First nationwide survey of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Vietnamese dust samples: Insights into spatial trends, indoor-outdoor differences and human exposure implications

First nationwide survey of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Vietnamese dust samples: Insights into spatial trends, indoor-outdoor differences and human exposure implications | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article First nationwide survey of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Vietnamese dust samples: Insights into spatial trends, indoor-outdoor differences and human exposure implications Tri Manh Tran, Chi Linh Thi Pham, Anh Duy Dao, Huong Quang Le, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7735010/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Distribution patterns of 16 phthalic acid esters (PAEs) were investigated in 159 indoor/outdoor dust samples collected from three regions (northern, central, and southern) of Vietnam. Total concentrations of PAEs dust samples ranged from 278 to 2.280.000 ng/g (mean/median: 123.400/39.100 ng/g). The highest concentrations of PAEs were found in indoor dust samples collected from northern areas (mean/median: 276.000/113.000 ng/g), followed by southern (mean/median: 161.000/76.500 ng/g) and central areas (93.100/43.400 ng/g). PAE concentrations in indoor dust were found to be approximately two to four times higher than in outdoor dust, and exhibited a geographical distribution across the country in the descending order of northern > southern > central areas. PAEs measured in dust samples collected in homes were significantly higher than those in workplaces and schools in the northern and central regions. For samples from the southern region, however, a distinct distribution was observed, with PAE concentrations in dust decreasing in the order of workplaces (mean/median: 286,000/282,000 ng/g) > schools (110,000/80,700 ng/g) > homes (51,300/44,800 ng/g). The correlation of PAEs concentrations among indoor/outdoor dust sample pairs collected at each location in all three regions was moderate (r = 0.456). Among the 16 PAEs, DEHP was measured at the highest concentrations in all dust samples, followed by DBP and DEP. Estimated human exposure doses to PAEs through dust ingestion for indoor areas were higher than those for outdoor areas. Infants were at higher risk of exposure than other age groups. Indoor/outdoor dust Human exposure PAEs Vietnam Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Highlights First nationwide investigation on PAEs in indoor/outdoor dust in Vietnam Elevated PAEs concentrations found in indoor dust from homes, hair salons, electronic shops, and some grocery shops in all the three regions across Vietnam. PAEs levels in indoor dust were markedly higher than those in outdoor dust Moderate and significant positive correlation between indoor and outdoor PAE concentrations Estimated intake doses to PAEs through dust ingestion for indoor areas were higher than those for outdoor areas, with infants were at higher exposure risk than other age groups. 1. Introduction Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) or esters of 1,2-benzene dicarboxylic acid were introduced in the 1920s as plasticizers, additives, and solvents (US CPSC, 2017; EC, 2018; ECCC, 2020). Based on molecular weights, PAEs are divided into two groups. The first group has low molecular weights (≤ 4 carbons in the backbone): dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dipropyl phthalate (DPP, and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). The second group has high molecular weights (≥ 5 carbons in structures): benzyl butyl phthalate (BzBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dioctyl phthalate (DnOP), and diisononyl phthalate (DiNP)] (ECCC, 2020). PAEs with higher molecular weights, such as DEHP, DnOP, and DiNP are mainly used (up to 90%) to improve the flexibility and malleability of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) materials. Di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) serves as plasticizer for various coatings including latex, lacquers and paste paints. DBP and DEP can make up to 10% by weight in food packaging plastic film. The global production of PAEs was estimated at 4.9 million tons in 2010. This amount accounted for 84% of the total plasticizer production (Guo and Kannan, 2013 ) and reached about 8 million tons in 2015 (Rhodes, 2018 ). Due to widespread usage in commercial products, PAEs are often called "ubiquitous chemicals". Although important ingredients in various commercial products, concerns about the use of PAEs have been growing due to evidence of their toxicity in laboratory animals (Boberg et al., 2008 ; Radke et al., 2019 ; 2020 ). PAEs are toxicants in endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) or hormonally-active agents (HAAs) groups because of their ability to interfere with the endocrine system in the body (Guo and Kannan, 2013 ). Several recent studies have reported evidence of adverse human health effects due to PAE exposure (Benjamin et al., 2017 ; Bolling et al., 2020 ; Chang et al., 2021 ; Santos et al., 2021 ). PAE metabolites such as monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl phthalate (MECPP), mono-(carboxynonyl) phthalate (MCNP), and DEHP found in urine samples were positively related to asthma risk (Wu et al., 2020 ). The previous reports that PAEs can interfere with hormone activity by affecting estrogen levels, reducing testosterone concentrations, lowering semen volume, and total sperm count, and causing genotoxic effects that may lead to infertility, obesity, diabetes, and several types of cancer (Phillips et al., 2008; Kay et al., 2014 ; Amjad et al., 2021 ; Nidens et al., 2021 ; Meng et al., 2024 ). Moreover, PAEs have also been linked to harmful effects on the nervous system, which include mental health problems, hyperactivity and attention deficit disorders in children, autism, mental disorders, and adverse impact on intellectual abilities (Gao et al., 2025 ). PAEs are added to commercial products but do not have chemical bonds with the material, so they easily spread into different environments such as soil, water, air, dust, and even enter the food chain (Tran and Kannan, 2015; Anh et al., 2021 ; Le et al., 2021 ; 2022 ; Li et al., 2024 ). Humans can be exposed to PAE from the environment through various pathways such as inhalation, ingestion or/and dermal absorption. An earlier study reported the mean inhalation exposure doses to 10 PAEs for various Vietnamese age groups were in the range of 213–780 ng/kg-bw/d (Tran et al., 2017 ). The calculated mean exposure doses to PAEs through consumption of bottled water were respectively 254 and 256 ng/kg-bw/d for adults and children in Vietnam (Le et al., 2021 ). Meanwhile, the daily intake doses of selected PAEs ( such as DnBP, DiBP, BzBP, and DEHP) derived for occupationally exposed persons were about 3 to 5 times higher than those of normal residents in Vietnam (Hoang et al., 2022 ). However, comprehensive studies on PAEs in different environments in central and southern Vietnam are still scarce. Studies on the comprehensive comparison of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust samples collected from the same locations in Vietnam, as well as in Southeast Asian region, are also very limited. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive nationwide survey on the distribution of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust collected from Vietnam. In this study, 16 PAEs were quantified in indoor and outdoor dust samples from diverse regions across Vietnam to determine their concentration levels, compositional profiles, and distribution patterns. Additionally, the daily intakes (EDIs) of PAEs via dust ingestion were estimated to assess the potential human health risks associated with this exposure pathway. This study focuses on (1) analyzing their concentrations, origins, and distribution patterns; (2) assessing the potential health risks associated with exposure to these compounds. The findings from this work are crucial for enhancing the global understanding of both the distribution trends and health implications of PAEs present in indoor and outdoor dust. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Chemicals Sixteen PAEs analyzed in the present study include dimethylphthalate (DMP), diethylphthalate (DEP), di- n -propylphthalate (DPrP), diisobutylphthalate (DiBP), di- n -butylphthalate (DBP), di(2-methoxyethyl)phthalate (DMEP), di-(4-methyl-2-pentyl)phthalate (DMPP), di(2-ethoxyethyl)phthalate (DEEP), di-n-pentylphthalate (DPP), di- n -hexylphthalate (DnHP), benzylbutylphthalate (BzBP), di-(2- n -butoxyethyl)phthalate (DBEP), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), dicyclohexylphthalate (DCHP), di- n -octylphthalate (DnOP), and di-n-nonylphthalate (DnNP). Seven deuterated-PAEs, including DMP- d4 , DEP- d4 , DPrP- d4 , DiBP- d4 , DMEP- d4 , DEEP- d4 , DPP- d4 , DnHP- d4 , BzBP- d4 , DBEP- d4 , DEHP- d4 , DCHP- d4 , and DnOP- d4 , were used as surrogate standards for quantification of native compounds. Water, dichloromethane (DCM), n -hexane, and acetone (analytical grade) were obtained from Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany). All native and surrogate standard solutions, and final sample extracts were prepared in n -hexane. 2.2. Sampling All dust samples were collected from northern (n = 52), central (n = 75), and southern (n = 32) areas in Vietnam during September 2024 to May 2025 (Table S2). The sampling sites can be grouped into dormitories (n = 9), homes (n = 25), schools (n = 18), workplaces (n = 32), and outdoor (road) dust (n = 75). Each composite sample was collected by manually sweeping road surfaces, floors or/and household surfaces with a non-plastic broom and a metal dustpan. Then, dust samples were sieved, wrapped in aluminum foil, and kept in an icebox. At the laboratory, the samples were stored in amber glass vials at − 20°C until analysis. 2.3. Sample preparation Two hundred nanograms of each surrogate standard were added to 200 mg of the dust samples. Analytes were extracted with 5 mL of hexane-DCM (3/2, v/v) mixture by shaking in an orbital shaker (Eberbach Corp., Ann Arbor, MI, USA) at 300 rpm for 10 min. The sample was centrifuged in a Hettich EBA 21 centrifugator (Germany) at 4000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was transferred to a dark glass tube. The sample was extracted twice more, each time with 3 mL of the mixture of hexane:DCM (3/2, v/v). The combined supernatant was then concentrated to 1 mL under a gentle nitrogen stream. The concentrated solution was filtered through a 0.22 µm PTFE filter into a vial for analysis on a GC-MS equipment. 2.4. Instrumental analysis Sixteen PAEs were quantified by using a gas chromatograph (Trace 1310) interfaced with a quadrupole mass spectrometer (TSQ8000 Evo, Thermo Scientific). A fused silica capillary column (DB-5ms, 60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm; Agilent Technologies; USA) was used for chromatographic separation of PAEs. Detailed instrumental parameters for PAE analysis are provided in Table S1 (Supplementary data). 2.5. Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) Contamination with PAEs during sample collection, transport, handling, and analysis must be strictly controlled. Plastic, rubber, and other potential sources, such as personal care products, should be kept to a minimum during the analysis. Glassware was cleaned sequentially with water, acetone, and hexane before being calcined at 400 o C for 8 h. The solvents were used directly from the container. One procedural blank sample was analyzed simultaneously with each batch of 8–10 samples. Trace levels of several target compounds were found in the blank sample: DEP (2.5–16.0 ng), DiBP (1.5–12.5 ng), DBP (3.6–20.6), and DEHP (3.0–45.5 ng). The reported concentrations were subtracted from the blank levels. The recoveries of surrogate and target compounds in the blank procedure (replicated 7 times) were 85.5–112% (RSD < 8.5%) and 82.0–117% (RSD < 12%). Surrogate compounds were also added to the real sample procedures to effectively control for loss of target compounds. The reported concentration of the target compounds was calculated based on the recoveries of the respective surrogate compounds. The concentrations of the target compounds were calculated based on the calibration curves in the range of 5.0 to 500 ng/mL. The instrumental detection limit (IDL) of PAEs compounds ranged from 2.5 to 15 pg. The method detection limit (MDL) was calculated based on the sample mass (200 mg), the volume of the concentrated solution (1 mL), the average recovery value, and the IDL. The IDL, instrumental quantification limit (IQL), MDL, and method quantification limit (MQL) of each target compound are shown in Table S2 (Supplementary data). For concentrations below the MQLs, a value of one-half the MQL was used in statistical analyses. 2.6. Estimation of daily intakes The daily intake of PAEs was estimated through dust ingestion (EDI di ) by following the methods described in several previous studies (Guo and Kannan, 2011 ; Tran et al., 2016 ; Hoang et al., 2022 ). In this study, the respective average body weights (bw) for infants (6–12 months), toddlers (1–5 yrs), children (6–11 yrs), teenagers (12–18 yrs) and adults (≥ 19 yrs) for Vietnamese were 8, 15, 25, 50, and 70 kg (Vietnam encyclopedic knowledge, 2014). The mean dust intake rate was 0.03 g/d for infants and 0.06 g/d for toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008). The daily intake, DI (ng/kg-bw/h), was determined by Eq. (1): DI = \(\:\frac{(C\:\times\:\:f)}{(24\:\times\:\:BW)}\) where C dust is the concentration in dust (ng/g), f is the dust ingestion rate (g/24 hour), and BW is the body weight (kg). 2.7. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Office 2010), Minitab® 21 (Minitab LLC., State College, PA, USA), and Graphpad Prism (version 9.3.1). The relationship between PAE concentrations in indoor/outdoor samples was evaluated using Spearman's rank correlation analysis and principal components analysis (PCA). The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Concentrations of PAEs in dust samples In this study, 16 PAEs were measured in dust samples (n = 159) collected from three regional patterns across Vietnam (Table 1 ). The total concentration of PAEs ranged from 278 to 2280000 ng/g (mean/median: 123400/39100 ng/g). The DF (%) of DMP, DEP, DPrP, DBP, DPP, and DNP ranged from 93 to 97%, and DiBP, DEEP, BzBP, DEHP, and DnOP ranged from 80 to 89%. The remaining compounds were found in low detection frequencies below < 75%. Consistent with previous reports (Qu et al., 2021 ; Sun et al., 2023 ; Pan et al., 2024 ), DEHP demonstrated the highest detection frequency (DF) and concentration levels among all target compounds. Table 1 Mean/median (range) concentration (ng/g) of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust samples collected from Vietnam Concentrations (ng/g) of PAEs in dust samples PAEs Northern Central Southern Total Indoor (n = 29) Outdoor (n = 23) Indoor (n = 39) Outdoor (n = 36) Indoor (n = 16) Outdoor (n = 16) Indoor (n = 84) Outdoor (n = 75) DMP 470/42.6 (4.34–3020) 350/70.3 (0.18–1550) 55.0/13.0 (n.d. − 790) 25.0/13.4 (n.d. − 115) 108/71 (10.5–345) 115/40.4 (0.15–536) 212/29.0 (n.d. − 3020) 154/21.8 (n.d. − 1550) DEP 4250/230 (28.6–35400) 1530/115 (14.2–8310) 650/53.0 (n.d. − 3790) 79.2/44.6 (n.d. − 478) 219/152 (50.0–686) 401/174 (30.0–1445) 1820/120 (n.d. − 35400) 612/69.4 (n.d. − 8310) DPrP 830/140 (1.31–9670) 584/52.6 (5.80–7660) 370/21.6 (n.d. − 5250) 174/16.0 (n.d. − 920) 252/23.5 (0.17–2140) 338/57 (0.60–1790) 510/43.5 (n.d. − 9670) 345/39.3 (n.d. − 7660) DiBP 15400/1340 (0.50–83400) 13500/670 (110–231000) 3525/401 (n.d. − 21200) 616/292 (n.d. − 5750) 2090/1270 (129–8400) 1200/1230 (67.5–3000) 7830/1222 (n.d. − 83400) 5260/606 (n.d. − 231000) DBP 85500/19400 (0.21–1108000) 22600/4100 (425 − 190000) 11400/1320 (n.d. − 64300) 1460/920 (n.d. − 10700) 10800/9020 (435–25500) 8790/6030 (n.d. − 32100) 37800/4738 (n.d.–1108000) 9630/1980 (n.d. − 190000) DMEP 18.2/4.50 (n.d. − 140) 0.61/0.38 (n.d. − 1.48) 47.4/3.80 (n.d. − 380) 4.10/2.21 (n.d.–23.6) 7.20/5.90 (1.80–20) 6.03/4.52 (n.d. − 17.5) 28.3/5.15 (n.d. − 380) 3.80/2.15 (n.d.–23.6) DMPP 1.30/0.66 (n.d. − 2.90) 0.90/1.07 (n.d. − 1.52) 0.23/0.20 (n.d. − 0.80) 0.23/0.19 (n.d. − 0.50) 0.67/0.74 (n.d. − 1.03) 0.50/0.50 (n.d. − 1.00) 0.72/0.50 (n.d. − 2.90) 0.47/0.32 (n.d. − 1.52) DEEP 36.0/19.7 (n.d. − 390) 32.7/7.03 (n.d. − 125) 18.1/0.78 (n.d. − 201) 2.50/0.96 (n.d. − 14.6) 12.7/12.2 (n.d. − 45.0) 19/9.50 (n.d. − 68.0) 23.2/5.17 (n.d. − 390) 15.6/3.30 (n.d. − 125) DPP 395/43.4 (n.d. − 2170) 220/12.6 (n.d. − 1450) 37.5/4.86 (n.d. − 267) 37.3/4.70 (n.d. − 785) 31.0/32.4 (n.d. − 74.2) 73.2/32.5 (n.d. − 536) 166/12.5 (n.d. − 2170) 103/15.5 (n.d. − 1450) DnHP 300/160 (n.d. − 1080) 103/61.8 (n.d. − 740) 79.3/66.0 (n.d. − 397) 115/58.2 (n.d. − 1100) 848/525 (10.3–2730) 419/250 (81.5–1580) 355/96.7 (n.d. − 2730) 198/84.2 (n.d. − 1580) BzBP 125/55 (n.d. − 600) 28.0/18.7 (n.d. − 102) 82.4/14.2 (n.d. − 848) 142/9.36 (n.d. − 1260) 659/64.2 (10.5–3870) 719/194 (n.d. − 3600) 232/35.6 (n.d. − 3870) 246/26 (n.d. − 3600) DBEP 124/46 (n.d. − 630) 37.0/24.1 (n.d. − 90) 104/33.0 (n.d. − 574) 40.4/16.8 (n.d. − 280) 175/68.1 (0.88–1020) 145/50.0 (9.34–1170) 129/36.8 (n.d. − 1020) 66.0/25.3 (n.d. − 1170) DEHP 183000/78700 (n.d. − 1180000) 107000/28500 (4550 − 1102000) 95300/45400 (n.d. − 423000) 18900/ 11900 (n.d. − 80400) 141800/64000 (460 − 523000) 86700/42400 (14600–496000) 136800/60400 (n.d. − 1180000) 63000/21000 (n.d. − 1102000) DCHP 3630/1670 (n.d. − 24500) 1740/1190 (n.d. − 5910) 866/127 (n.d. − 3720) 341/63.2 (n.d. − 2900) 796/585 (9.34–3150) 523/420 (36.4–1360) 1770/500 (n.d. − 24500) 735/350 (n.d. − 5910) DnOP 1220/550 (n.d. − 8610) 1270/470 (26.0–9770) 2370/1140 (n.d. − 11600) 1070/438 (n.d. − 5240) 3410/420 (62.4–14270) 3620/1180 (32.3–18000) 2180/870 (n.d. − 14270) 1580/470 (n.d. − 18000) DNP 375/94.8 (n.d. − 3100) 184/26.2 (n.d. − 1500) 89.1/25.4 (n.d. − 1660) 24.8/7.50 (n.d. − 186) 423/88 (3.90–1740) 233/20.0 (5.85–1955) 250/55.0 (n.d. − 3100) 117/14.6 (n.d. − 1955) ΣPAEs 275500/113000 (387 − 2276000) 139000/34130 (5940 − 1113000) 93110/43360 (278 − 515000) 18840/12240 (381–85650) 161300/76500 (2027–563000) 96050/50700 (4220–547400) 169000/64020 (278 − 2276000) 72200/22800 (381–1113000) n.d.: Not detected To evaluate the distribution of PAEs in various environments, this study investigated indoor and outdoor dust samples collected from northern, central, and southern Vietnam. The results in Fig. 1 and Table 1 revealed that DEHP was the predominant compound, contributing approximately 82.7% to the total ΣPAEs concentration, followed by DBP and DiBP. The concentrations of DEHP in indoor dust ranged from no detection (n.d.) to 1180000 ng/g (mean/median: 136800/60400 ng/g), which were considerably higher than those measured in outdoor dust, which ranged from n.d. to 1102000 ng/g (mean/median: 63000/21000 ng/g). This distribution supports the assumption that emissions from PVC-based products, construction materials, food packaging, and children’s products are important sources of DEHP (Martínez-Razo et al., 2021 ), especially in northern and southern regions. Similarly, DBP and DiBP also account for 19.8% and 5.4%, respectively. The highest concentrations of these two compounds in indoor dust were found in the northern region, and the outdoor levels in the north were approximately 10 times higher than those detected in the central and southern regions. These results are consistent with the widespread use of DBP and DiBP in personal care products, printing inks, and adhesives (Guo et al., 2011 ; Li et al., 2015 ). Other compounds, including DEP, DnOP, and DCHP (< 1% of the total PAEs), were still detected in indoor dust samples across all three regions. Meanwhile, DMP, DPrP, and BzBP were measured at low concentrations. The contribution of the remaining PAEs was minor, as they were either not detected or were found only in trace amounts, with each congener accounting for less than 0.1% of the total PAE concentration. In this study, the presence of three PAEs, including DBEP, DEEP, and DMEP, at maximum concentrations of 1170, 390, and 380 ng/g, respectively, was reported for the first time in Vietnamese house dust. To our knowledge, information about these compounds in indoor environments is still scarce. DMEP, DBEP, and DEEP were detected in both dust and air samples collected from houses and classrooms in Jinan City, East China, at concentrations markedly higher than those found in our dust samples (Wang et al., 2024 ). Pollution levels of these compounds in Jinan City’s dust samples (DMEP > DBEP > DEEP) were somewhat different from the order observed in the Vietnamese samples (DBEP > DEEP ≈ DMEP), suggesting dissimilar emission sources and application patterns. Compared to our results, similar concentration levels and pollution trends of DBEP (max. 2370 ng/g), DEEP (max. 360 ng/g), and DMEP (max. 120 ng/g) were recorded in outdoor surface dust in Urumqi City, Northwest China (Dong et al., 2025 ). DMEP has been used as a plasticizer in various polymeric materials (e.g., nitrocellulose, acetyl cellulose, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylidene chloride, and polyvinyl chloride), as a solvent, and as an additive in pesticides (Commonwealth of Australia, 2014). DEEP and DBEP are used in the synthesis of cellulose resins and chlorinated rubbers (Dong et al., 2025 ). DMEP and DBEP had detection frequencies of more than 50% in children’s clothing manufactured in seven Asian countries (Tang et al., 2020 ). It should be noted that DBEP and DMEP were among the most frequently detected compounds in human skin wipe samples collected from college students in Beijing, China, with detection frequencies of 97–100% and 83–100%, respectively (Zhao et al., 2022 ). Moreover, DMEP and DEEP in dust exhibited high gastric and gastrointestinal bioaccessibility of over 60% and 30%, respectively, which were relatively higher than those estimated for other PAEs (Dong et al., 2025 ). These findings suggest the need for comprehensive assessments of multiple PAEs, including not only regulated compounds but also infrequently monitored substances (e.g., DMEP, DEEP, and DBEP). Even when these “novel” compounds were found at lower concentrations compared to conventional PAEs (e.g., DEHP and DBP), their occurrence may imply specific emission sources and/or significant exposure risks. This study provides a clearer picture of contamination levels in indoor and outdoor environments across Vietnam. The concentrations of PAEs in both indoor and outdoor dust samples showed the highest levels detected in the North, followed by the South and then the Central region. The northern region, characterized by extensive urbanization and industrialization, exhibited elevated mean ΣPAEs concentrations. Specifically, indoor and outdoor dust samples contained 275,500 ng/g and 139,000 ng/g, respectively, indicating distinct partitioning of these contaminants. A similar trend was observed in the central and southern regions, where indoor ΣPAEs levels were also higher than outdoor. Notably, indoor ΣPAEs concentrations in the northern region were approximately three times higher than in the central region (mean: 93110 ng/g), but similar to the southern region (mean: 161300 ng/g). An earlier study reported Σ9PAEs in indoor dust from six regions in China, ranging from 2310 to 1590000 ng/g (mean 150000 ng/g) (Zhu et al., 2019 ), similar to those observed in several areas of Vietnam. The outdoor levels of PAEs in the central (mean: 18840 ng/g) and southern (mean: 96050 ng/g) regions were several orders of magnitude lower than those detected in the North. These findings suggest that indoor sources, such as consumer products, building materials, and human activities, may be the major contributors to the presence of PAEs in settled dust, particularly in the North and South. Regional variations in concentration may be attributable to differences in building characteristics and climate. For instance, limited ventilation in typical northern buildings may facilitate the accumulation of indoor-emitted PAEs. On the other hand, the warm and humid climate characteristic of the South could enhance the rate of plasticizer leaching from source materials, leading to their subsequent deposition into household dust. 3.2. Concentrations of PAEs in various indoor microenvironments. Sixteen PAE compounds were detected in indoor dust samples with frequencies of 80 to 86%. Overall, PAEs showed substantial variability in concentration across all samples collected from the four microenvironments. The mean and median ∑PAE concentrations reached 47200 and 49900 ng/g in dormitories, 182000 and 98900 ng/g in schools, 127000 and 12600 ng/g in homes, and 229000 and 88000 ng/g in workplaces, respectively. The highest PAEs concentrations were found in homes and workplaces, particularly the distribution pattern from micro-environments, followed by: North-homes (N-H) > South-workplaces (S-W) > North-workplaces (N-W) > Central-schools (C-S), while lower levels were measured in the remaining environments. Compared with previous reports, the PAEs concentrations in the home environment measured in this study were lower than the median values reported in Vietnam in 2016 and 2021 (22600 and 23700 ng/g, respectively) (Tran et al., 2016 ; Hoang et al., 2021). In this study, the total PAEs concentrations were about 10 times lower than those reported in Qatar, China, and the US, with median values of 536000, 295000, and 396000 ng/g, respectively (Guo et al., 2011 ; AI_Qasmi et al., 2018). A similar pattern was observed for workplace dust, where the measured levels were lower than those previously reported (median: 865000 ng/g) in China (Kang et al., 2012 ). These changes may be attributed to factors such as population density, consumption patterns, and the use of personal care products in different countries. Regarding the contamination levels of PAEs in the studied micro-environments, DEHP, DBP, and DiBP were the most abundant PAEs, with the range level of 12500–260000 ng/g, 260-135000 ng/g, and 110-17100 ng/g, respectively, followed by DEP, DCHP, and DnOP (Table 2 ). This composition is consistent with previous studies, which also reported DEHP and DBP as the dominant PAEs from indoor micro-environments (Wang et al., 2020 ; Hoang et al., 2021). Qu et al. ( 2021 ) reported that DEHP was the dominant PAE in indoor dust, accounting for 67.1–72.9% in dormitories, homes, and classrooms, followed by DnBP (11.2–14.2%) and DiBP (3.8–7.4%), while other PAEs contributed < 1%. The high levels of DEHP were attributed to its low vapor pressure, high plasticization rate, and frequent use in consumer materials. In a study of Chinese dormitories, Fan et al. ( 2022 ) found that PAE concentrations in dormitory glass window films were strongly associated with decorating materials and personal care product use. Moreover, flooring materials contain high levels of PAEs in Chinese homes, with a median concentration of 14,100 ng/g. DEHP was the dominant compound, accounting for 62.8% of total PAEs (Zhang, 2025), a trend also confirmed in PVC wallpapers and flooring (Xue, 2023). Higher levels of DEHP, DCHP, and DnOP were linked to PVC flooring and wallpaper, while bottled and spray skincare products significantly increased several PAEs, including DEEP, DPP, and DnBP (Net et al., 2015 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). These findings highlight indoor sources such as building materials and personal care products as important contributors to PAE contamination. Table 2 Mean/median concentrations (ng/g) of PAEs in various indoor microenvironments PAEs Northern Central Southern N-S (n = 2) N-H (n = 9) N-W (n = 18) C-DO (n = 9) C-S (n = 10) C-H (n = 12) C-W (n = 8) S-S (n = 6) S-H (n = 4) S-W (n = 6) DMP 11.0 520/150 500/55.0 25.0/14.0 87.0/30.0 76.0/3.80 16.0/4.50 140/86.0 110/47.0 71.0/60.0 DEP 80.5 2430/230 5620/240 280/92.0 2040/2460 36.0/29.0 200/62.0 280/125 100/97.0 230/180 DPrP 4.80 190/67.0 1250/320 140/43.0 820/170 240/6.00 205/30.5 14.0/13.0 180/150 540/85.0 DiBP 560 15400/660 17100/1660 1180/540 9350/11300 110/130 565/330 1980/1880 2300/350 2050/1260 DBP 18400 135000/3030 68200/23200 8570/2080 32500/33900 260/230 2670/1330 15700/13600 2570/1520 11400/11800 DMEP 0.10 31.0/1.70 14.0/10.0 1.30/0.60 130/99.0 28.0/29.0 n.d. 7.00/6.00 5.10/4.10 9.00/7.00 DMPP n.d. 1.80/2.20 1.00/0.60 0.20/0.20 0.25/0.30 0.30/0.20 0.10/0.10 0.50/0.40 0.90/0.90 0.70/0.70 DEEP 19.0 15.5/13.0 49.0/20.0 0.85/0.30 75.0/72.0 0.80/0.50 2.50/2.00 23.0/18.0 4.60/1.40 9.30/7.30 DPP 27.0 430/230 400/43.0 3.80/1.00 110/110 2.90/1.70 33.0/12.0 40.0/41.0 2.10/0.70 36.5/33.0 DnHP 42.5 185/160 410/300 32.0/19.0 110/100 13.0/2.00 370/370 375/300 205/200 1750/1570 BzBP 240 160/55.0 90.0/38.0 76.0/28.0 150/28 90.0/12.5 20.0/11.0 87.0/51.0 45.0/47.0 1640/1440 DBEP 84.0 76.0/25.5 155/84.0 93.0/23.0 15.0/15.0 10.0/7.40 210/170 43.0/30.0 31.0/28.0 400/200 DEHP 59500 157000/22300 215000/113000 55000/43100 218000/173000 12500/9100 70200/67200 88600/64000 44500/41000 260000/256000 DCHP 190 5380/2290 3380/1800 19.5/2.80 1980/2590 730/80.0 770/770 1000/700 640/560 700/585 DnOP 1060 1625/570 980/510 2460/1385 2840/1590 590/320 4040/3420 1160/640 300/360 7970/12200 DNP 330 250/56.0 435/96.0 31.0/31.0 240/67.5 23.0/6.20 63.0/45.0 105/88.0 270/110 840/770 Total 80500 317000/27100 276000/123000 47200/49900 245500/205000 10900/8180 78500/76100 109000/80700 51200/44900 286000/282000 n.d.: Not detectable N-S: Northern - Classroom N-H: Northern - Home N-W: Northern - Workplace C-DO: Central - Dormitory ; C-S: Central - Classroom C-H: Central - Home ; C-W: Central - Workplace S-S: Southern - Classroom S-H: Southern - Home S-W: Southern - Workplace 3.3. Indoor-outdoor differences and correlation of PAEs dust concentrations A compilation of total PAEs concentrations in indoor and outdoor dust from diverse micro-environments across the northern, central, and southern regions of Vietnam is illustrated in Fig. 2 . The total concentrations of 16 PAEs in indoor dust samples (range: 278-2276000 ng/g, mean/median: 169000/64020 ng/g) were much higher than those in outdoor dust samples (range: 381-1113000 ng/g, mean/median: 72200/22800 ng/g). These concentrations were markedly higher than previously reported levels in Vietnam, where total PAEs in indoor and road dust ranged from below the detection limit (BDL) to 153,000 ng/g (Hoang et al., 2022 ). A striking and consistent pattern observed across all three regions is the markedly higher concentration of PAEs in indoor dust compared to outdoor dust collected from the same locations. This trend is evident in residential homes, electronics shops, furniture and grocery stores, and educational units. For example, in the northern region, the indoor dust from an interior decoration store exhibited an exceptionally high concentration of 1,710,000 ng/g, which was substantially greater than its corresponding outdoor sample. A similar trend was also encountered in homes, electronic shops, and grocery stores with higher PAE levels in indoor dust. This indoor predominance strongly suggests that the primary sources of PAE emissions are located within the indoor environment. PAEs are ubiquitous semi-volatile organic compounds used as plasticizers in a vast array of consumer products, including PVC flooring, furniture, electronics, and personal care products. Limited air exchange in indoor environments could probably lead to high accumulation in indoor dust samples. The type of micro-environment plays a crucial role in determining the level of PAE contamination. Residential homes represent one of the most significant sources of PAEs across three regions. This is likely due to the high density and variety of consumer goods, furnishings, and building materials that contain phthalates. Similarly, commercial settings such as decoration stores, electronics shops, and hair salons in the northern region showed elevated PAE levels. These environments are characterized by a high turnover of new products or the use of specific chemical formulations that may contain PAEs, contributing to elevated concentrations in dust. Educational facilities, including primary schools and kindergartens, also presented relatively high levels of contamination, a finding of particular concern given the vulnerability of children exposed to the endocrine-disrupting effects of these chemicals. PAEs concentrations in paired indoor–outdoor dust samples (n = 75) were compared to assess their correlation and dynamics (Fig. 3 ). The Spearman correlation analysis revealed a moderate but statistically significant positive correlation between indoor and outdoor concentrations (r = 0.424, p < 0.001). This relationship means that while outdoor dust may act as an important contributor to indoor contamination. Several outlier values may result from various factors at the sampling sites. For instance, outdoor dust samples collected near industrial zones or facilities producing plastics, paints, and building materials may show very high PAE levels, which can subsequently lead to corresponding contamination indoors. Similarly, indoor environments may exhibit outliers if they contain significant emission sources, such as new furniture, floor coverings, curtains, or plastic toys containing PAEs. These locations are contributing higher outdoor dust and adding to the indoor spaces, further reinforcing the indoor–outdoor dust linkage. PAEs are commonly found at higher concentrations indoors than outdoors due to differences in emission sources and environmental conditions. PAEs are released indoors from plastics and paints, which persist longer due to limited sunlight, low humidity, and weak air circulation, slowing the photolysis process (Rudel et al., 2009; Net et al., 2015 ; Bope et al., 2019 ). In contrast, outdoor environments promote faster removal through sunlight-driven chemical reactions and wet or dry deposition, with atmospheric half-lives estimated at several days (Behnke et al., 1987 ; Teil et al., 2006 ; Wang et al., 2014 ). Bope et al. ( 2019 ) examined PAE degradation in house dust under high humidity, considering both biotic and abiotic mechanisms. All targeted PAEs were detected, with DEHP at the highest concentration (0.029 µg/mg), but no significant degradation occurred for DEP, DIBP, DnBP, or DnOP. Our data tentatively suggest microbial degradation via pathways like β-oxidation, though the underlying mechanisms are still ambiguous. Significantly, the degradation patterns diverged from those previously reported, which is likely attributable to differences in the microbial consortium, contaminant bioavailability, and characteristics of the dust matrix. Consequently, the rate of PAE degradation appears to be highly heterogeneous across diverse indoor environments. Degradation patterns differed from previous findings, likely due to microbial communities, bioavailability, and dust, indicating that rates vary by indoor environment. Zhang et al. ( 2025 ) reported that low-molecular-weight PAEs are more prone to environmental degradation, which supports the observation that households with laminate flooring showed an overall decrease in certain PAEs, mainly because lighter compounds such as DMP, DBP, and DIBP were absorbed, while only DEP and DEHP were released. Although no adsorption tests were performed, this pattern suggests that some PAEs might also break down after being absorbed, possibly through slow photodegradation or microbial activity. According to Ye et al. ( 2023 ), PAEs in dust degrade very slowly because hydrolysis has long half-lives (up to 2000 years) and the lack of light indoors inhibits photolysis, leading to the accumulation of more toxic monoesters. This persistence highlights the potential for long-term exposure risks in indoor environments. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was employed on the settled dust dataset to categorize the main sources of indoor and outdoor dust in Vietnam. The principal component plot (Fig. 4 ) showed three distinct components (PC1, PC2, and PC3) in indoor and outdoor dust, which accounted for 78.3% and 84.5% of the total variance, respectively. In the indoor dust dataset, PC1 (39.5% variance) was highly correlated with DEP, DiBP, DBP, DMEP, DPP, DEHP, and DCHP, all showing high loadings (> 0.80). This trend suggests a dominant contribution from building materials and indoor-use goods (PVC flooring, wall coverings, and plasticized consumer products) (Schettler et al., 2006). The components PC2 (20.4%) were BzBP, DBEP, DnOP, DNP, and PC3 (9.3%), which included DPrP, DMPP, and DnHP. Three PCs accounted for 43.3%, 23.9% and 17.3% of the total variance shown in the outdoor dust sample, explained by components 1 to 3, respectively. The strong positive loadings for PC1 were as follows: DEP, DPrP, DEEP, DnHP, BzBP, DBEP, DEHP, and DCHP referred to a combination of outdoor sources such as traffic-related emissions, industrial activities, and atmospheric deposition from urban cities. DBP, DMPP, and DPP with component 2 originate from mixed outdoor–indoor pathways, including volatilization from materials in semi-open commercial areas. PC3 included DMP, DiBP, and DNP, which were similar to PC1, which represent finer particle-bound fractions or contributions from diffuse urban sources such as waste burning or secondary atmospheric processes. Previous studies suggest that DEHP, DnOP, and BzBP, which are less volatile and have higher molecular weights, tend to accumulate in household dust, whereas DEP, with higher volatility, is primarily present in the gas phase and originates mainly from personal care products (Kubwabo et al., 2013 ; Subedi et al., 2017 ; Bi et al., 2018 ). BzBP are commonly found in home furnishings and construction products, particularly in vinyl flooring, wallpapers, and synthetic leather (Bornehag et al., 2005 ; Rivera-Utrilla et al., 2012 ). While industrial flexible plastic applications such as traffic cones, conveyor belts, pool liners, garden hoses, children's toys, and furniture mainly contain DnOP and DNP (Das et al., 2021 ; Kamrin, 2009 ). PVC flooring materials typically contain high-molecular-weight plasticizers such as DCHP, DEHP, and DnOP to enhance flexibility (Afshari et al., 2004 ). Moreover, Fan et al., 2022 study found that DEEP and DnOP may migrate from plastic packaging or bottle cap liners into cosmetics, which frequent use of bottled skincare products was significantly associated with, although their levels were not related to the number of bottles used. PAEs such as DiBP, DnBP, BzBP, DEEP, and DEHP on hands were strongly linked to electronic surfaces (e.g., tablets, phones), indicating transfer from emission sources such as laminate flooring, solid wood flooring, personal care products, and polymer-coated surfaces (Yang et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2025 ). These devices act as reservoirs of PAEs due to infrequent cleaning, as evidenced by Chinese office studies showing up to a tenfold increase in hand exposure (Shi et al., 2017 ). These findings reveal PAEs' ability to migrate among indoor air, dust, and surfaces. Therefore, they reinforce the needs for preventive measures like improving ventilation, regularly cleaning surfaces, and limiting the use of products that contain PAEs. 3.4. Estimated intake doses through dust ingestion for various age groups The estimated exposure doses to PAEs through dust ingestion (based on the mean concentrations) were 27.6, 20.6, 12.3, 6.4, and 4.7 ng/kg-bw/h for infants, toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults, respectively (Table S5). The exposure to DEHP was the highest through dust ingestion, ranging from 5.2 to 28.5 ng/kg-bw/h. Similar to earlier findings, our study supports that dust-borne pollutants are mainly taken in through ingestion and inhalation (Gao et al., 2025 ). The exposure of Vietnamese to PAEs through indoor dust ingestion was 2–4 times lower than exposure doses reported for Americans, Chinese, and Qatari (Table S6). Consistent evidence from studies in Europe and Asia indicates that elevated concentrations of DEHP and BzBP in house dust are positively associated with allergic conditions in children, including asthma, rhinitis, eczema, and atopic dermatitis (Kolarik et al., 2008 ; Hsu et al., 2012 ; Bi et al., 2018 ). In our study, infants and toddlers had the highest estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of PAEs from dust ingestion in schools (37.9 and 30.3 ng/kg-bw/h, respectively) and homes (27.6 and 22.0 ng/kg-bw/h). In contrast, a previous study identified dormitories as the dominant source of dust exposure among students, largely due to higher indoor PAE levels and poor ventilation, which increase particle accumulation and dust ingestion risks (Gao et al., 2025 ). Similarly, living in a dormitory environment carries a high risk of exposure to PAEs such as DBP and DMEP. (Duan et al., 2022 ). These discrepancies suggest that variations in exposure patterns are driven by differences in building design, ventilation systems, and the prevalence of plasticized materials. The widespread use of PVC-based products in offices and classrooms, combined with limited dust removal, explains their higher contribution. Indoor contamination mainly stems from plastic flooring, wall panels, sealants, and adhesives (Bi et al., 2015 ; Shen et al., 2025 ). Future research should examine how factors such as household size, lifestyle, and ventilation influence indoor PAE contamination. 4. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is among the most comprehensive studies on the PAEs accumulation in paired indoor/outdoor dust samples from Vietnam. Our results indicate the widespread distribution of PAEs in dust samples collected in all three regions (North, Central, and South). Concentrations of PAEs in indoor dust samples were apparently higher than those in outdoor dust samples. Indoor environments, particularly homes and certain commercial establishments, are significant hotspots for PAE exposure in Vietnam. The primary source of this contamination is overwhelmingly linked to the products and materials used indoors. Among the PAEs, DEHP was the substance with the highest concentration and frequency in dust samples from different microenvironments. PAE exposure doses are significant when combined with other pathways such as inhalation, drinking water, and dermal absorption. These results necessitate the prioritization of mitigation strategies to reduce indoor PAE exposure, particularly for vulnerable groups, such as children. Furthermore, they highlight the requirement for comprehensive research into specific contaminant sources within consumer products and the documented impact of industrial operations on local environmental quality. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate : Not applicable. Consent for publication : Not applicable. Availability of data and materials : Not applicable. Competing interests : The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding : This research is funded by Vietnam National University, Hanoi, under grant number QG.23.63. Acknowledgments : This research is funded by Vietnam National University, Hanoi under grant number QG.23.63. References Afshari A, Gunnarsen L, Clausen PA, Hansen V (2004) Emission of phthalates from PVC and other materials. Indoor Air 14:120–128. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1600-0668.2003.00220.x Al Qasmi NN, Al-Thaiban H, Helaleh MI (2019) Indoor phthalates from household dust in Qatar: implications for non-dietary human exposure. 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Sci Total Environ 652:1187–1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.326 Supplementary Files IJERPAEsdustVietnamSupplementarydata.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revisions 23 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 14 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 02 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 01 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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07:28:05","extension":"html","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":231368,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/3a0c2536f16ffcfc9d3bf298.html"},{"id":94641007,"identity":"97875a9f-cb41-4260-8d1a-86716ce71a06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:50:28","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":493068,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConcentrations and percentage composition of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust samples in different micro-environments from Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/1a2016f14ec5ae4c646db211.jpeg"},{"id":94638087,"identity":"fa58a3fe-0e67-487d-bbe2-953a4d2533f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:28:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":537628,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIndoor – outdoor differences of PAEs dust concentrations in different micro-environments from Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/3c12b18fe076f6e96756f062.jpeg"},{"id":94638084,"identity":"9a421931-fd8f-4f37-9dc1-c7dbd32a9131","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:28:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":269212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpearman’s correlation analysis of PAEs in 75 pairs of indoor/outdoor dust samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/7e819919d83a8d59c259db8e.jpeg"},{"id":94638086,"identity":"a72c457e-c31c-4ba0-8ac2-d89ec59c4d48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:28:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":409607,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrincipal Component Analysis (PCA) of PAEs in dust samples from Vietnam\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/f30f5bb07ac91c24c270622c.jpeg"},{"id":94641168,"identity":"9070bee5-c630-4004-9167-5873190c91d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:51:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2823845,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/96534ef0-079f-441c-baf1-b5e1c10f3997.pdf"},{"id":94638100,"identity":"3738eaf0-e133-4e8e-b251-92c5e83ba55f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 07:28:05","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":247446,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"IJERPAEsdustVietnamSupplementarydata.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7735010/v1/640db39270e9c6cabefdd723.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"First nationwide survey of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Vietnamese dust samples: Insights into spatial trends, indoor-outdoor differences and human exposure implications","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFirst nationwide investigation on PAEs in indoor/outdoor dust in Vietnam\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eElevated PAEs concentrations found in indoor dust from homes, hair salons, electronic shops, and some grocery shops in all the three regions across Vietnam.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePAEs levels in indoor dust were markedly higher than those in outdoor dust\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eModerate and significant positive correlation between indoor and outdoor PAE concentrations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEstimated intake doses to PAEs through dust ingestion for indoor areas were higher than those for outdoor areas, with infants were at higher exposure risk than other age groups.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhthalic acid esters (PAEs) or esters of 1,2-benzene dicarboxylic acid were introduced in the 1920s as plasticizers, additives, and solvents (US CPSC, 2017; EC, 2018; ECCC, 2020). Based on molecular weights, PAEs are divided into two groups. The first group has low molecular weights (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4 carbons in the backbone): dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dipropyl phthalate (DPP, and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). The second group has high molecular weights (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;5 carbons in structures): benzyl butyl phthalate (BzBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dioctyl phthalate (DnOP), and diisononyl phthalate (DiNP)] (ECCC, 2020). PAEs with higher molecular weights, such as DEHP, DnOP, and DiNP are mainly used (up to 90%) to improve the flexibility and malleability of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) materials. Di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) serves as plasticizer for various coatings including latex, lacquers and paste paints. DBP and DEP can make up to 10% by weight in food packaging plastic film. The global production of PAEs was estimated at 4.9\u0026nbsp;million tons in 2010. This amount accounted for 84% of the total plasticizer production (Guo and Kannan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and reached about 8\u0026nbsp;million tons in 2015 (Rhodes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Due to widespread usage in commercial products, PAEs are often called \"ubiquitous chemicals\".\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough important ingredients in various commercial products, concerns about the use of PAEs have been growing due to evidence of their toxicity in laboratory animals (Boberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Radke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). PAEs are toxicants in endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) or hormonally-active agents (HAAs) groups because of their ability to interfere with the endocrine system in the body (Guo and Kannan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Several recent studies have reported evidence of adverse human health effects due to PAE exposure (Benjamin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Bolling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Chang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Santos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). PAE metabolites such as monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl phthalate (MECPP), mono-(carboxynonyl) phthalate (MCNP), and DEHP found in urine samples were positively related to asthma risk (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The previous reports that PAEs can interfere with hormone activity by affecting estrogen levels, reducing testosterone concentrations, lowering semen volume, and total sperm count, and causing genotoxic effects that may lead to infertility, obesity, diabetes, and several types of cancer (Phillips et al., 2008; Kay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Amjad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Nidens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Meng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, PAEs have also been linked to harmful effects on the nervous system, which include mental health problems, hyperactivity and attention deficit disorders in children, autism, mental disorders, and adverse impact on intellectual abilities (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePAEs are added to commercial products but do not have chemical bonds with the material, so they easily spread into different environments such as soil, water, air, dust, and even enter the food chain (Tran and Kannan, 2015; Anh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Le et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Humans can be exposed to PAE from the environment through various pathways such as inhalation, ingestion or/and dermal absorption. An earlier study reported the mean inhalation exposure doses to 10 PAEs for various Vietnamese age groups were in the range of 213\u0026ndash;780 ng/kg-bw/d (Tran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The calculated mean exposure doses to PAEs through consumption of bottled water were respectively 254 and 256 ng/kg-bw/d for adults and children in Vietnam (Le et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, the daily intake doses of selected PAEs ( such as DnBP, DiBP, BzBP, and DEHP) derived for occupationally exposed persons were about 3 to 5 times higher than those of normal residents in Vietnam (Hoang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, comprehensive studies on PAEs in different environments in central and southern Vietnam are still scarce. Studies on the comprehensive comparison of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust samples collected from the same locations in Vietnam, as well as in Southeast Asian region, are also very limited.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive nationwide survey on the distribution of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust collected from Vietnam. In this study, 16 PAEs were quantified in indoor and outdoor dust samples from diverse regions across Vietnam to determine their concentration levels, compositional profiles, and distribution patterns. Additionally, the daily intakes (EDIs) of PAEs via dust ingestion were estimated to assess the potential human health risks associated with this exposure pathway. This study focuses on (1) analyzing their concentrations, origins, and distribution patterns; (2) assessing the potential health risks associated with exposure to these compounds. The findings from this work are crucial for enhancing the global understanding of both the distribution trends and health implications of PAEs present in indoor and outdoor dust.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Chemicals\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSixteen PAEs analyzed in the present study include dimethylphthalate (DMP), diethylphthalate (DEP), di-\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-propylphthalate (DPrP), diisobutylphthalate (DiBP), di-\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-butylphthalate (DBP), di(2-methoxyethyl)phthalate (DMEP), di-(4-methyl-2-pentyl)phthalate (DMPP), di(2-ethoxyethyl)phthalate (DEEP), di-n-pentylphthalate (DPP), di-\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-hexylphthalate (DnHP), benzylbutylphthalate (BzBP), di-(2-\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-butoxyethyl)phthalate (DBEP), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), dicyclohexylphthalate (DCHP), di-\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-octylphthalate (DnOP), and di-n-nonylphthalate (DnNP).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeven deuterated-PAEs, including DMP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DEP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DPrP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DiBP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DMEP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DEEP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DPP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DnHP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, BzBP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DBEP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DEHP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, DCHP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, and DnOP-\u003cem\u003ed4\u003c/em\u003e, were used as surrogate standards for quantification of native compounds. Water, dichloromethane (DCM), \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-hexane, and acetone (analytical grade) were obtained from Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany). All native and surrogate standard solutions, and final sample extracts were prepared in \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e-hexane.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll dust samples were collected from northern (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52), central (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75), and southern (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32) areas in Vietnam during September 2024 to May 2025 (Table S2). The sampling sites can be grouped into dormitories (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9), homes (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25), schools (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18), workplaces (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32), and outdoor (road) dust (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75). Each composite sample was collected by manually sweeping road surfaces, floors or/and household surfaces with a non-plastic broom and a metal dustpan. Then, dust samples were sieved, wrapped in aluminum foil, and kept in an icebox. At the laboratory, the samples were stored in amber glass vials at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C until analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Sample preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo hundred nanograms of each surrogate standard were added to 200 mg of the dust samples. Analytes were extracted with 5 mL of hexane-DCM (3/2, v/v) mixture by shaking in an orbital shaker (Eberbach Corp., Ann Arbor, MI, USA) at 300 rpm for 10 min. The sample was centrifuged in a Hettich EBA 21 centrifugator (Germany) at 4000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was transferred to a dark glass tube. The sample was extracted twice more, each time with 3 mL of the mixture of hexane:DCM (3/2, v/v). The combined supernatant was then concentrated to 1 mL under a gentle nitrogen stream. The concentrated solution was filtered through a 0.22 \u0026micro;m PTFE filter into a vial for analysis on a GC-MS equipment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Instrumental analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSixteen PAEs were quantified by using a gas chromatograph (Trace 1310) interfaced with a quadrupole mass spectrometer (TSQ8000 Evo, Thermo Scientific). A fused silica capillary column (DB-5ms, 60 m \u0026times; 0.25 mm \u0026times; 0.25 \u0026micro;m; Agilent Technologies; USA) was used for chromatographic separation of PAEs. Detailed instrumental parameters for PAE analysis are provided in Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e (Supplementary data).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eContamination with PAEs during sample collection, transport, handling, and analysis must be strictly controlled. Plastic, rubber, and other potential sources, such as personal care products, should be kept to a minimum during the analysis. Glassware was cleaned sequentially with water, acetone, and hexane before being calcined at 400 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 8 h. The solvents were used directly from the container. One procedural blank sample was analyzed simultaneously with each batch of 8\u0026ndash;10 samples. Trace levels of several target compounds were found in the blank sample: DEP (2.5\u0026ndash;16.0 ng), DiBP (1.5\u0026ndash;12.5 ng), DBP (3.6\u0026ndash;20.6), and DEHP (3.0\u0026ndash;45.5 ng). The reported concentrations were subtracted from the blank levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe recoveries of surrogate and target compounds in the blank procedure (replicated 7 times) were 85.5\u0026ndash;112% (RSD\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;8.5%) and 82.0\u0026ndash;117% (RSD\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;12%). Surrogate compounds were also added to the real sample procedures to effectively control for loss of target compounds. The reported concentration of the target compounds was calculated based on the recoveries of the respective surrogate compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe concentrations of the target compounds were calculated based on the calibration curves in the range of 5.0 to 500 ng/mL. The instrumental detection limit (IDL) of PAEs compounds ranged from 2.5 to 15 pg. The method detection limit (MDL) was calculated based on the sample mass (200 mg), the volume of the concentrated solution (1 mL), the average recovery value, and the IDL. The IDL, instrumental quantification limit (IQL), MDL, and method quantification limit (MQL) of each target compound are shown in Table S2 (Supplementary data). For concentrations below the MQLs, a value of one-half the MQL was used in statistical analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6. Estimation of daily intakes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe daily intake of PAEs was estimated through dust ingestion (EDI\u003csub\u003edi\u003c/sub\u003e) by following the methods described in several previous studies (Guo and Kannan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Tran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Hoang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, the respective average body weights (bw) for infants (6\u0026ndash;12 months), toddlers (1\u0026ndash;5 yrs), children (6\u0026ndash;11 yrs), teenagers (12\u0026ndash;18 yrs) and adults (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;19 yrs) for Vietnamese were 8, 15, 25, 50, and 70 kg (Vietnam encyclopedic knowledge, 2014). The mean dust intake rate was 0.03 g/d for infants and 0.06 g/d for toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008). The daily intake, DI (ng/kg-bw/h), was determined by Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDI = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{(C\\:\\times\\:\\:f)}{(24\\:\\times\\:\\:BW)}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere C\u003csub\u003edust\u003c/sub\u003e is the concentration in dust (ng/g), f is the dust ingestion rate (g/24 hour), and BW is the body weight (kg).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Office 2010), Minitab\u0026reg; 21 (Minitab LLC., State College, PA, USA), and Graphpad Prism (version 9.3.1). The relationship between PAE concentrations in indoor/outdoor samples was evaluated using Spearman's rank correlation analysis and principal components analysis (PCA). The level of statistical significance was set at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Concentrations of PAEs in dust samples\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, 16 PAEs were measured in dust samples (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;159) collected from three regional patterns across Vietnam (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The total concentration of PAEs ranged from 278 to 2280000 ng/g (mean/median: 123400/39100 ng/g). The DF (%) of DMP, DEP, DPrP, DBP, DPP, and DNP ranged from 93 to 97%, and DiBP, DEEP, BzBP, DEHP, and DnOP ranged from 80 to 89%. The remaining compounds were found in low detection frequencies below \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;75%. Consistent with previous reports (Qu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Pan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), DEHP demonstrated the highest detection frequency (DF) and concentration levels among all target compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean/median (range) concentration (ng/g) of PAEs in indoor and outdoor dust samples collected from Vietnam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcentrations (ng/g) of PAEs in dust samples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePAEs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNorthern\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCentral\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSouthern\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;29)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;84)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e470/42.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4.34\u0026ndash;3020)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e350/70.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.18\u0026ndash;1550)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.0/13.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;790)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.0/13.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;115)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108/71\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(10.5\u0026ndash;345)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115/40.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.15\u0026ndash;536)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e212/29.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3020)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154/21.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1550)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4250/230\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(28.6\u0026ndash;35400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1530/115\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(14.2\u0026ndash;8310)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e650/53.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3790)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.2/44.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;478)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219/152\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(50.0\u0026ndash;686)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e401/174\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(30.0\u0026ndash;1445)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1820/120 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;35400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e612/69.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8310)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDPrP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e830/140\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.31\u0026ndash;9670)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e584/52.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(5.80\u0026ndash;7660)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e370/21.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5250)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e174/16.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;920)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e252/23.5 (0.17\u0026ndash;2140)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e338/57\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.60\u0026ndash;1790)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e510/43.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9670)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e345/39.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7660)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDiBP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15400/1340\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.50\u0026ndash;83400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13500/670\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(110\u0026ndash;231000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3525/401\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;21200)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e616/292\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5750)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2090/1270 (129\u0026ndash;8400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1200/1230\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(67.5\u0026ndash;3000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7830/1222 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;83400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5260/606\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;231000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDBP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85500/19400\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.21\u0026ndash;1108000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22600/4100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(425 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;190000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11400/1320\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;64300)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1460/920\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10700)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10800/9020 (435\u0026ndash;25500)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8790/6030\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;32100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37800/4738 (n.d.\u0026ndash;1108000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9630/1980\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;190000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDMEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.2/4.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;140)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61/0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.4/3.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;380)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.10/2.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d.\u0026ndash;23.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.20/5.90 (1.80\u0026ndash;20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.03/4.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;17.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.3/5.15 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;380)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.80/2.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d.\u0026ndash;23.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDMPP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.30/0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.90)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90/1.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.52)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23/0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.80)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23/0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.50)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.67/0.74 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.03)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50/0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.00)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72/0.50 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.90)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47/0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.52)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.0/19.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;390)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.7/7.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;125)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.1/0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;201)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.50/0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;14.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.7/12.2 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;45.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19/9.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;68.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.2/5.17 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;390)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.6/3.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;125)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDPP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e395/43.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2170)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e220/12.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1450)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.5/4.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;267)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.3/4.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;785)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.0/32.4 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;74.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.2/32.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;536)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166/12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2170)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103/15.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1450)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDnHP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300/160\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1080)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103/61.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;740)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.3/66.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;397)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115/58.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e848/525\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(10.3\u0026ndash;2730)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e419/250\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(81.5\u0026ndash;1580)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e355/96.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2730)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e198/84.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1580)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBzBP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125/55\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;600)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.0/18.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;102)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.4/14.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;848)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e142/9.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1260)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e659/64.2 (10.5\u0026ndash;3870)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e719/194\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3600)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e232/35.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3870)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e246/26\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3600)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDBEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124/46\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;630)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.0/24.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;90)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104/33.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;574)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.4/16.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;280)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e175/68.1 (0.88\u0026ndash;1020)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145/50.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(9.34\u0026ndash;1170)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129/36.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1020)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.0/25.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1170)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEHP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183000/78700\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1180000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107000/28500\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4550 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1102000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95300/45400 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;423000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18900/ 11900\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;80400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e141800/64000 (460 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;523000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86700/42400\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(14600\u0026ndash;496000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e136800/60400 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1180000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63000/21000\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1102000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDCHP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3630/1670\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;24500)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1740/1190\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5910)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e866/127\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3720)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e341/63.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2900)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e796/585\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(9.34\u0026ndash;3150)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e523/420\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(36.4\u0026ndash;1360)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1770/500 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;24500)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e735/350\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5910)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDnOP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1220/550\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8610)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1270/470\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(26.0\u0026ndash;9770)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2370/1140 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11600)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1070/438\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5240)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3410/420 (62.4\u0026ndash;14270)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3620/1180\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(32.3\u0026ndash;18000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2180/870 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;14270)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1580/470\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDNP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375/94.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e184/26.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1500)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.1/25.4 (n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1660)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.8/7.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;186)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e423/88\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(3.90\u0026ndash;1740)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e233/20.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(5.85\u0026ndash;1955)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250/55.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117/14.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n.d. \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1955)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eΣPAEs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e275500/113000\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(387 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2276000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e139000/34130 (5940 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1113000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93110/43360\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(278 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;515000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18840/12240\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(381\u0026ndash;85650)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e161300/76500 (2027\u0026ndash;563000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96050/50700\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4220\u0026ndash;547400)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e169000/64020\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(278 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2276000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72200/22800\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(381\u0026ndash;1113000)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en.d.: Not detected\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the distribution of PAEs in various environments, this study investigated indoor and outdoor dust samples collected from northern, central, and southern Vietnam. The results in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e revealed that DEHP was the predominant compound, contributing approximately 82.7% to the total ΣPAEs concentration, followed by DBP and DiBP. The concentrations of DEHP in indoor dust ranged from no detection (n.d.) to 1180000 ng/g (mean/median: 136800/60400 ng/g), which were considerably higher than those measured in outdoor dust, which ranged from n.d. to 1102000 ng/g (mean/median: 63000/21000 ng/g). This distribution supports the assumption that emissions from PVC-based products, construction materials, food packaging, and children\u0026rsquo;s products are important sources of DEHP (Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Razo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), especially in northern and southern regions. Similarly, DBP and DiBP also account for 19.8% and 5.4%, respectively. The highest concentrations of these two compounds in indoor dust were found in the northern region, and the outdoor levels in the north were approximately 10 times higher than those detected in the central and southern regions. These results are consistent with the widespread use of DBP and DiBP in personal care products, printing inks, and adhesives (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Other compounds, including DEP, DnOP, and DCHP (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1% of the total PAEs), were still detected in indoor dust samples across all three regions. Meanwhile, DMP, DPrP, and BzBP were measured at low concentrations. The contribution of the remaining PAEs was minor, as they were either not detected or were found only in trace amounts, with each congener accounting for less than 0.1% of the total PAE concentration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the presence of three PAEs, including DBEP, DEEP, and DMEP, at maximum concentrations of 1170, 390, and 380 ng/g, respectively, was reported for the first time in Vietnamese house dust. To our knowledge, information about these compounds in indoor environments is still scarce. DMEP, DBEP, and DEEP were detected in both dust and air samples collected from houses and classrooms in Jinan City, East China, at concentrations markedly higher than those found in our dust samples (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Pollution levels of these compounds in Jinan City\u0026rsquo;s dust samples (DMEP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;DBEP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;DEEP) were somewhat different from the order observed in the Vietnamese samples (DBEP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;DEEP\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;DMEP), suggesting dissimilar emission sources and application patterns. Compared to our results, similar concentration levels and pollution trends of DBEP (max. 2370 ng/g), DEEP (max. 360 ng/g), and DMEP (max. 120 ng/g) were recorded in outdoor surface dust in Urumqi City, Northwest China (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). DMEP has been used as a plasticizer in various polymeric materials (e.g., nitrocellulose, acetyl cellulose, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylidene chloride, and polyvinyl chloride), as a solvent, and as an additive in pesticides (Commonwealth of Australia, 2014). DEEP and DBEP are used in the synthesis of cellulose resins and chlorinated rubbers (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). DMEP and DBEP had detection frequencies of more than 50% in children\u0026rsquo;s clothing manufactured in seven Asian countries (Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It should be noted that DBEP and DMEP were among the most frequently detected compounds in human skin wipe samples collected from college students in Beijing, China, with detection frequencies of 97\u0026ndash;100% and 83\u0026ndash;100%, respectively (Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, DMEP and DEEP in dust exhibited high gastric and gastrointestinal bioaccessibility of over 60% and 30%, respectively, which were relatively higher than those estimated for other PAEs (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These findings suggest the need for comprehensive assessments of multiple PAEs, including not only regulated compounds but also infrequently monitored substances (e.g., DMEP, DEEP, and DBEP). Even when these \u0026ldquo;novel\u0026rdquo; compounds were found at lower concentrations compared to conventional PAEs (e.g., DEHP and DBP), their occurrence may imply specific emission sources and/or significant exposure risks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study provides a clearer picture of contamination levels in indoor and outdoor environments across Vietnam. The concentrations of PAEs in both indoor and outdoor dust samples showed the highest levels detected in the North, followed by the South and then the Central region. The northern region, characterized by extensive urbanization and industrialization, exhibited elevated mean ΣPAEs concentrations. Specifically, indoor and outdoor dust samples contained 275,500 ng/g and 139,000 ng/g, respectively, indicating distinct partitioning of these contaminants. A similar trend was observed in the central and southern regions, where indoor ΣPAEs levels were also higher than outdoor. Notably, indoor ΣPAEs concentrations in the northern region were approximately three times higher than in the central region (mean: 93110 ng/g), but similar to the southern region (mean: 161300 ng/g). An earlier study reported Σ9PAEs in indoor dust from six regions in China, ranging from 2310 to 1590000 ng/g (mean 150000 ng/g) (Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), similar to those observed in several areas of Vietnam. The outdoor levels of PAEs in the central (mean: 18840 ng/g) and southern (mean: 96050 ng/g) regions were several orders of magnitude lower than those detected in the North. These findings suggest that indoor sources, such as consumer products, building materials, and human activities, may be the major contributors to the presence of PAEs in settled dust, particularly in the North and South. Regional variations in concentration may be attributable to differences in building characteristics and climate. For instance, limited ventilation in typical northern buildings may facilitate the accumulation of indoor-emitted PAEs. On the other hand, the warm and humid climate characteristic of the South could enhance the rate of plasticizer leaching from source materials, leading to their subsequent deposition into household dust.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Concentrations of PAEs in various indoor microenvironments.\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSixteen PAE compounds were detected in indoor dust samples with frequencies of 80 to 86%. Overall, PAEs showed substantial variability in concentration across all samples collected from the four microenvironments. The mean and median \u0026sum;PAE concentrations reached 47200 and 49900 ng/g in dormitories, 182000 and 98900 ng/g in schools, 127000 and 12600 ng/g in homes, and 229000 and 88000 ng/g in workplaces, respectively. The highest PAEs concentrations were found in homes and workplaces, particularly the distribution pattern from micro-environments, followed by: North-homes (N-H)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;South-workplaces (S-W)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;North-workplaces (N-W)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Central-schools (C-S), while lower levels were measured in the remaining environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompared with previous reports, the PAEs concentrations in the home environment measured in this study were lower than the median values reported in Vietnam in 2016 and 2021 (22600 and 23700 ng/g, respectively) (Tran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Hoang et al., 2021). In this study, the total PAEs concentrations were about 10 times lower than those reported in Qatar, China, and the US, with median values of 536000, 295000, and 396000 ng/g, respectively (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; AI_Qasmi et al., 2018). A similar pattern was observed for workplace dust, where the measured levels were lower than those previously reported (median: 865000 ng/g) in China (Kang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). These changes may be attributed to factors such as population density, consumption patterns, and the use of personal care products in different countries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the contamination levels of PAEs in the studied micro-environments, DEHP, DBP, and DiBP were the most abundant PAEs, with the range level of 12500\u0026ndash;260000 ng/g, 260-135000 ng/g, and 110-17100 ng/g, respectively, followed by DEP, DCHP, and DnOP (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This composition is consistent with previous studies, which also reported DEHP and DBP as the dominant PAEs from indoor micro-environments (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hoang et al., 2021). Qu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported that DEHP was the dominant PAE in indoor dust, accounting for 67.1\u0026ndash;72.9% in dormitories, homes, and classrooms, followed by DnBP (11.2\u0026ndash;14.2%) and DiBP (3.8\u0026ndash;7.4%), while other PAEs contributed\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1%. The high levels of DEHP were attributed to its low vapor pressure, high plasticization rate, and frequent use in consumer materials. In a study of Chinese dormitories, Fan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found that PAE concentrations in dormitory glass window films were strongly associated with decorating materials and personal care product use. Moreover, flooring materials contain high levels of PAEs in Chinese homes, with a median concentration of 14,100 ng/g. DEHP was the dominant compound, accounting for 62.8% of total PAEs (Zhang, 2025), a trend also confirmed in PVC wallpapers and flooring (Xue, 2023). Higher levels of DEHP, DCHP, and DnOP were linked to PVC flooring and wallpaper, while bottled and spray skincare products significantly increased several PAEs, including DEEP, DPP, and DnBP (Net et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These findings highlight indoor sources such as building materials and personal care products as important contributors to PAE contamination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean/median concentrations (ng/g) of PAEs in various indoor microenvironments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePAEs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorthern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSouthern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-S (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-H (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-W (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-DO (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-S (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-H (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-W (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS-S (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS-H (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS-W (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e520/150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500/55.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.0/14.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.0/30.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.0/3.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.0/4.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140/86.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110/47.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.0/60.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2430/230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5620/240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e280/92.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2040/2460\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.0/29.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200/62.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e280/125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100/97.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230/180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDPrP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e190/67.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1250/320\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140/43.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e820/170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240/6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e205/30.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.0/13.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180/150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e540/85.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDiBP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15400/660\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17100/1660\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1180/540\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9350/11300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110/130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e565/330\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1980/1880\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2300/350\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2050/1260\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDBP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135000/3030\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68200/23200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8570/2080\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32500/33900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e260/230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2670/1330\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15700/13600\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2570/1520\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11400/11800\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDMEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.0/1.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.0/10.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.30/0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e130/99.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.0/29.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en.d.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.00/6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.10/4.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.00/7.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDMPP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en.d.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.80/2.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00/0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20/0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25/0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30/0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10/0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50/0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90/0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.70/0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.5/13.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.0/20.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85/0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.0/72.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80/0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.50/2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.0/18.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.60/1.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.30/7.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDPP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e430/230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400/43.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.80/1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110/110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.90/1.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.0/12.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.0/41.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.10/0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.5/33.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDnHP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e185/160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e410/300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.0/19.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110/100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.0/2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e370/370\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375/300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e205/200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1750/1570\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBzBP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160/55.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.0/38.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.0/28.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150/28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.0/12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.0/11.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.0/51.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.0/47.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1640/1440\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDBEP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.0/25.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155/84.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93.0/23.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.0/15.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.0/7.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210/170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.0/30.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.0/28.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400/200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEHP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157000/22300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e215000/113000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55000/43100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e218000/173000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12500/9100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70200/67200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88600/64000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44500/41000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e260000/256000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDCHP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5380/2290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3380/1800\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.5/2.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1980/2590\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e730/80.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e770/770\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000/700\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e640/560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e700/585\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDnOP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1060\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1625/570\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e980/510\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2460/1385\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2840/1590\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e590/320\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4040/3420\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1160/640\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300/360\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7970/12200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDNP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250/56.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e435/96.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.0/31.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240/67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.0/6.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.0/45.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105/88.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e270/110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e840/770\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e317000/27100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e276000/123000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47200/49900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e245500/205000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10900/8180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78500/76100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109000/80700\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51200/44900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e286000/282000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en.d.: Not detectable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-S: Northern - Classroom \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-H: Northern - Home \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-W: Northern - Workplace\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-DO: Central - Dormitory ; C-S: Central - Classroom \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-H: Central - Home ; C-W: Central - Workplace\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS-S: Southern - Classroom\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS-H: Southern - Home\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS-W: Southern - Workplace\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Indoor-outdoor differences and correlation of PAEs dust concentrations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA compilation of total PAEs concentrations in indoor and outdoor dust from diverse micro-environments across the northern, central, and southern regions of Vietnam is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The total concentrations of 16 PAEs in indoor dust samples (range: 278-2276000 ng/g, mean/median: 169000/64020 ng/g) were much higher than those in outdoor dust samples (range: 381-1113000 ng/g, mean/median: 72200/22800 ng/g). These concentrations were markedly higher than previously reported levels in Vietnam, where total PAEs in indoor and road dust ranged from below the detection limit (BDL) to 153,000 ng/g (Hoang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A striking and consistent pattern observed across all three regions is the markedly higher concentration of PAEs in indoor dust compared to outdoor dust collected from the same locations. This trend is evident in residential homes, electronics shops, furniture and grocery stores, and educational units. For example, in the northern region, the indoor dust from an interior decoration store exhibited an exceptionally high concentration of 1,710,000 ng/g, which was substantially greater than its corresponding outdoor sample. A similar trend was also encountered in homes, electronic shops, and grocery stores with higher PAE levels in indoor dust. This indoor predominance strongly suggests that the primary sources of PAE emissions are located within the indoor environment. PAEs are ubiquitous semi-volatile organic compounds used as plasticizers in a vast array of consumer products, including PVC flooring, furniture, electronics, and personal care products. Limited air exchange in indoor environments could probably lead to high accumulation in indoor dust samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe type of micro-environment plays a crucial role in determining the level of PAE contamination. Residential homes represent one of the most significant sources of PAEs across three regions. This is likely due to the high density and variety of consumer goods, furnishings, and building materials that contain phthalates. Similarly, commercial settings such as decoration stores, electronics shops, and hair salons in the northern region showed elevated PAE levels. These environments are characterized by a high turnover of new products or the use of specific chemical formulations that may contain PAEs, contributing to elevated concentrations in dust. Educational facilities, including primary schools and kindergartens, also presented relatively high levels of contamination, a finding of particular concern given the vulnerability of children exposed to the endocrine-disrupting effects of these chemicals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePAEs concentrations in paired indoor\u0026ndash;outdoor dust samples (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75) were compared to assess their correlation and dynamics (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The Spearman correlation analysis revealed a moderate but statistically significant positive correlation between indoor and outdoor concentrations (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.424, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). This relationship means that while outdoor dust may act as an important contributor to indoor contamination. Several outlier values may result from various factors at the sampling sites. For instance, outdoor dust samples collected near industrial zones or facilities producing plastics, paints, and building materials may show very high PAE levels, which can subsequently lead to corresponding contamination indoors. Similarly, indoor environments may exhibit outliers if they contain significant emission sources, such as new furniture, floor coverings, curtains, or plastic toys containing PAEs. These locations are contributing higher outdoor dust and adding to the indoor spaces, further reinforcing the indoor\u0026ndash;outdoor dust linkage. PAEs are commonly found at higher concentrations indoors than outdoors due to differences in emission sources and environmental conditions. PAEs are released indoors from plastics and paints, which persist longer due to limited sunlight, low humidity, and weak air circulation, slowing the photolysis process (Rudel et al., 2009; Net et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Bope et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, outdoor environments promote faster removal through sunlight-driven chemical reactions and wet or dry deposition, with atmospheric half-lives estimated at several days (Behnke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Teil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e ; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Bope et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) examined PAE degradation in house dust under high humidity, considering both biotic and abiotic mechanisms. All targeted PAEs were detected, with DEHP at the highest concentration (0.029 \u0026micro;g/mg), but no significant degradation occurred for DEP, DIBP, DnBP, or DnOP. Our data tentatively suggest microbial degradation via pathways like β-oxidation, though the underlying mechanisms are still ambiguous. Significantly, the degradation patterns diverged from those previously reported, which is likely attributable to differences in the microbial consortium, contaminant bioavailability, and characteristics of the dust matrix. Consequently, the rate of PAE degradation appears to be highly heterogeneous across diverse indoor environments. Degradation patterns differed from previous findings, likely due to microbial communities, bioavailability, and dust, indicating that rates vary by indoor environment. Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) reported that low-molecular-weight PAEs are more prone to environmental degradation, which supports the observation that households with laminate flooring showed an overall decrease in certain PAEs, mainly because lighter compounds such as DMP, DBP, and DIBP were absorbed, while only DEP and DEHP were released. Although no adsorption tests were performed, this pattern suggests that some PAEs might also break down after being absorbed, possibly through slow photodegradation or microbial activity. According to Ye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), PAEs in dust degrade very slowly because hydrolysis has long half-lives (up to 2000 years) and the lack of light indoors inhibits photolysis, leading to the accumulation of more toxic monoesters. This persistence highlights the potential for long-term exposure risks in indoor environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrincipal Components Analysis (PCA) was employed on the settled dust dataset to categorize the main sources of indoor and outdoor dust in Vietnam. The principal component plot (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) showed three distinct components (PC1, PC2, and PC3) in indoor and outdoor dust, which accounted for 78.3% and 84.5% of the total variance, respectively. In the indoor dust dataset, PC1 (39.5% variance) was highly correlated with DEP, DiBP, DBP, DMEP, DPP, DEHP, and DCHP, all showing high loadings (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.80). This trend suggests a dominant contribution from building materials and indoor-use goods (PVC flooring, wall coverings, and plasticized consumer products) (Schettler et al., 2006). The components PC2 (20.4%) were BzBP, DBEP, DnOP, DNP, and PC3 (9.3%), which included DPrP, DMPP, and DnHP. Three PCs accounted for 43.3%, 23.9% and 17.3% of the total variance shown in the outdoor dust sample, explained by components 1 to 3, respectively. The strong positive loadings for PC1 were as follows: DEP, DPrP, DEEP, DnHP, BzBP, DBEP, DEHP, and DCHP referred to a combination of outdoor sources such as traffic-related emissions, industrial activities, and atmospheric deposition from urban cities. DBP, DMPP, and DPP with component 2 originate from mixed outdoor\u0026ndash;indoor pathways, including volatilization from materials in semi-open commercial areas. PC3 included DMP, DiBP, and DNP, which were similar to PC1, which represent finer particle-bound fractions or contributions from diffuse urban sources such as waste burning or secondary atmospheric processes. Previous studies suggest that DEHP, DnOP, and BzBP, which are less volatile and have higher molecular weights, tend to accumulate in household dust, whereas DEP, with higher volatility, is primarily present in the gas phase and originates mainly from personal care products (Kubwabo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Subedi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Bi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). BzBP are commonly found in home furnishings and construction products, particularly in vinyl flooring, wallpapers, and synthetic leather (Bornehag et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Rivera-Utrilla et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). While industrial flexible plastic applications such as traffic cones, conveyor belts, pool liners, garden hoses, children's toys, and furniture mainly contain DnOP and DNP (Das et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kamrin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). PVC flooring materials typically contain high-molecular-weight plasticizers such as DCHP, DEHP, and DnOP to enhance flexibility (Afshari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, Fan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e study found that DEEP and DnOP may migrate from plastic packaging or bottle cap liners into cosmetics, which frequent use of bottled skincare products was significantly associated with, although their levels were not related to the number of bottles used. PAEs such as DiBP, DnBP, BzBP, DEEP, and DEHP on hands were strongly linked to electronic surfaces (e.g., tablets, phones), indicating transfer from emission sources such as laminate flooring, solid wood flooring, personal care products, and polymer-coated surfaces (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These devices act as reservoirs of PAEs due to infrequent cleaning, as evidenced by Chinese office studies showing up to a tenfold increase in hand exposure (Shi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These findings reveal PAEs' ability to migrate among indoor air, dust, and surfaces. Therefore, they reinforce the needs for preventive measures like improving ventilation, regularly cleaning surfaces, and limiting the use of products that contain PAEs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Estimated intake doses through dust ingestion for various age groups\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe estimated exposure doses to PAEs through dust ingestion (based on the mean concentrations) were 27.6, 20.6, 12.3, 6.4, and 4.7 ng/kg-bw/h for infants, toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults, respectively (Table S5). The exposure to DEHP was the highest through dust ingestion, ranging from 5.2 to 28.5 ng/kg-bw/h. Similar to earlier findings, our study supports that dust-borne pollutants are mainly taken in through ingestion and inhalation (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The exposure of Vietnamese to PAEs through indoor dust ingestion was 2\u0026ndash;4 times lower than exposure doses reported for Americans, Chinese, and Qatari (Table S6). Consistent evidence from studies in Europe and Asia indicates that elevated concentrations of DEHP and BzBP in house dust are positively associated with allergic conditions in children, including asthma, rhinitis, eczema, and atopic dermatitis (Kolarik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Hsu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Bi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, infants and toddlers had the highest estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of PAEs from dust ingestion in schools (37.9 and 30.3 ng/kg-bw/h, respectively) and homes (27.6 and 22.0 ng/kg-bw/h). In contrast, a previous study identified dormitories as the dominant source of dust exposure among students, largely due to higher indoor PAE levels and poor ventilation, which increase particle accumulation and dust ingestion risks (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, living in a dormitory environment carries a high risk of exposure to PAEs such as DBP and DMEP. (Duan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These discrepancies suggest that variations in exposure patterns are driven by differences in building design, ventilation systems, and the prevalence of plasticized materials. The widespread use of PVC-based products in offices and classrooms, combined with limited dust removal, explains their higher contribution. Indoor contamination mainly stems from plastic flooring, wall panels, sealants, and adhesives (Bi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Future research should examine how factors such as household size, lifestyle, and ventilation influence indoor PAE contamination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo our knowledge, this is among the most comprehensive studies on the PAEs accumulation in paired indoor/outdoor dust samples from Vietnam. Our results indicate the widespread distribution of PAEs in dust samples collected in all three regions (North, Central, and South). Concentrations of PAEs in indoor dust samples were apparently higher than those in outdoor dust samples. Indoor environments, particularly homes and certain commercial establishments, are significant hotspots for PAE exposure in Vietnam. The primary source of this contamination is overwhelmingly linked to the products and materials used indoors. Among the PAEs, DEHP was the substance with the highest concentration and frequency in dust samples from different microenvironments. PAE exposure doses are significant when combined with other pathways such as inhalation, drinking water, and dermal absorption. These results necessitate the prioritization of mitigation strategies to reduce indoor PAE exposure, particularly for vulnerable groups, such as children. Furthermore, they highlight the requirement for comprehensive research into specific contaminant sources within consumer products and the documented impact of industrial operations on local environmental quality.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: This research is funded by Vietnam National University, Hanoi, under grant number QG.23.63. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e: This research is funded by Vietnam National University, Hanoi under grant number QG.23.63. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAfshari A, Gunnarsen L, Clausen PA, Hansen V (2004) Emission of phthalates from PVC and other materials. 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Sci Total Environ 652:1187\u0026ndash;1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.326\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-environmental-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"IJER","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Environmental Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/41742)","snPcode":"41742","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijer/default2.asp...\n","title":"International Journal of Environmental Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Indoor/outdoor dust, Human exposure, PAEs, Vietnam","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7735010/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7735010/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution patterns of 16 phthalic acid esters (PAEs) were investigated in 159 indoor/outdoor dust samples collected from three regions (northern, central, and southern) of Vietnam. Total concentrations of PAEs dust samples ranged from 278 to 2.280.000 ng/g (mean/median: 123.400/39.100 ng/g). The highest concentrations of PAEs were found in indoor dust samples collected from northern areas (mean/median: 276.000/113.000 ng/g), followed by southern (mean/median: 161.000/76.500 ng/g) and central areas (93.100/43.400 ng/g). PAE concentrations in indoor dust were found to be approximately two to four times higher than in outdoor dust, and exhibited a geographical distribution across the country in the descending order of northern\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;southern\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;central areas. PAEs measured in dust samples collected in homes were significantly higher than those in workplaces and schools in the northern and central regions. For samples from the southern region, however, a distinct distribution was observed, with PAE concentrations in dust decreasing in the order of workplaces (mean/median: 286,000/282,000 ng/g)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;schools (110,000/80,700 ng/g)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;homes (51,300/44,800 ng/g). The correlation of PAEs concentrations among indoor/outdoor dust sample pairs collected at each location in all three regions was moderate (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.456). Among the 16 PAEs, DEHP was measured at the highest concentrations in all dust samples, followed by DBP and DEP. Estimated human exposure doses to PAEs through dust ingestion for indoor areas were higher than those for outdoor areas. Infants were at higher risk of exposure than other age groups.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"First nationwide survey of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Vietnamese dust samples: Insights into spatial trends, indoor-outdoor differences and human exposure implications","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-29 07:28:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7735010/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2026-03-23T09:27:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T17:09:07+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T15:31:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-02T17:25:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Environmental Research","date":"2025-10-01T09:23:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-environmental-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"IJER","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Environmental Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/41742)","snPcode":"41742","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijer/default2.asp...\n","title":"International Journal of Environmental Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5299766f-bf63-49e9-93cf-f8ee4b9c3908","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-12T10:12:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-29 07:28:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7735010","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7735010","identity":"rs-7735010","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}