Gobi Desert stands as a significant mining region, particularly in the extraction of coal, copper, and gold. Prominent among these ventures are the Nariin Sukhait, Ukhaa Khudag and Tavan Tolgoi coal mines, the Oyu Tolgoi (OT) copper mine and the Tsairt Minerals- zinc mine.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe OT mine produced 359.4\u0026nbsp;million pounds of copper, 468,000 ounces of gold, and 977,000 ounces of silver in 2021. Projections suggest an average annual copper production of around 500,000 tons from both open pit and recently launched underground mines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy Resources LLC of MMC (Mongolian Mining Corporation) owns and operates an open-pit mining venture in the Tavan Tolgoi coal basin at the Ukhaa Khudag (UKh) deposit. Its reserves are estimated at 505.5\u0026nbsp;million tons, with a current production of 10\u0026nbsp;million tons and the potential to produce up to 15\u0026nbsp;million tons of coal annually (Sokolov et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMongolian Alt Company's Nariin Sukhait Mine, is situated near the Mongolia-China border in the Gurvantes soum in the Gobi Desert and emerges as another big player in the country's coal mining landscape. Its reserves are estimated at 587.5\u0026nbsp;million tons, with current production of 3.6\u0026nbsp;million tons and the potential to produce up to 14\u0026nbsp;million tons of coal annually (Sokolov et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTsairt Mineral LLC was established in 1998 through a partnership between Mongolian \"Metal Impex\" Co., Ltd and China's Non-ferrous Metal Industry\u0026rsquo;s Foreign Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd (NFC). The mines are situated 13 km north of Baruun-Urt, the center of Sukhbaatar province. Tsairt Mineral LLC boasts large zinc ore reserves, totalling 7.57\u0026nbsp;million tons, with an average grade of 13.6% zinc. Utilizing an open-pit method, Tsairt Mineral LLC mines and processes 300,000 tons/year of zinc ore, yielding 66,000 tons/year of zinc concentrate and 33,000 tons/year of refined zinc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWater stakeholders\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater stakeholders within a given basin include individuals, companies that use water and government agencies that have the authority to regulate and manage water use within the basin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Research findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eWater access and water use practices in the Gobi Desert mining region\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater access and water use practices vary among different water users in the Gobi Desert mining region. Water regulations, climatic conditions and availability of water infrastructure shape water access and use practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMining companies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMining companies obtain water use permits for 10 years and more if the mine is a classified as a strategic deposit. These permits form the basis for annual water use contracts between mining companies and river basin administrations. Contracts are renewable yearly, depending on the company\u0026apos;s performance to meet its obligations and timely payment for water usage. It was a standard practice among all participating companies to conduct groundwater exploration before commencing mining activities. This was done to obtain approval for mine water permits from the National Water Committee. Additionally, each company adheres to a mine water policy aimed at minimizing water consumption through strategies such as reuse and recycling. For instance, the OT company recycles mine water. As a result, water usage is reduced to around 450 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e per second compared to the approved mine limit of 918 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e per second.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Nariin Sukhait Coal mine collects rainwater and uses it for their mining operations by taking advantage of the mine site\u0026apos;s geographical location and landscape conditions. Nariin Sukhait Coal Mine\u0026apos;s adoption of rainwater for mining operations showcases an innovative approach to water management. Initially faced with local community resistance due to concerns about groundwater use, the company\u0026apos;s decision to explore alternative water sources - rainwater not only addressed the community\u0026rsquo;s opposition to the mine but also yielded financial benefits to the company.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocal communities and herders\u003c/strong\u003e Local communities in the sub-provinces centres Tsogttsetsii, Khanbogd, Gurvantes and Dalanzadgad rely on water access from wells managed by the local government. In contrast, herders live with livestock outside of the town and use manual shallow wells for drinking and livestock watering. However, recent years have witnessed a decline in the functionality of many shallow wells, leaving them dry. To address this challenge, deep wells have been excavated to support livestock watering. However, even newly constructed deep wells are experiencing depletion, leading to concerns about the sustainability of groundwater usage for livestock husbandry in the near future. Furthermore, the lack of water in pastures leads to their transformation into barren land. Exacerbating the situation, this forces herders to remain near wells instead of moving to new grazing land.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLocal government\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe local government collects revenues from water use fees. In 2022, seven mining companies in the Gobi Desert region paid over 4 million USD for water use.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/122228_c8a1650c59388082/122228_custom_files/img1725647164.png\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eViews and perspectives on IWRM\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCompany\u0026rsquo; views and perspectives on IWRM\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe mining companies interviewed perceive Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as a state policy, with the expectation that the government bears the responsibility for its implementation. The companies\u0026rsquo; role is to follow the legal requirements such as using water within approved water reserves, prevent water overuse, and be aware of ecological balance. Although all participating companies viewed IWRM as a state duty, some companies also emphasized its essence in fostering the participation of all water stakeholders, acknowledging diverse perspectives, safeguarding herders\u0026apos; rights, and highlighting clear responsibilities for each involved party. These views are guided by corporate water and community engagement policies as well as government regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eHerder views and perspectives on IWRM\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal communities perceive water as both a precious and strategic resource, recognizing its fundamental role in sustaining human, animal, and plant life. Among herding communities specifically, water holds significance as a common asset, essential for communal well-being and thus must be accessible to all members. This perspective reflects a holistic worldview that acknowledges the interdependence between water availability and the broader ecosystem\u0026apos;s health. Water is essential for human use, for sustaining the natural environment and its biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLocal Government views and perspectives on IWRM\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal government officials\u0026apos; perspectives on water management reflects a dual commitment: first, to ensure the provision of water for household consumption and livestock watering, and second, to promote local development. The current state of water management indicates that the Government has not met its obligation to provide water, as evidenced by the challenges faced by herders and their livestock in accessing water. Consequently, the implementation of IWRM is regarded as unsatisfactory. This situation illustrates a discrepancy between the mandate for water provision and the realities experienced by herders.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eThe Galba-Uush Doloodyn Gobi River Basin (GUDGB) Administration views and perspectives on IWRM\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe GUDGB Administration see IWRM as a road map to ensure long term water sustainability in the basin by promoting water efficiency and conservation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eChallenges for effective water management in the region\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon challenges that were identified by stakeholders include: lack of information on available water reserves, dissemination of inaccurate information through social media, insufficient coordination among government agencies and inconsistent explanations of regulations, lack of funding for improving water access and water conservation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChallenges faced by mining companies\u003c/strong\u003e Imprecise government regulations were identified as a major obstacle to the efficient utilization of water resources. The challenge stems from inconsistencies in the implementation of regulations across various government departments. For instance, the GUDGB Administration mandates that mining companies pay water fees based on actual water usage, whereas the provincial environmental department base fees on estimated assessments. The Water Authority\u0026apos;s fees include seepage water charges. These discrepancies have resulted in instances where one mining company paid higher water fees despite actual usage was lower than estimated. The company\u0026rsquo;s water conservation efforts throughout the year did not lead to reduced fee payments and this fact might discourage further water saving efforts. Mining companies note that inconsistent and inaccurate regulation is a widespread issue, and it allows officials to interpret regulations subjectively. Another challenge that mining companies encounter is difficulties in obtaining environmental performance assessments from local government authorities for their annual environmental management plans; this is primarily due to the lack of effective coordination among officials. This coordination deficit leads to challenges in scheduling simultaneous visits to mine sites for assessment purposes. Additionally, mining companies are confronted with the dissemination of misleading and inaccurate information through social media platforms by politicians or other special interest groups, related to mine water usage practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChallenges identified by herders and local officials\u003c/strong\u003e Insufficient access to water for livestock was the most cited problem by herders and local officials. There is a tense relationship between the local community, government, and mining companies. This is due to a lack of transparency from mining companies and the absence of community support programs. Herders express stress and uncertainty attributed to the absence of information regarding the precise locations of groundwater sources in the area. All herders rely on wells for livestock watering, but they face several concerns:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u0026bull; Inadequate availability of wells within grazing areas\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh expenses associated with well drilling and new well construction.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u0026bull; Poor maintenance of shallow wells\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u0026bull; Declining water levels in existing wells\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInter-herder competition arising from water scarcity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChallenges faced by the GUDGB administration\u003c/strong\u003e The lack of funding, human resources and authority are the main challenges faced by the GUDGB administration. According to GUDGB staff, inadequate funding presents a significant barrier to the effective functioning of the basin administration and the fulfilment of its mission. For example, there are incidents of groundwater overuse by the mining companies but limited financial resources restrict the frequency of field visits to mine sites, impeding the monitoring of mine water usage. Planned hydrological and hydrogeological studies, and other relevant research initiatives, are often delayed or altogether unrealized due to funding constraints. Moreover, the absence of financial support and lack of professional human resources constrain the capacity of GUDGB staff to assist herders in enhancing access to water for livestock and pasture irrigation. The GUDGB administration does not possess the legal authority to directly cease illegal water use activities. This responsibility lies with environmental inspectors who have the necessary legal mandate for enforcement. As a result, illegal water users exploit this regulatory gap, continuing their activities until environmental inspectors intervene to halt operations. The lack of authority to halt illegal water usage by mining operations was identified as a significant barrier to effective water management. Another significant barrier mentioned by GUDGB staff is the inability to obtain budget approval for GUDGB from the fees collected from mining companies for water usage. Despite the requirement under the Natural Resource Use Fee Law to allocate up to 35% of collected water fees to improve water resource conditions, the provincial Citizen\u0026rsquo;s Representative Khural does not approve the budget allocation for the GUDGB.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;color:#4472C4;font-weight:bold;'\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/122228_c8a1650c59388082/122228_custom_files/img172564716495.png\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStakeholders\u0026rsquo; engagement in water resources management\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticipatory water monitoring (PWM) with local communities was mentioned by two mining companies and local herders. PWM is a flagship activity that helps mining companies (OT LLC and the Energy Resources) to establish long-term relationships with the local community and build trust. For instance, the participatory water monitoring program continued for almost 20 years in Khanbogd sub-province, indicating its effectiveness and importance. Recently local herders in the Khanbogd sub-province formed Munkh Nogoon Galba, a non-governmental organization (NGO) to continue well water monitoring but also to expand activities toward broader environmental conservation, including pasture improvements and biodiversity monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReports of independent environmental audit conducted every 5 years at OT LLC, provided alternative perspectives to improve mine water management. The availability of reports publicly on website contributes to transparency, building community confidence and trust, and improving the mine water monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Triparty Committee in Khanbogd sub-province also supports the collaboration of stakeholders and trust building. The triparty committee consists of local herders, OT LLC and the local Khanbogd government and make decisions jointly informed by the needs of local herders and community. Mining companies provide funding, technical expertise for the committee\u0026apos;s initiatives, which are implemented through the active participation of the local government, herders, and local community. For example, in 2019, the committee addressed herders\u0026apos; complaints by renovating old, damaged wells, with a total of 20 manual herder wells repaired annually; a total of 56 herders\u0026rsquo; wells for livestock watering have been repaired since 2019, demonstrating the committee\u0026apos;s ongoing commitment to improving water access for herders and livestock (TPC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, n.d.)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommunity educational activities such as \u0026ldquo;Mine processing plant visit\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Mine open day\u0026rdquo; events were mentioned by Energy Resource LLC in the Tsotgtsetsii sub-province as approaches to engage the local community. These activities resulted in an improved understanding and public awareness of mining and processing plants by local people.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldSmallCaps\" class=\"BoldSmallCaps\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;4: Stakeholders engagement activities in water management\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eActivities \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Ways of engagement\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;border-top:solid windowtext 1.5pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.5pt;border-right:none;padding:1.0pt 0in 1.0pt 0in;'\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:177.0pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-177.0pt;border:none;padding:0in;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eParticipatory water monitoring \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Herders measure water level in their wells and conduct the monitoring measurement on daily basis. The mining company and herders meet and verify wells\u0026rsquo; monitoring results. Local NGO representing herders holds almost 20 years\u0026rsquo; worth of water monitoring data. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.5pt;padding:0in 0in 1.0pt 0in;'\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:177.0pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-177.0pt;border:none;padding:0in;border-bottom:1.5pt solid windowtext;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eMine processing plant visit \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The company organizes educational coal processing plant visits for local herders, community and youth. \u0026nbsp; These educational visits improve understanding of mine processing operations. These visits organized for the last 10 years and contributed to building transparent community-mining relationships and trust.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:177.0pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-177.0pt;border:none;padding:0in;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eIndependent auditing \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Contracted independent professional entities to do environmental auditing with an aim to get unbiased technical recommendations and perspectives on reducing and mitigating negative impacts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:176.9pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-176.9pt;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eKhanbogd soum Triparty council \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;TPC of Khanbogd soum was founded on June 8, 2015, includes equal representation from local administration, herders, and OT LLC. Operating under a jointly agreed Memorandum of Understanding, the TPC develops and enforces its regulations.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:176.9pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-176.9pt;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003e(TPC) meetings \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;It provides the opportunity to gather, and share information, \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; address water and environmental concerns, allocate funds and make joint decisions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;border-top:solid windowtext 1.5pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.5pt;border-right:none;padding:1.0pt 0in 1.0pt 0in;'\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:177.0pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-177.0pt;border:none;padding:0in;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eHerders\u0026rsquo; well projects \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The company provided technical expertise, allocated funding for relevant cost and in collaboration with herders improved herders\u0026rsquo; shallow wells, thus increased access to water for livestock.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.5pt;padding:0in 0in 1.0pt 0in;'\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:177.0pt;text-align:justify;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Cambria\",serif;text-indent:-177.0pt;border:none;padding:0in;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;color:black;\"\u003eWater advocacy events \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Celebrating World Water and World Water Monitoring Days, increased stakeholders\u0026rsquo; engagement in dialogues in responsible water resources management.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt is evident from research findings that herders in the Gobi Desert mining regions are experiencing water access issues due to the impacts of climate change and development of mining activities. Participatory water monitoring, educational processing plant visits, independent environmental auditing, triparty committee meetings and water advocacy events are identified as processes that develop relationship between water stakeholders, support joint decision making and collaboration for effective water management in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participatory water monitoring (PWM) program has empowered herders by providing them with data in real-time on water levels, enabling them to promptly respond to emerging issues. Over 80 herders are involved in water level measurements across 87 wells. This initiative not only gives them a voice in water management decisions but also equips them with skills and allows traditional knowledge to be incorporated into data interpretation, thereby promoting community ownership. Collaborative verification with mining companies ensures data accuracy and transparency. For instance, there is currently a discrepancy of 0.05\u0026ndash;0.2 meters in water level measurements between the company and local herders. This process strengthens collective capacity to address water challenges and builds trust between companies and herders. Moreover, a local NGO, representing herders, possesses 20 years\u0026rsquo; worth of monitoring data, facilitating trend tracking and supporting long-term water resource management and informed decision-making. Since 2019, repairs to 56 herder wells have improved livestock water access. Other studies have highlighted the role of PWM in improving relationships between industry and communities, fostering trust among water stakeholders (Mgoba \u0026amp; Kabote, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Pareja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; The International Institute for Sustainable Development, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). PWM achieves this by involving communities in the measurement of water levels, promoting transparency, and opening communication channels. The current research findings align with international studies on PWM, emphasizing its capacity to enhance collaboration and transparency among stakeholders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe processing plant visit to the Ukhaa Khudag coal mine, organized by Energy Resources for the local community, serves as an educational platform aimed at promoting awareness of mine water practices. During the visit, participants are guided through the plant's water treatment facilities and technologies, where the various stages of water treatment such as filtration, purification, and recycling are explained. Additionally, the company introduces the plant's water consumption patterns, emphasizing the imperative of water savings. The company employs a dry cooling technology and reduces water consumption by utilizing air cooling mechanisms, minimizing reliance on freshwater resources. Over the past decade, this educational visit has been a regular initiative, originally occurring monthly, then transitioning to quarterly visits, and most recently reduced to biannual occurrences. This reduction is primarily because most locals have already visited the plant several times and have become very familiar with its operations. These educational visits have played a pivotal role in developing relationships and facilitating the successful implementation of local development programs by the company. Furthermore, during times of water scarcity, the company has assisted herders by providing access to one of its wells. Overall, the processing plant visit effectively disseminates knowledge, contributing to community awareness and engagement in water resource conservation and management. Many research studies in the field of sustainable water management emphasize stakeholder engagement as a prerequisite or key element for achieving sustainability. The findings of this research align with those of other studies in the field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndependent environmental audits identified gaps and shortcomings in mine water management practices. For instance, the audit identified a seepage from tailings storage facility (TSF) Cell #1. To address this issue the company installed a seepage collection system under TSF Cell #2 and created a deep clay trench around it as per the audit recommendations. The OT mine built a new seepage pond away from existing structures and dug trenches to redirect drainage. The OT mine also improved the (Dugt/Khaliv) surface water diversion. The most recent audit report suggests installing permanent or semi-permanent groundwater monitoring wells downstream of mine licensed area (MLA) to track the extent of seepage migration offsite. By providing objective assessments and insights, these audits contribute to enhancing water stewardship. Local communities and the government perceive independent audits as credible sources of information, thereby enhancing trust and improving sustainability practices. Moreover, independent audits promote transparency and accountability by providing communities with access to objective assessments of mine water management practices, fostering trust in the mining companies' commitment to environmental stewardship. Other research emphasised the essential role of environmental auditing across all production companies. The research highlights the need for regular audits, particularly for those whose production processes have direct environmental implications. The insights from environmental audits assist management to mitigate adverse environmental impacts through improved designs, products, or processes and fosters innovation and leadership in environmental stewardship (Sharma \u0026amp; Subodh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater advocacy events during World Water Day on 22 March provided platforms for local stakeholders to engage in discussions and dialogues on water-related issues, fostering active participation and knowledge sharing. The celebration of World Water Day has transformed from a traditional 1\u0026ndash;2-day event into an extended period lasting 2\u0026ndash;3 months. During this time, schools have become increasingly involved, playing an active role in water advocacy initiatives. Children enthusiastically participate in essay and drawing competitions, bringing fresh ideas and enthusiasm for water stewardship. Furthermore, organizations involved in the water advocacy day witness increased engagement and participation, reflecting a growing commitment to addressing water challenges. These findings align with the research in the field. Through open dialogue, stakeholders develop a common understanding, and commitment to collective action towards sustainable water management. By incorporating a broader spectrum of perspectives on needs, impacts, and options, these dialogues significantly enhance the effectiveness of sustainable water management initiatives (Huntjens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Research studies highlight the crucial role of dialogues in informing and shaping formal negotiation and decision-making processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhanbogd Triparty Stakeholders\u0026rsquo; Council: The establishment of a local triparty stakeholders\u0026rsquo; committee promotes joint decision-making and collaboration among diverse stakeholders. Through shared responsibilities, stakeholders cultivate mutual trust and strengthen relationships, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of water management. For instance, joint decisions to improve herders hand wells and pasture water supply (TPC \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, n.d.). As of 2019, 56 herders\u0026rsquo; hand wells were repaired, and 12 exploration boreholes were handed over to the local government to support pasture water supply. Furthermore, a study on a triparty process illustrate that the triparty process is critical to negotiate different agreements and was described as a key element for inclusive development (S\u0026ouml;derholm \u0026amp; Svahn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The current research findings regarding TPC are consistent with those of other studies. The triparty process implies that communities, companies and governments come together to discuss responsibilities, costs and benefits (S\u0026ouml;derholm \u0026amp; Svahn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 'Herder\u0026rsquo;s Well Improvement' project serves as an example of successful collaboration between the OT mine and local herders to address deficiencies of a well for livestock watering. With the technical expertise from the company, in 2021, nineteen herders\u0026rsquo; wells in Khanbogd soum were repaired resulting in improved water access for the herders. This initiative highlights the importance of collaborative approaches in achieving sustainable water management and effectiveness of dialogue and negotiation in balancing economic interests with water resource conservation. Both the company and the herders acknowledge the project's role in promoting a balanced approach to water resource management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, these processes not only facilitate improved access to water, but also address the immediate challenges posed by water scarcity and foster long-term collaboration towards water sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe water access and use practices in the Gobi Desert mining region are influenced by various factors, including water regulations, climatic conditions, and the availability of water infrastructure. Mining companies invest in groundwater exploration to secure mine water and implement water reuse and recycling measures to reduce consumption. Innovative practices, such as rainwater collection \u003cb\u003efor the mine water supply\u003c/b\u003e, showcase the potential of alternative water sources to address community concerns and support sustainable mining operations. However, challenges persist for local herders, particularly regarding access to reliable water sources for livestock and pasture watering. The declining functionality of shallow wells and the depletion of groundwater resources pose significant threats to livestock husbandry and herders' livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe provincial government generates substantial revenue through water use fees collected from mining companies. However, the revenues generated from water use fees are not directed towards river basin administration to enhance water infrastructure, such as improving conditions of water wells or expanding groundwater sources for better water management in the region. Consequently, the GUDGB administration finds it infeasible to maintain herders' wells or identify suitable locations for new water wells to support herders and their livestock. Effective water management in the region faces multifaceted challenges. Mining companies encounter imprecise government regulations and inconsistencies in fee calculations, which discourage water conservation efforts. Herders and local officials struggle with insufficient access to water for livestock, leading to tension and competition among herders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe administration of the Gobi Desert mining region faces funding shortages, staffing constraints, and limited authority, hindering its ability to monitor and regulate water usage effectively. Legal and financial barriers further impede the administration's capacity to address illegal water use by mining operations and allocate resources for water resource improvement initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement processes such as participatory water monitoring programs, independent environmental audits, and mine processing plant visits and collaborative platforms like the Triparty Committee in Khanbogd sub-province, contribute to enhancing the understanding of mining operations and fostering dialogue between mining companies and communities. These efforts facilitate positive relationships and contribute to transparency and improved sustainable water practices in the Gobi Desert mining region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs findings of the study demonstrate, the Gobi Desert mining region faces serious challenges in water access, exacerbated by climate change and mining activities. To address these challenges and safeguard water access for herders and livestock, the following recommendations and solutions are proposed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProposed Recommendations:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConduct hydrological and hydrogeological studies to understand water availability, quality, and recharge rates and map the locations of ground water reserves.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssess the impacts of climate change and mining activities on water resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eProposed Solutions:\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDevelop policies that prioritize water access for herders and livestock, informed by scientific evidence.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommunicate policies effectively to stakeholders through accessible and transparent channels.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEstablish mechanism for collecting, analysing, and disseminating reliable and up-to-date information on water resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImplement nature-based solutions such as rainwater harvesting and natural water storage.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFacilitate water planning sessions involving stakeholders.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch1\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to research participants who generously shared their experiences and knowledge. Thanks must go to anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments. The study was funded by the MITACS, SEF Canada \u0026ldquo;Application of five capitals framework to the mineral resources sector in Mongolia to support sustainable development\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported through the Mitacs accelerate program (IT14843), which was co-founded by SEF Canada.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompliance with Ethical Standards\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe protocol was approved by the Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB) of the Office of Research Ethics at the University of British Columbia, in accordance with the \u003cem\u003eGuidance Notice on Behavioural Applications and BREB Guidance Notice\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eInformed consent\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch information was provided to all potential research participants before their involvement in the study. Their involvement was entirely voluntary, and participants gave consent by agreeing to participate in the interview. Participants were fully informed about the nature of the research, including their right to withdraw from the interview at any time without any consequences.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests to declare relevant to this article\u0026apos;s content.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are informed and agree to publish.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBolormaa Purevjav and Bern Klein conceptualized the research aim and objectives. Bern Klein provided supervision. Bolormaa drafted the original manuscript. Julian Dierkes and Nadja Kunz contributed to the research methodology and data analysis. Andr\u0026eacute; Xavier and Suzette McFall reviewed the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArjoon, D., Tilmant, A., \u0026amp; Herrmann, M. (2016). Sharing water and benefits in transboundary river basins. \u003cem\u003eHydrology and Earth System Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e(6), 2135\u0026ndash;2150. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-2135-2016\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCane, I., Schleger, A., Ali, S., Kemp, D., McIntyre, N., McKenna, P., Lechner, A. 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Stakeholder engagement in water governance as social learning: lessons from practice. \u003cem\u003eWater International\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e43\u003c/em\u003e(1), 34\u0026ndash;59. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2018.1403083\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-water","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diwa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Water](https://www.springer.com/43832)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Water","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mine water, IWRM, stakeholder engagement, sustainability, water use practices","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4842443/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4842443/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe mining industry is an important sector that contributes to economic growth and employment creation in many developing countries, including in Mongolia. Water access, water quality, and community engagement in mining regions are among the major challenges faced by the Mongolian mining industry. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a holistic water management approach that applies principles of economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental sustainability to ensure water sustainability. A research study was carried out to understand stakeholders’ views and perspectives on IWRM and to identify water use practices, challenges, and barriers in the Gobi Desert mining region. \u0026nbsp;The aim of the goal was to identify processes that help to improve access to water in the Gobi Desert region. This research applied a qualitative approach and employed three data collection methods: 1) semi-structured interviews; and 2) field observations and 3) documents and academic articles reviews. Research participants were representatives from mining companies, local communities, government, and river basin administrations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Gobi Desert region, processes contributing to improving water management are:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1) participatory water monitoring, 2) coal processing plant educational visits, 3) local stakeholders council’s meetings, 4) herder’s well improvement projects, 5) independent water auditing, and 6) water advocacy events.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Pathways to Water Stewardship in Mining Regions: Promoting Processes for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Gobi Desert","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-10-08 00:57:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4842443/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-09-03T07:41:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-08-31T04:24:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-08-28T15:53:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"223358208699216105156860759004313387601","date":"2024-08-28T11:29:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"270637968267993091061734138503668936150","date":"2024-08-26T18:35:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"7945015012327593237622726138355923775","date":"2024-08-23T17:35:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-08-12T23:32:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-08-12T23:24:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-08-12T06:18:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Water","date":"2024-08-01T13:15:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-water","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diwa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Water](https://www.springer.com/43832)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Water","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"36dd1db9-e541-46ea-8679-909053496ecf","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 8th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-03T16:04:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4842443","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00204-2","journal":{"identity":"discover-water","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Water"},"publishedOn":"2025-02-28 15:57:24","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 28th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-10-08 00:57:52","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s43832-025-00204-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00204-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4842443","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4842443","identity":"rs-4842443","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}