Grain legume seed multiplication in Zambia: a case study of smallholder farmers in Eastern Province

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Niemi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9333821/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Grain legumes play an important role in smallholder farming systems by providing plant-based protein, improving soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen fixation, and enhancing cropping systems. However, limited access to high-quality seed remains a major constraint to legume productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the potential of semi-formal seed multiplication through the QDS (Quality Declared Seed) system for two important grain legumes, groundnut and cowpea, in Zambia Eastern Province. Seed multiplication was implemented across three districts and seven chiefdoms through a cooperative-based farmer network. Seeds of improved groundnut and cowpea varieties were distributed to over 1,200 smallholder farmers, and seed production outcomes were evaluated across locations. Results showed significant variation in seed production across studied sites and crop species, while gender had no significant effect on production. Our results demonstrate that semi-formal seed multiplication through farmer networks can substantially increase the local availability of improved legume seeds. Integrating seed systems with good agronomy practices and formal seed supply chains will be critical to improving productivity, food security, and resilience in smallholder farming systems in Africa. Agronomy Cowpea Groundnut Africa Seeds Smallholder farmers Food security Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction Grain legumes are valuable in agricultural systems as they supply plant‑based protein for food and feed systems, improve soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen (N) fixation, and reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers. They are especially important in low‑input, resource‑constrained farming systems, where they help maintain soil health and support sustainable production (Herridge et al., 2008 ). Studies show that legumes can contribute 40–70 kg N ha⁻¹ per season in African smallholder systems, improving both soil productivity and farmers’ incomes through grain and seed sales (Giller, 2001 ; Vanlauwe et al., 2019 ). However, the benefits of grain legumes can only be fully realized when smallholder farmers have reliable access to high-quality seed, highlighting the importance of effective seed multiplication systems. Seed multiplication is increasingly recognized as a foundation for strengthening food systems in Africa (Ngoma et al., 2025 ), particularly in Zambia where smallholder farmers rely on consistent access to high‑quality seed. Improved legume seed enhances yields, nutrition, and resilience to climate stress, yet limited availability of quality legume seed remains a major production constraint. Limited access to quality legume seed remains a major constraint for smallholder farmers in Zambia, highlighting the importance of strengthening local seed multiplication systems to improve seed availability and productivity (FAO, 2025). Scientific evidence further shows that robust legume seed systems contribute to soil fertility and overall system productivity; for example, legume cultivation in Eastern Zambia significantly improve land productivity and support climate‑smart agriculture (Mwila et al., 2011; Phiri et al., 2024 ; Khazaei et al., 2026 ). Regional analyses of seed system development also emphasize the need to multiply breeders and basic seed to ensure farmers can access improved legume varieties across Zambia and neighbouring countries (Siambi et al., 2012 ). Legume seed multiplication through improved seed access, local production, and supportive policies is central to sustainable agricultural development in Zambia and the wider African region. Like other sub-Saharan Africa countries, Zambian legume seed supply operates through three main mechanisms. First, a formal seed system that involves private seed companies releasing, bulking, and selling certified seeds, using either fully privately bred varieties or a combination of publicly funded and privately bred varieties. For example, Synergy and SeedCo primarily rely on commercial farmers and their own foundation farms to produce certified legume seed. Second, a semi-formal seed system based on QDS (Quality Declared Seed), where companies and government entities that use publicly funded local (e.g., University of Zambia) and international breeding programmes (e.g., the international agricultural research centres of CGIAR centres), such as ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) and IITA (International Institute for Tropical Agriculture) that have developed improved groundnut and cowpea varieties, respectively (e.g., Nkhoma and Otieno, 2017 ). For both formal and semi-formal seed systems, these varieties are tested for suitability to Zambian conditions by national institutions [e.g., Zambia Agricultural Research Institute (ZARI) and Zambia Seed Control and Certification Institute (SCCI)] before approval and release. Due to the public funding for the breeding efforts, these seed varieties have traditionally functioned as ‘open source’, allowing any seed company to adopt, multiply, and commercialize them after release (Ojiewo et al., 2020 ). There has been a recent initiative by CGIAR to incentivise the adoption and distribution of their varieties, by working with national government institutions to give exclusive rights to specific varieties for limited time periods, this effectively allows seed companies to have security of rights to newly released varieties, which can help to cover variety release costs and guarantee a return to investment. Third, known as informal or farmer seed systems, including traditional non-released seed and recycled released varieties (Akpo et al., 2020 ; Breen et al., 2024 ). This remains the most common seed system for legumes in Zambia with 77.2% of groundnut seed being farmer saved seed (RALS, 2015), which is consistent with other sub-Saharan African countries, where up to 95% of legume seed is either recycled on farms or obtained from other farmers (Maredia et al., 2019 ). Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea L.) and cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) are important smallholder grain legume crops in Zambia (Muchemwa et al., 2022 ; Tembo et al., 2023 ). About 50.9% and 2.5% of all Zambian farming households grew groundnut and cowpea, respectively in 2015 (RALS, 2015). According to FAO data, Zambia harvested about 10,000 ha of cowpea, producing 5,700 t, while groundnuts covered 326,000 ha, yielding 235,000 t in 2023 (FAOSTAT, 2025; Fig. 1 ). Soybean remains the largest legume in Zambia based on production and cultivated area, although around 60% of the total production of soybean is attributed to medium and large-scale farms (Siamabele and Manda, 2024 ). These figures illustrate both the limited scale of cowpea production and the much larger but still yield‑constrained groundnut sector, underscoring the need for improved seed systems and agronomic support to enhance productivity and farmer incomes. Given the diverse mechanisms of seed supply and the persistent constraints in production and accessibility, assessing the capacity for local legume seed multiplication is critical to enhance smallholder productivity, resilience, and regional food security. The aim of this study was to assess the potential for smallholder farmer legume seed multiplication in the Eastern province of Zambia, focusing specifically on cowpea and groundnut as priority smallholder crops. 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Groundnut and cowpea varieties Seed multiplication activities were carried out using the groundnut variety “MGV‑5” and the cowpea variety “Lutembwe”. MGV-5 is an improved groundnut ICRISAT variety (ICGV SM 92741) released in Zambia in 2007 by the ZARI at the Msekera Research Station in Chipata. It is a Virginia-type variety with large tan kernels and good oil content. The variety typically matures within 125–130 days and has a yield potential of about 2.5-3.0 t ha⁻¹. MGV-5 is well adapted to the plateau agro-ecological zones of Zambia and was released to improve productivity and seed quality compared with older local varieties such as Chalimbana (Kanenga et al., 2021 ). Lutembwe is an improved cowpea variety released by Zamseed (Zambia Seed Company) in 1993 and is widely cultivated in Zambia. It is a bush-type, early-maturing variety with pink seeds that reaches maturity within 75–90 days. It produces medium-sized seeds and has a yield potential of approximately 2.0–2.5 t ha⁻¹, depending on management and environmental conditions. Lutembwe is valued for its drought tolerance and ability to perform under low-input conditions, making it suitable for smallholder farming systems. In addition to grain production, the leaves can also be consumed as a vegetable (Ministry of Agriculture-Zambia, 2022). 2.2 Quality assurance and certification In accordance with the Zambia Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1967 (amended in 1995; https://zambialii.org/akn/zm/act/1967/14/eng@1996-12-31 ), the FAO-promoted QDS system was applied in this initiative, with quality control oversight and field inspections conducted by the SCCI. The minimum requirements set by SCCI for QDS in Zambia include an isolation distance of 40 m, minimum germination of 75%, and 0.5% genetic impurity for groundnut, and an isolation distance of 10 m, minimum germination of 70%, and 0.5% genetic impurity for cowpea. A minimum of 15% of the seed production fields was inspected by trained SCCI staff (Almekinders et al., 2002). 2.3 Study sites and implementation Seed multiplication field activities were conducted across three districts in Eastern Zambia: Katete, Nyimba, and Petauke (Fig. 2 ) during growing season 2024–2025. In Katete, two chiefdoms were included: Kathumba and Kawaza; in Nyimba, four chiefdoms: Luembe, Mwape, Ndake, and Nyalugwe; and in Petauke, the Kalindawalo chiefdom. These sites were selected to capture a range of agroecological conditions and smallholder farming practices relevant to legume production and seed system assessments. A total of 1,246 farmers operating with five seed co-operatives participated in the study. Groundnut and cowpea seeds were distributed as follows: 12,000 kg of groundnut and 2,018 kg of cowpea seeds were provided across the sites. Seed quantities and farmer participation varied by chiefdom, groundnut seed ranging from 1,600 kg in Nyalugwe to 4,800 kg in Katete and cowpea seed ranging from 18 kg in Nyalugwe to 548 kg in Ndake. These data were used to evaluate the effectiveness of legume seed distribution, adoption, and production outcomes in smallholder systems. The trials were implemented under the COMACO (Community Markets for Conservation) seed multiplication program, supported by the SCCI for seed quality control, which supports cooperatives in producing, certifying, storing, and distributing quality seeds to their members. This program ensures farmers have reliable access to affordable, high-quality seeds for crops that provide both food and cash (Lewis and Wilkie, 2020 ). These efforts were aimed at addressing recurring issues around the cost of certified seed, insufficient supply of desirable groundnut and cowpea varieties and poor germination associated with certified groundnut seed. These efforts were made to cater for the needs of a Zambian for profit social enterprise, COMACO. This initiative was designed to assess the feasibility of using the QDS seed systems approach, through COMACO’s extensive network of private extension supported smallholder farmers. All farmers received 2.5 kg of cowpea seed and 20 kg of groundnut seed as inputs across sites. The seeds were certified basic seed and were provided by ZARI, located in Chipata. The area used for seed multiplication of cowpea was 0.25 ha for both crops. None of the farmers used rhizobial inoculants for either crop. No chemical fertilizers, pesticides, or irrigation were applied, reflecting the low-input conditions typical of smallholder farming systems in the study area. Farmers were trained on how to produce and manage certified seeds and agronomic knowledge on legume cultivation, good agricultural practices, fertilization, sustainable agriculture and pest disease control, and they used skills (e.g. agronomic practices, seeding/planting, harvesting, understanding the benefits of legumes) they had learned during the training. Given the large number of fields assessed, pre-crop cultivation was not included in the analysis. Common guidelines for COMACO farmers planting groundnut and cowpea, is to plant the crop using ‘conservation agriculture’ a farming technique that emphasises the minimal disturbance of soil, crop diversification and crops residue retention (Thierfleder et al., 2018), as a means of conserving soil moisture, reducing soil carbon loss and soil erosion. This is either achieved by the employment of animal draft power using ‘ripping’ or manual hand hoe ‘basins’ for the creation of a furrow or hole for planting seeds into the soil. Legume crops are established at 45cm between rows and 10cm and 15cm between single seeds for groundnut and cowpea respectively (COMACO, 2015). This spacing gives a seeding rate of 222,000 and 148,000 plants h − 1 for groundnut and cowpea respectively. Weeds are controlled by hand hoe or using shallow tillage with animal draft power. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the effects of district, chiefdom, and gender on farmer yield. Prior to analysis, the dataset was cleaned to remove missing values, and yield data were grouped according to the three categorical factors in R (R Core Team, 2024 ). 3 Results Katete farmers received 800 kg of cowpea seeds and 4,800 kg of groundnuts, yielding 23,514 kg in total across 527 farmers. Within Katete, Kawaza contributed slightly higher yields (14,188 kg) than Kathumba (9,326 kg), despite both receiving equal amounts of cowpea seeds, indicating possible differences in soil fertility or farming practices (Table 1 ). Table 1 Farmer participation, seed distribution, total seed harvested (± standard deviation), and source of variation for cowpea and groundnut seed harvested from 0.25 ha − 1 across districts and chiefdoms. Chiefdom - district Number of farmers Cowpea (kg seeds given to farmers) Cowpea seed harvested (kg) Groundnuts (kg seeds given to farmers) Groundnuts seed harvested (kg) Kathumba 217 400 8,558 ± 20 1,900 9,326 ± 25 Kawaza 310 400 11,020 ± 19 2,900 14,188 ± 52 Katete (total) 527 800 19,578 ± 21 4,800 23,514 ± 53 Luembe 40 100 3,382 ± 21 NA NA Mwape 54 135 4,130 ± 20 NA NA Ndake 258 548 17,982 ± 35 3,200 19,555 ± 36 Nyalugwe 87 18 590 ± 22 1,600 9,693 ± 36 Nyimba (total) 439 800 26,084 ± 40 4,800 29,248 ± 66 Kalindawalo 280 418 11,615 ± 36 2,400 13,322 ± 57 Petauke (total) 280 418 11,615 ± 36 2,400 13,322 ± 57 Total 1,246 2,018 57,277 12,000 66,084 ANOVA Source of variation df District 2 p < 0.0001 p < 0.0001 Chiefdom 6 p < 0.0001 p < 0.0001 Gender 1 ns ns df, degrees of freedom. Nyimba farmers also received 800 kg of cowpea seeds and 4,800 kg of groundnut seeds, resulting in the highest total yields of 29,248 kg from 439 farmers. Ndake was the primary contributor with 19,555 kg, while Nyalugwe, despite a small seed allocation, achieved 9,693 kg of total yield, indicating high efficiency per unit of seed. Nyimba exhibited the highest farmer harvested seed variation, reflecting more heterogeneous production outcomes among farmers. Petauke farmers received 418 kg of cowpea seeds and 2,400 kg of groundnuts, achieving total yields of 13,322 kg from 280 farmers. Kalindawalo was the only site in Petauke. Overall, the distribution of seeds was skewed towards Nyimba and Katete, which collectively accounted for 1,600 kg of cowpea seeds (79% of the total) and 9,600 kg of groundnuts (80% of the total), producing 52,762 kg (80%) of the total combined yield. In the present study, a total of 1,226 participants were included. Of these, 684 were female, accounting for 56% of the sample, while 542 were male, representing 44%. This indicates a slightly higher representation of females compared to males in the study population. The ANOVA revealed a highly significant effect of both site and chiefdom on yield of both crops (p < 0.0001 for each), while gender showed no significant influence (Table 1 ). The mean production per crop was illustrated for each gender in Fig. 3 . We also calculated yield (kg ha⁻¹) for both crops. On average, cowpea yield was 278 ± 65 kg ha⁻¹, while groundnut yield was 444 ± 100 kg ha⁻¹. 4 Discussion This study highlights that cooperative-based seed multiplication can significantly support smallholder legume production in Eastern Zambia. Yield differences across study sites were observed. The participation of women indicates their central role in seed production. Although average yields remain below potential, the adoption of improved varieties such as Lutembwe and MGV‑5, coupled with reliable seed access, demonstrates tangible benefits for productivity. Strengthening local seed systems and linking them with agronomic support is therefore essential to improve legume availability, enhance food security, and promote resilient smallholder farming systems in the region. Variability in yields (kg ha −1 seed production) across seed multiplication sites is consistent with the broader literature showing that local growing conditions such as soil fertility and rainfall patterns significantly influence crop performance in smallholder systems (e.g., Rurinda et al., 2013 ) where delayed planting and poor nutrient management reduced yields substantially due to climate‑driven variability. Heterogeneity in soils and micro‑site conditions further contributes to yield differences at fine spatial scales typical of smallholder farms (Snapp, 2022 ). In addition to these agroecological factors, farm‑level management practices, including timely planting, residue management, and targeted soil fertility inputs, have been shown to explain a significant portion of yield variability among farmers within the same landscape (Yengoh, 2012 ). The availability of high-quality certified seed, timely and early planting, appropriate rainfall and pest management and good land preparation were mentioned also by farmers who participated in the study as key factors for the success of certified seed production. This highlights the importance of strengthening farmer knowledge and advisory services, as appropriate agronomic decision‑making can amplify the benefits of improved genetic material and inputs. Context‑specific extension that builds on farmers’ experiential knowledge and local conditions can therefore enhance the effectiveness of improved varieties and mitigate some of the yield constraints imposed by environmental variability (Yengoh, 2012 ; Rurinda et al., 2013 ). The yields obtained in the seed multiplication fields represent only a small fraction of the varieties’ reported potential (Kanenga et al., 2021 ; Ministry of Agriculture-Zambia, 2022). On average, groundnut yields (0.4 t ha⁻¹) correspond to approximately 15–18% of the potential yield, while cowpea yields (0.3 t ha⁻¹) represent approximately 11–14% of the potential yield. Such yield gaps are widely reported in smallholder systems across sub-Saharan Africa and typically arise from multiple interacting constraints. In the present study, farmers operated under low-input conditions, and none of the participants used rhizobial inoculants or other yield-enhancing technologies. Differences in soil fertility, rainfall variability, pest and disease pressure, and heterogeneity in management practices among farmers likely contributed to the relatively low and variable productivity observed across sites and chiefdoms. Similar yield ranges for grain legumes have been documented in smallholder farming systems under limited input use, where yields frequently remain below 1 t ha⁻¹ despite substantially higher varietal potential (Vanlauwe et al., 2014 ). These findings highlight that while semi-formal seed multiplication can successfully expand seed availability within farmer networks, realizing the genetic yield potential of improved varieties will depend on complementary improvements in agronomic management, soil fertility, and access to inputs. Women’s active participation in seed multiplication demonstrates their essential role in sustaining local seed systems and ensuring quality seed availability for households and communities, consistent with findings that women often dominate seed work in legume and other smallholder crops in sub‑Saharan Africa (Nchanji et al., 2024 ). Recognising and empowering women in seed stewardship and agroecological practices can strengthen local seed networks and resilience, promoting more equitable and sustainable farming systems (Sibanda, 2025 ). These suggest that targeted support - combining improved seeds with farmer training and gender-inclusive approaches - can strengthen seed system resilience and enhance smallholder productivity across diverse agroecological zones. The farmers were paid ZMW42.5 kg⁻¹ for certified Lutembwe cowpea seed and ZMW69.5 kg⁻¹ certified MGV-5 groundnut seed. Hence, the net value of producing seeds, i.e. the market value of harvested seeds subtracted by the market value of seeds sold, was estimated on average at ZMW4,902 per farm and ZMW6,1 million in total for 1,246 farms. The net value of producing cowpea was estimated at ZMW2.3 million in total, and 2,909 per farm that had received cowpea seeds. The value of producing groundnut was estimated at ZMW3.8 million in total, and ZMW6,265 per farm that had received groundnut seeds. The groundnut yield was more valuable than the cowpea yield because of the larger quantity of yield. Seed production adds value to farming, because farmers can receive approximately ZMW35 kg⁻¹ higher price for selling the harvest as certified seed when compared to selling the harvest as non-seed quality agricultural commodity (Ministry of Agriculture-Zambia, 2025). Although small markets for certified legume seed have existed in Zambia for several decades, largely driven by demand from farmers and NGOs promoting improved agronomy, crop diversification, and nutrition, grain legumes have historically received less attention from commercial seed companies than hybrid crops. Hybrid seeds generate recurring demand because farmers must purchase new seeds each season, whereas most grain legumes are self-pollinated and can be recycled on-farm without substantial yield loss. As a result, private sector investment in legume seed multiplication has remained relatively limited. Beginning in 2012, the inclusion of a small quantity of legume seed in the national farmer input support programme (FISP) created additional demand and provided an important stimulus for the certified legume seed value chain (Ngoma et al., 2025 ). However, recent reforms to the program in 2025, shifting from input packages toward greater farmer choice in input purchases, may alter demand dynamics for certified legume seed (World Bank, 2025 ). While this policy change could improve market flexibility, it may also reduce the guaranteed demand that previously supported legume seed multiplication, particularly in regions where commercial seed markets remain weak. Semi-formal seed multiplication through the QDS system has therefore emerged as a complementary strategy for expanding the supply of improved legume seed. By engaging smallholder farmers in local seed multiplication, QDS schemes can reduce production and distribution costs while improving access to quality seed in remote areas. However, like formal farmer seed systems, semi-formal seed production remains vulnerable to localized shocks such as droughts or floods, which can disrupt seed supply and lead to the loss of valuable germplasm if production is concentrated within limited geographic areas. 5 Conclusions Semi-formal seed multiplication through the QDS system demonstrates considerable potential to strengthen legume seed availability in smallholder farming systems in Eastern Zambia. By engaging 1,246 farmers across multiple districts, the initiative produced substantial quantities of cowpea and groundnut seed while expanding the local distribution of improved varieties. Although yields remained far below the genetic potential of the varieties used, the results highlight the feasibility of farmer-based seed multiplication under low-input conditions and the importance of local agroecological and management factors in determining production outcomes. The strong participation of women further showed their central role in sustaining community seed systems. However, realizing the full benefits of improved legume varieties will require complementary investments in agronomic training, soil fertility management, and access to productivity-enhancing inputs. Strengthening linkages between semi-formal seed production, extension services, and formal seed systems will therefore be critical to improving seed supply, increasing smallholder productivity, and enhancing the resilience of legume-based farming systems in Zambia and similar contexts in sub-Saharan Africa. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest. Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethics approval was not required for the present study. All farmers participated voluntarily in the seed multiplication activities, and they had to indicate their consent to participate in the activities. Farmers had an option to discontinue in the pilot at any time without having to explain the reason. Funding statement This study was part of the Zambia for Agroforestry, Biodiversity and Climate (Z4ABC) project. Z4ABC is co-funded by the European Commission under the DeSIRA initiative (contribution agreement FOOD/2021/429 − 351). Author contributions declaration H.K. wrote the original draft. H.K., S.S., and J.K.N. reviewed and edited the manuscript. All the authors read and agreed with the published version of the manuscript. Data was collected by COMACO under the Z4ABC project. Acknowledgements We thank our Zambia CIFOR colleagues, Maimbo Malesu, Chilala Ndeke, Wellington Chazya, Dr. Maarit Kallio, Dr. Nicholas Hogarth, Chipo Chisonga, and Dr. Patricia Masikati, for their kind support during this activity. Many thanks to Dr. Dale Lewis, Richard Mumba, and Edward Daka from COMACO for their kind support during the seed multiplication activities and provision of data. 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Agric Food Secur 14:39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-025-00573-w Snapp S (2022) Embracing variability in soils on smallholder farms: New tools and better science. Agric Syst 195:103310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103310 Tembo M, Lubungu M, Singogo F, Mwanza M, Onyango M, Sakala P, Berhane E (2023) Maize and groundnut crop production among rural households in Zambia: Implications in the management of aflatoxins. Food Control 154:109964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109964 Thierfelder C, Baudron F, Setimela P, Nyagumbo I, Mupangwa W, Mhlanga B, Lee N, Gérard B (2018) Complementary practices supporting conservation agriculture in southern Africa. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 38:16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-018-0492-8 Vanlauwe B, Coyne D, Gockowski J, Hauser S, Huising J, Masso C, Nziguheba G, Schut M, van Asten P (2014) Sustainable intensification and the African smallholder farmer. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 8:15–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2014.06.001 Vanlauwe B, Hungria M, Kanampiu F, Giller KE (2019) The role of legumes in the sustainable intensification of African smallholder agriculture: Lessons learnt and challenges for the future. Agric Ecosyst Environ 284:106583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106583 World Bank (2025) Farmer Input Support Programme (FISP): Full Report. Washington, DC. Available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/b3fe47a3438cca5688e8ec7e117a473b-0640012026/original/FISP-Full-Report.pdf (accessed on 13 March 2026) Yengoh GT (2012) Determinants of yield differences in small-scale food crop farming systems in Cameroon. Agric Food Secur 1:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-1-19 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9333821","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":618233922,"identity":"461a0aa5-161d-4aca-ba17-f886ed13612e","order_by":0,"name":"Hamid Khazaei","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA60lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyA+wMOQkADmJVRYMEgA6Q8JxGs5IwHSwjiDkBYGuBbGNqgWfA4zZz+deOANQ1oef//hhw8ezpNInNnewNjwAI8Wy57cDQfnMOQUSxw4ZmyQuE0icTbPAcYGvA47kLvhMA9DRWLDwQYzCZCWeRIJ7A/wajn/FqJl/mH27z8S5wC1yD8gYMsNsC05iRuO8ZgxJDYAHSbBQEjLW6BfDNISN57hKZZIOCZhPLMnsRG/lvO5mz+8qUhOnHf++MaPP2psZGccP3yw8QceLVCNKDzGBoIaRsEoGAWjYBTgBwBjb1mC9/7bUgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5202-8764","institution":"Natural Resources Institute Finland","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hamid","middleName":"","lastName":"Khazaei","suffix":""},{"id":618233923,"identity":"5de5de70-8f95-4a51-adb0-d3e1f07d5160","order_by":1,"name":"Sebastian Scott","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9073-9520","institution":"Grassroots Trust Limited","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sebastian","middleName":"","lastName":"Scott","suffix":""},{"id":618233924,"identity":"61a1463d-a4c8-425c-93e5-08eb1ab5eadb","order_by":2,"name":"Jarkko K. Niemi","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9545-3509","institution":"Natural Resources Institute Finland","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jarkko","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Niemi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-06 12:21:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9333821/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9333821/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106349067,"identity":"fcc14b03-832e-4439-b068-683cf49a65b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:52:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrain legumes harvested area (ha) and production (tonnes) in Zambia in 2023.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9333821/v1/f883ee43fe445e160e55e8e9.png"},{"id":106404245,"identity":"24065c75-4062-43f1-87ba-4ecb861e4096","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:15:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":482370,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Zambia showing the Eastern province and three districts seed multiplication studies carried out.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage23.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9333821/v1/a9a9e7326b1b2f9e0df8a6d9.png"},{"id":106349069,"identity":"233f28f0-7af1-4c1e-b4a5-d3da31fdb580","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:52:04","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage harvested seed of cowpea and groundnut by gender from 0.25 ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e land area across sites.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9333821/v1/9302a4ad4aa145a8e71ac4ff.png"},{"id":106414742,"identity":"3a30f869-1928-44dc-9a1d-550823db36d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 10:23:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1083437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9333821/v1/adf52240-1c23-4b43-8e7f-aa1da518b395.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGrain legume seed multiplication in Zambia: a case study of smallholder farmers in Eastern Province\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGrain legumes are valuable in agricultural systems as they supply plant‑based protein for food and feed systems, improve soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen (N) fixation, and reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers. They are especially important in low‑input, resource‑constrained farming systems, where they help maintain soil health and support sustainable production (Herridge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Studies show that legumes can contribute 40\u0026ndash;70 kg N ha⁻\u0026sup1; per season in African smallholder systems, improving both soil productivity and farmers\u0026rsquo; incomes through grain and seed sales (Giller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Vanlauwe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, the benefits of grain legumes can only be fully realized when smallholder farmers have reliable access to high-quality seed, highlighting the importance of effective seed multiplication systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed multiplication is increasingly recognized as a foundation for strengthening food systems in Africa (Ngoma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), particularly in Zambia where smallholder farmers rely on consistent access to high‑quality seed. Improved legume seed enhances yields, nutrition, and resilience to climate stress, yet limited availability of quality legume seed remains a major production constraint. Limited access to quality legume seed remains a major constraint for smallholder farmers in Zambia, highlighting the importance of strengthening local seed multiplication systems to improve seed availability and productivity (FAO, 2025). Scientific evidence further shows that robust legume seed systems contribute to soil fertility and overall system productivity; for example, legume cultivation in Eastern Zambia significantly improve land productivity and support climate‑smart agriculture (Mwila et al., 2011; Phiri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Khazaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2026\u003c/span\u003e). Regional analyses of seed system development also emphasize the need to multiply breeders and basic seed to ensure farmers can access improved legume varieties across Zambia and neighbouring countries (Siambi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Legume seed multiplication through improved seed access, local production, and supportive policies is central to sustainable agricultural development in Zambia and the wider African region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLike other sub-Saharan Africa countries, Zambian legume seed supply operates through three main mechanisms. First, a formal seed system that involves private seed companies releasing, bulking, and selling certified seeds, using either fully privately bred varieties or a combination of publicly funded and privately bred varieties. For example, Synergy and SeedCo primarily rely on commercial farmers and their own foundation farms to produce certified legume seed. Second, a semi-formal seed system based on QDS (Quality Declared Seed), where companies and government entities that use publicly funded local (e.g., University of Zambia) and international breeding programmes (e.g., the international agricultural research centres of CGIAR centres), such as ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) and IITA (International Institute for Tropical Agriculture) that have developed improved groundnut and cowpea varieties, respectively (e.g., Nkhoma and Otieno, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). For both formal and semi-formal seed systems, these varieties are tested for suitability to Zambian conditions by national institutions [e.g., Zambia Agricultural Research Institute (ZARI) and Zambia Seed Control and Certification Institute (SCCI)] before approval and release. Due to the public funding for the breeding efforts, these seed varieties have traditionally functioned as \u0026lsquo;open source\u0026rsquo;, allowing any seed company to adopt, multiply, and commercialize them after release (Ojiewo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). There has been a recent initiative by CGIAR to incentivise the adoption and distribution of their varieties, by working with national government institutions to give exclusive rights to specific varieties for limited time periods, this effectively allows seed companies to have security of rights to newly released varieties, which can help to cover variety release costs and guarantee a return to investment. Third, known as informal or farmer seed systems, including traditional non-released seed and recycled released varieties (Akpo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Breen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This remains the most common seed system for legumes in Zambia with 77.2% of groundnut seed being farmer saved seed (RALS, 2015), which is consistent with other sub-Saharan African countries, where up to 95% of legume seed is either recycled on farms or obtained from other farmers (Maredia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundnut (\u003cem\u003eArachis hypogaea\u003c/em\u003e L.) and cowpea (\u003cem\u003eVigna unguiculata\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Walp.) are important smallholder grain legume crops in Zambia (Muchemwa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Tembo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). About 50.9% and 2.5% of all Zambian farming households grew groundnut and cowpea, respectively in 2015 (RALS, 2015). According to FAO data, Zambia harvested about 10,000 ha of cowpea, producing 5,700 t, while groundnuts covered 326,000 ha, yielding 235,000 t in 2023 (FAOSTAT, 2025; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Soybean remains the largest legume in Zambia based on production and cultivated area, although around 60% of the total production of soybean is attributed to medium and large-scale farms (Siamabele and Manda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These figures illustrate both the limited scale of cowpea production and the much larger but still yield‑constrained groundnut sector, underscoring the need for improved seed systems and agronomic support to enhance productivity and farmer incomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the diverse mechanisms of seed supply and the persistent constraints in production and accessibility, assessing the capacity for local legume seed multiplication is critical to enhance smallholder productivity, resilience, and regional food security. The aim of this study was to assess the potential for smallholder farmer legume seed multiplication in the Eastern province of Zambia, focusing specifically on cowpea and groundnut as priority smallholder crops.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Groundnut and cowpea varieties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed multiplication activities were carried out using the groundnut variety \u0026ldquo;MGV‑5\u0026rdquo; and the cowpea variety \u0026ldquo;Lutembwe\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMGV-5 is an improved groundnut ICRISAT variety (ICGV SM 92741) released in Zambia in 2007 by the ZARI at the Msekera Research Station in Chipata. It is a Virginia-type variety with large tan kernels and good oil content. The variety typically matures within 125\u0026ndash;130 days and has a yield potential of about 2.5-3.0 t ha⁻\u0026sup1;. MGV-5 is well adapted to the plateau agro-ecological zones of Zambia and was released to improve productivity and seed quality compared with older local varieties such as Chalimbana (Kanenga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLutembwe is an improved cowpea variety released by Zamseed (Zambia Seed Company) in 1993 and is widely cultivated in Zambia. It is a bush-type, early-maturing variety with pink seeds that reaches maturity within 75\u0026ndash;90 days. It produces medium-sized seeds and has a yield potential of approximately 2.0\u0026ndash;2.5 t ha⁻\u0026sup1;, depending on management and environmental conditions. Lutembwe is valued for its drought tolerance and ability to perform under low-input conditions, making it suitable for smallholder farming systems. In addition to grain production, the leaves can also be consumed as a vegetable (Ministry of Agriculture-Zambia, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Quality assurance and certification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn accordance with the Zambia Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1967 (amended in 1995; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://zambialii.org/akn/zm/act/1967/14/eng@1996-12-31\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://zambialii.org/akn/zm/act/1967/14/eng@1996-12-31\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), the FAO-promoted QDS system was applied in this initiative, with quality control oversight and field inspections conducted by the SCCI. The minimum requirements set by SCCI for QDS in Zambia include an isolation distance of 40 m, minimum germination of 75%, and 0.5% genetic impurity for groundnut, and an isolation distance of 10 m, minimum germination of 70%, and 0.5% genetic impurity for cowpea. A minimum of 15% of the seed production fields was inspected by trained SCCI staff (Almekinders et al., 2002).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Study sites and implementation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed multiplication field activities were conducted across three districts in Eastern Zambia: Katete, Nyimba, and Petauke (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) during growing season 2024\u0026ndash;2025. In Katete, two chiefdoms were included: Kathumba and Kawaza; in Nyimba, four chiefdoms: Luembe, Mwape, Ndake, and Nyalugwe; and in Petauke, the Kalindawalo chiefdom. These sites were selected to capture a range of agroecological conditions and smallholder farming practices relevant to legume production and seed system assessments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 1,246 farmers operating with five seed co-operatives participated in the study. Groundnut and cowpea seeds were distributed as follows: 12,000 kg of groundnut and 2,018 kg of cowpea seeds were provided across the sites. Seed quantities and farmer participation varied by chiefdom, groundnut seed ranging from 1,600 kg in Nyalugwe to 4,800 kg in Katete and cowpea seed ranging from 18 kg in Nyalugwe to 548 kg in Ndake. These data were used to evaluate the effectiveness of legume seed distribution, adoption, and production outcomes in smallholder systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trials were implemented under the COMACO (Community Markets for Conservation) seed multiplication program, supported by the SCCI for seed quality control, which supports cooperatives in producing, certifying, storing, and distributing quality seeds to their members. This program ensures farmers have reliable access to affordable, high-quality seeds for crops that provide both food and cash (Lewis and Wilkie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These efforts were aimed at addressing recurring issues around the cost of certified seed, insufficient supply of desirable groundnut and cowpea varieties and poor germination associated with certified groundnut seed. These efforts were made to cater for the needs of a Zambian for profit social enterprise, COMACO. This initiative was designed to assess the feasibility of using the QDS seed systems approach, through COMACO\u0026rsquo;s extensive network of private extension supported smallholder farmers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll farmers received 2.5 kg of cowpea seed and 20 kg of groundnut seed as inputs across sites. The seeds were certified basic seed and were provided by ZARI, located in Chipata. The area used for seed multiplication of cowpea was 0.25 ha for both crops. None of the farmers used rhizobial inoculants for either crop. No chemical fertilizers, pesticides, or irrigation were applied, reflecting the low-input conditions typical of smallholder farming systems in the study area. Farmers were trained on how to produce and manage certified seeds and agronomic knowledge on legume cultivation, good agricultural practices, fertilization, sustainable agriculture and pest disease control, and they used skills (e.g. agronomic practices, seeding/planting, harvesting, understanding the benefits of legumes) they had learned during the training.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the large number of fields assessed, pre-crop cultivation was not included in the analysis. Common guidelines for COMACO farmers planting groundnut and cowpea, is to plant the crop using \u0026lsquo;conservation agriculture\u0026rsquo; a farming technique that emphasises the minimal disturbance of soil, crop diversification and crops residue retention (Thierfleder et al., 2018), as a means of conserving soil moisture, reducing soil carbon loss and soil erosion. This is either achieved by the employment of animal draft power using \u0026lsquo;ripping\u0026rsquo; or manual hand hoe \u0026lsquo;basins\u0026rsquo; for the creation of a furrow or hole for planting seeds into the soil. Legume crops are established at 45cm between rows and 10cm and 15cm between single seeds for groundnut and cowpea respectively (COMACO, 2015). This spacing gives a seeding rate of 222,000 and 148,000 plants h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for groundnut and cowpea respectively. Weeds are controlled by hand hoe or using shallow tillage with animal draft power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the effects of district, chiefdom, and gender on farmer yield. Prior to analysis, the dataset was cleaned to remove missing values, and yield data were grouped according to the three categorical factors in R (R Core Team, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eKatete farmers received 800 kg of cowpea seeds and 4,800 kg of groundnuts, yielding 23,514 kg in total across 527 farmers. Within Katete, Kawaza contributed slightly higher yields (14,188 kg) than Kathumba (9,326 kg), despite both receiving equal amounts of cowpea seeds, indicating possible differences in soil fertility or farming practices (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer participation, seed distribution, total seed harvested (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation), and source of variation for cowpea and groundnut seed harvested from 0.25 ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e across districts and chiefdoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChiefdom - district\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of farmers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCowpea (kg seeds given to farmers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCowpea seed harvested (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundnuts (kg seeds given to farmers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundnuts seed harvested (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKathumba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,558\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,326\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKawaza\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e310\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,020\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14,188\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKatete (total)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e527\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e800\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19,578\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4,800\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e23,514\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;53\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLuembe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,382\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMwape\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,130\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNdake\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e548\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17,982\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19,555\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNyalugwe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e590\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,693\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNyimba (total)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e439\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e800\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26,084\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4,800\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e29,248\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;66\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKalindawalo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e418\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,615\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13,322\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePetauke (total)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e280\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e418\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11,615\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2,400\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13,322\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;57\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,246\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2,018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e57,277\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12,000\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e66,084\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource of variation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistrict\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChiefdom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ens\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ens\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003edf, degrees of freedom.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNyimba farmers also received 800 kg of cowpea seeds and 4,800 kg of groundnut seeds, resulting in the highest total yields of 29,248 kg from 439 farmers. Ndake was the primary contributor with 19,555 kg, while Nyalugwe, despite a small seed allocation, achieved 9,693 kg of total yield, indicating high efficiency per unit of seed. Nyimba exhibited the highest farmer harvested seed variation, reflecting more heterogeneous production outcomes among farmers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetauke farmers received 418 kg of cowpea seeds and 2,400 kg of groundnuts, achieving total yields of 13,322 kg from 280 farmers. Kalindawalo was the only site in Petauke.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the distribution of seeds was skewed towards Nyimba and Katete, which collectively accounted for 1,600 kg of cowpea seeds (79% of the total) and 9,600 kg of groundnuts (80% of the total), producing 52,762 kg (80%) of the total combined yield.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study, a total of 1,226 participants were included. Of these, 684 were female, accounting for 56% of the sample, while 542 were male, representing 44%. This indicates a slightly higher representation of females compared to males in the study population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA revealed a highly significant effect of both site and chiefdom on yield of both crops (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001 for each), while gender showed no significant influence (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The mean production per crop was illustrated for each gender in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also calculated yield (kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;) for both crops. On average, cowpea yield was 278\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;65 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;, while groundnut yield was 444\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;100 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights that cooperative-based seed multiplication can significantly support smallholder legume production in Eastern Zambia. Yield differences across study sites were observed. The participation of women indicates their central role in seed production. Although average yields remain below potential, the adoption of improved varieties such as Lutembwe and MGV‑5, coupled with reliable seed access, demonstrates tangible benefits for productivity. Strengthening local seed systems and linking them with agronomic support is therefore essential to improve legume availability, enhance food security, and promote resilient smallholder farming systems in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariability in yields (kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003eseed production) across seed multiplication sites is consistent with the broader literature showing that local growing conditions such as soil fertility and rainfall patterns significantly influence crop performance in smallholder systems (e.g., Rurinda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) where delayed planting and poor nutrient management reduced yields substantially due to climate‑driven variability. Heterogeneity in soils and micro‑site conditions further contributes to yield differences at fine spatial scales typical of smallholder farms (Snapp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to these agroecological factors, farm‑level management practices, including timely planting, residue management, and targeted soil fertility inputs, have been shown to explain a significant portion of yield variability among farmers within the same landscape (Yengoh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The availability of high-quality certified seed, timely and early planting, appropriate rainfall and pest management and good land preparation were mentioned also by farmers who participated in the study as key factors for the success of certified seed production. This highlights the importance of strengthening farmer knowledge and advisory services, as appropriate agronomic decision‑making can amplify the benefits of improved genetic material and inputs. Context‑specific extension that builds on farmers\u0026rsquo; experiential knowledge and local conditions can therefore enhance the effectiveness of improved varieties and mitigate some of the yield constraints imposed by environmental variability (Yengoh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Rurinda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe yields obtained in the seed multiplication fields represent only a small fraction of the varieties\u0026rsquo; reported potential (Kanenga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ministry of Agriculture-Zambia, 2022). On average, groundnut yields (0.4 t ha⁻\u0026sup1;) correspond to approximately 15\u0026ndash;18% of the potential yield, while cowpea yields (0.3 t ha⁻\u0026sup1;) represent approximately 11\u0026ndash;14% of the potential yield. Such yield gaps are widely reported in smallholder systems across sub-Saharan Africa and typically arise from multiple interacting constraints. In the present study, farmers operated under low-input conditions, and none of the participants used rhizobial inoculants or other yield-enhancing technologies. Differences in soil fertility, rainfall variability, pest and disease pressure, and heterogeneity in management practices among farmers likely contributed to the relatively low and variable productivity observed across sites and chiefdoms. Similar yield ranges for grain legumes have been documented in smallholder farming systems under limited input use, where yields frequently remain below 1 t ha⁻\u0026sup1; despite substantially higher varietal potential (Vanlauwe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These findings highlight that while semi-formal seed multiplication can successfully expand seed availability within farmer networks, realizing the genetic yield potential of improved varieties will depend on complementary improvements in agronomic management, soil fertility, and access to inputs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u0026rsquo;s active participation in seed multiplication demonstrates their essential role in sustaining local seed systems and ensuring quality seed availability for households and communities, consistent with findings that women often dominate seed work in legume and other smallholder crops in sub‑Saharan Africa (Nchanji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Recognising and empowering women in seed stewardship and agroecological practices can strengthen local seed networks and resilience, promoting more equitable and sustainable farming systems (Sibanda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These suggest that targeted support - combining improved seeds with farmer training and gender-inclusive approaches - can strengthen seed system resilience and enhance smallholder productivity across diverse agroecological zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe farmers were paid ZMW42.5 kg⁻\u0026sup1; for certified Lutembwe cowpea seed and ZMW69.5 kg⁻\u0026sup1; certified MGV-5 groundnut seed. Hence, the net value of producing seeds, i.e. the market value of harvested seeds subtracted by the market value of seeds sold, was estimated on average at ZMW4,902 per farm and ZMW6,1\u0026nbsp;million in total for 1,246 farms. The net value of producing cowpea was estimated at ZMW2.3\u0026nbsp;million in total, and 2,909 per farm that had received cowpea seeds. The value of producing groundnut was estimated at ZMW3.8\u0026nbsp;million in total, and ZMW6,265 per farm that had received groundnut seeds. The groundnut yield was more valuable than the cowpea yield because of the larger quantity of yield. Seed production adds value to farming, because farmers can receive approximately ZMW35 kg⁻\u0026sup1; higher price for selling the harvest as certified seed when compared to selling the harvest as non-seed quality agricultural commodity (Ministry of Agriculture-Zambia, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough small markets for certified legume seed have existed in Zambia for several decades, largely driven by demand from farmers and NGOs promoting improved agronomy, crop diversification, and nutrition, grain legumes have historically received less attention from commercial seed companies than hybrid crops. Hybrid seeds generate recurring demand because farmers must purchase new seeds each season, whereas most grain legumes are self-pollinated and can be recycled on-farm without substantial yield loss. As a result, private sector investment in legume seed multiplication has remained relatively limited. Beginning in 2012, the inclusion of a small quantity of legume seed in the national farmer input support programme (FISP) created additional demand and provided an important stimulus for the certified legume seed value chain (Ngoma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). However, recent reforms to the program in 2025, shifting from input packages toward greater farmer choice in input purchases, may alter demand dynamics for certified legume seed (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). While this policy change could improve market flexibility, it may also reduce the guaranteed demand that previously supported legume seed multiplication, particularly in regions where commercial seed markets remain weak.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-formal seed multiplication through the QDS system has therefore emerged as a complementary strategy for expanding the supply of improved legume seed. By engaging smallholder farmers in local seed multiplication, QDS schemes can reduce production and distribution costs while improving access to quality seed in remote areas. However, like formal farmer seed systems, semi-formal seed production remains vulnerable to localized shocks such as droughts or floods, which can disrupt seed supply and lead to the loss of valuable germplasm if production is concentrated within limited geographic areas.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eSemi-formal seed multiplication through the QDS system demonstrates considerable potential to strengthen legume seed availability in smallholder farming systems in Eastern Zambia. By engaging 1,246 farmers across multiple districts, the initiative produced substantial quantities of cowpea and groundnut seed while expanding the local distribution of improved varieties. Although yields remained far below the genetic potential of the varieties used, the results highlight the feasibility of farmer-based seed multiplication under low-input conditions and the importance of local agroecological and management factors in determining production outcomes. The strong participation of women further showed their central role in sustaining community seed systems. However, realizing the full benefits of improved legume varieties will require complementary investments in agronomic training, soil fertility management, and access to productivity-enhancing inputs. Strengthening linkages between semi-formal seed production, extension services, and formal seed systems will therefore be critical to improving seed supply, increasing smallholder productivity, and enhancing the resilience of legume-based farming systems in Zambia and similar contexts in sub-Saharan Africa.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declared that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthics approval was not required for the present study. All farmers participated voluntarily in the seed multiplication activities, and they had to indicate their consent to participate in the activities. Farmers had an option to discontinue in the pilot at any time without having to explain the reason.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding statement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was part of the Zambia for Agroforestry, Biodiversity and Climate (Z4ABC) project. Z4ABC is co-funded by the European Commission under the DeSIRA initiative (contribution agreement FOOD/2021/429\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;351).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions declaration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e\u003c/b\u003e H.K. wrote the original draft. H.K., S.S., and J.K.N. reviewed and edited the manuscript. All the authors read and agreed with the published version of the manuscript. Data was collected by COMACO under the Z4ABC project.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe thank our Zambia CIFOR colleagues, Maimbo Malesu, Chilala Ndeke, Wellington Chazya, Dr. Maarit Kallio, Dr. Nicholas Hogarth, Chipo Chisonga, and Dr. Patricia Masikati, for their kind support during this activity. Many thanks to Dr. Dale Lewis, Richard Mumba, and Edward Daka from COMACO for their kind support during the seed multiplication activities and provision of data. We also gratefully acknowledge the farmers who participated in the seed multiplication activities for their time, engagement, and valuable experiential knowledge shared throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkpo E, Ojiewo CO, Omoigui LO, Rubyogo JC, Varshney RK (2020) A Brief Overview of Smallholder Farmers\u0026rsquo; Access to Seed of Improved Legume Varieties. Sowing Legume Seeds, Reaping Cash. 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Agric Food Secur 1:19. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-1-19\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/2048-7010-1-19\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cowpea, Groundnut, Africa, Seeds, Smallholder farmers, Food security","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9333821/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9333821/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGrain legumes play an important role in smallholder farming systems by providing plant-based protein, improving soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen fixation, and enhancing cropping systems. However, limited access to high-quality seed remains a major constraint to legume productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the potential of semi-formal seed multiplication through the QDS (Quality Declared Seed) system for two important grain legumes, groundnut and cowpea, in Zambia Eastern Province. Seed multiplication was implemented across three districts and seven chiefdoms through a cooperative-based farmer network. Seeds of improved groundnut and cowpea varieties were distributed to over 1,200 smallholder farmers, and seed production outcomes were evaluated across locations. Results showed significant variation in seed production across studied sites and crop species, while gender had no significant effect on production. Our results demonstrate that semi-formal seed multiplication through farmer networks can substantially increase the local availability of improved legume seeds. Integrating seed systems with good agronomy practices and formal seed supply chains will be critical to improving productivity, food security, and resilience in smallholder farming systems in Africa.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Grain legume seed multiplication in Zambia: a case study of smallholder farmers in Eastern Province","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-07 16:51:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9333821/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f308945e-fa3b-4ad8-946e-7eb595a0d525","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":65786553,"name":"Agronomy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:52:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-07 16:51:59","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9333821","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9333821","identity":"rs-9333821","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}