Nephroprotective and Anti-hyperlipidemic Effects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf Extract on Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Wistar Rat

Nephroprotective and Anti-hyperlipidemic Effects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf Extract on Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Wistar Rat | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Nephroprotective and Anti-hyperlipidemic Effects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf Extract on Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Wistar Rat Ugwu Chinagorom Laureta, Ugwu Godwin Chigozie, Benjamin Gideon Yakusak, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7161945/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background In view of the undesirable side effects of synthetic agents, there is growing focus towards the therapeutic evaluation of medicinal plants like Pentaclathra macrophylla (African oil bean) using systemic research methodology. However, scientific validation of its effects on lipid metabolism and nephroprotection is limited. This study investigates the nephroprotective and hypolipidemic effect of ethanol extract, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla leaves for 56 days. Kidney markers and lipid parameters were evaluated using auto biochemical analyzer (Mindray XL-200). Sixty (60) male Wistar rats (150-200g) were randomly selected and divided into four major groups (A, B, C, and D) of 15 rats each. Groups A, B, C, and D represented the control group, ethanol extract group, ethyl acetate fraction group, and n-butanol fraction group, respectively. Results The results revealed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in renal parameters; creatinine, urea, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and uric acid levels in the treatment groups when compared with the positive control. There was also a corresponding favourable histology outcome in the examined kidney sections. The decline in the levels of renal parameters and the healthy histological features of the sectioned rat kidneys ranging from normal tissues to moderate degeneration in some high doses showed the ameliorative and protective properties of P. macrophylla leaf extract. The lipid profile values were significantly decreased in the ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions except for the high density lipoprotein which was significantly elevated across the groups. The observed decrease in cholesterol, triglyceride, low density lipoprotein levels and a significant increase in the high density lipoprotein levels of the treatment groups is beneficial in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Conclusion This study results suggests that P. macrophylla leaf extracts especially the ethyl acetate and N-butanol fractions could be used as nephroprotective and hypolipidemic agents. Further studies are recommended to isolate and characterize the specific bioactive compounds responsible for the nephroprotective ans hypolipidaemic effects of Pentaclathra macrophylla leaf extract. Phytomedicine Wistar rat Pentaclathra macrophylla Nephroprotection Lipid profile Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 BACKGROUND The Leguminosae family includes Pentaclethra macrophylla , sometimes known as the African oil bean, which is native to equatorial Africa (Afia, 2020 ). Due to its widespread use in traditional medicine across many countries, this plant has drawn a lot of attention. It is especially useful in treating illnesses including infections, inflammation, and dyslipidemia (Anosike et al., 2022 ). P. macrophylla's medicinal qualities are attributed to the abundance of bioactive substances found in its leaves, seeds, and bark, such as flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids (Nwagwe et al., 2024 ). According to phytochemical analyses, the plant contains phenolic chemicals, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins, all of which support its pharmacological properties, such as hepatoprotective and antioxidant actions. Although it has been used historically, there have been little scientific studies on its pharmacological effects, therefore there is need for further research to validate its medicinal claims (Nnamani et al., 2023 ). P. macrophylla seed has been shown to be a good source of dietary nutrients with carbohydrate (10.6%), protein (13.4%) and fat (52.8%) and a good source of important phytochemical components. Fermented P. macrophylla contains about 2% of fiber (Anioke, 2019 ; Ugbogu et al., 2020 ). Studies report that plant fiber exerts a physiological effect on the lipid metabolism, in that, it prevents the reabsorption of bile acids and also absorption of dietary cholesterol in the intestine thereby leading to the reduction in the quantity of cholesterol entering the circulation (Omeh et al., 2014 ). Also the presence of some phytosterols and phytostanols (e.g. steroids) found in many plant sources including fermented P. macrophylla seed can inhibit cholesterol absorption (Eze et al., 2023 ; Ugbogu et al., 2020 ). Any plant product possessing lipid-lowering and antioxidants properties plays a key role in the anti-atherosclerotic process. P. macrophylla has emerged as one of many dietary herbal products with the potential to reduce cholesterol as well as enhance the safety profile by increasing high density lipoprotein (HDL) levels in plasma. The administration of P. macrophylla seed extract significantly increased HDL (Alinnor and Oze, 2011 ). Although, the mechanism by which HDL increased is not completely understood; however, P. macrophylla seeds may have influenced a variety of molecules involved in HDL metabolism and the Reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) system. Nephrotoxicity is a critical concern associated with the use of certain pharmaceuticals, including paracetamol, which can lead to chronic kidney injury (Kurnijasanti et al., 2023 ). The mechanism of paracetamol-induced nephrotoxicity involves the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative stress and subsequent renal cell apoptosis (Kurnijasanti et al., 2023 ). Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is one of the most commonly used over-the-counter medications globally (Freo et al., 2021 ); however, its potential for causing acute kidney injury is a significant public health concern. It is widely used as an analgesic and antipyretic agent, though its overuse or misuse can lead to severe damage in the liver (hepatotoxicity) and kidney (nephrotoxicity) (Ayoub, 2021 ; Ekhuemelo et al., 2024 ). Research has demonstrated that various stem bark or root extracts of P. macrophylla can exert nephroprotective effects by enhancing renal function parameters and reducing markers of kidney damage in experimental models. The ability of these extracts to modulate oxidative stress responses suggests their potential utility in preventing or alleviating drug-induced nephrotoxicity. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is widely used as an analgesic and antipyretic agent (Ayoub, 2021 ; Ekhuemelo et al., 2024 ); however, its overuse or misuse can lead to severe liver and kidney damage, known as nephrotoxicity. Urea, creatinine, uric acid, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) are critical biochemical markers used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels of these parameters often indicate renal impairment or toxicity. In Wistar rats, normal serum creatinine levels range from 0.2 to 0.7 mg/dL (or 17.7–70.7 µmol/L), urea concentrations range from 11 to 25 mg/dL and normal BUN from 10–30 mg/dL. Elevated BUN may indicate renal dysfunction, dehydration, or high-protein intake, while low levels suggest liver disease or malnutrition (Miller and Dwyer, 2025 ). Uric Acid is the final product of purine metabolism, excreted primarily by the kidneys. Normal serum levels in Wistar rats are 1.0–3.5 mg/dL. High levels (hyperuricemia) are linked to renal impairment, oxidative stress, and metabolic disorders, while low levels (hypouricemia) may result from excessive renal loss or impaired synthesis (Branten et al., 2005 ). P. macrophylla has a long history of use in traditional medicine for various ailments, including those related to kidney health (Estella et al ., 2021). This study will provide an alternative in the use of its leaves which is more abundant and sustainable as against the use of seed which is very expensive; roots and stem barks which reduces the availability of P. macrophylla trees in the ecosystem. This study will provide scientific validation for these traditional practices, potentially encouraging the integration of ethnomedicinal knowledge into modern healthcare systems. By demonstrating the efficacy of P. macrophylla extracts in lipid metabolism and protecting against nephrotoxicity, this research may promote greater acceptance and use of herbal remedies as complementary therapies alongside conventional medicine. The results of this study could lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies for preventing paracetamol-induced nephrotoxicity, particularly in vulnerable populations who may be at higher risk due to pre-existing conditions or poly pharmacy. Establishing a safe and effective natural remedy could enhance patient outcomes and reduce healthcare costs associated with managing kidney damage. This research aims to fill existing gaps in the literature regarding the nephroprotective and hypolipidemic effects of P. macrophylla. While previous studies have focused on seed and stem bark extracts and highlighted its hepatoprotective properties (Ugbogu et al., 2020 ; Eze et al., 2023 ; Okonkwo et al., 2023 ; Nnamani et al., 2023 ), there is limited data on its effects on renal tissues and lipid profile particularly on extracts gotten from P . macrophylla leaves. Furthermore, variations in extraction methods may yield different concentrations of bioactive compounds, potentially influencing their therapeutic efficacy. MATERIALS AND METHODS Collection and identification of plant Leaves of Pentaclethra macrophylla were collected from Orba in Udenu local government area of Enugu state, South-East Nigeria in the month of October, 2024. The plant was identified and authenticated by Dr. Felix I. Nwafor of the Department of Plant science and Biotechnology University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. The plant was deposited in University of Nigeria Herbarium with an identification number of UNN/11789. Extraction and Fractionation of plant materials The leaves were washed and air-dried for two weeks and then pulverized into coarse powder using a milling machine and sieved to control the particle size. About 200 g of Pentaclethra macrophylla was soaked in 1 L of ethanol, with the mixture intermittently stirred and then allowed to stand for 48 hours. After 48 hours, the mixture was filtered using Whatman No 1 filter paper. The filtrate was then concentrated using a rotary evaporator at 60ºc and further dried in an oven at 40°C. The resulting extract was stored in an amber bottle and kept in a refrigerator for use. Fractionation The fractionation was performed using liquid-liquid partitioning. First, an equal volume of ethyl acetate was added to the aqueous extract in a separatory funnel, shaken vigorously, and allowed to separate into two layers. The upper ethyl acetate layer, containing semi-polar compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, phenolics, and terpenoids, was collected, and the process was repeated three times to maximize extraction. The pooled ethyl acetate fractions were then concentrated using a rotary evaporator and stored at 4°C for further analysis. The remaining aqueous phase underwent partitioning with n-butanol by adding an equal volume of the solvent, shaking, and allowing phase separation. The upper organic phase, which contained more polar compounds like glycosides, flavonoid glycosides, and saponins, was collected and pooled from three successive extractions. The n-butanol fractions were concentrated using a rotary evaporator or water bath at 40–50°C, yielding the final fraction. Phytochemical determination The quantity of some bioactive compounds such as tannin, saponin, flavonoids, alkaloids and phenols (Adil et al. , 2014) steroids and terpenoids, phytate and cyanide (Nnamani et al., 2023 ) present in the ethanol extracts, ethyl acetate fraction and n-butanol fraction of P. microphylla leaves were determined using standard methods. Procurement and Management of Experimental Animals Silymarin (Livergol, Silipide and Legalon ®) tablets (Berlin Pharmaceutical company limited, Thailand) and Paracetamol tablets (500 mg) (Emzor Company, Nigeria) were purchased from the local drugstores in the Nsukka, Nigeria. A total of 60 female wistar rats weighing 150–200 g were used. Rats were kept and maintained under laboratory conditions with 12 h light/dark cycles in the Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka were given free access to food (standard pellet diet) and water ad libitum. The animals were randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 15) of 3 replicates (n = 5). The experiment was performed with the approval of the Animal Ethics Committee of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria Nsukka, and handled according to ethic of animal handling in compliance with institution`s guidelines and criteria for human care (National Institute of Health Guidelines for the care and Use of Laboratory animals). Experimental Design The procured rats were randomly selected and grouped into four major groups (A, B, C, and D). A, B, C and D represented the control group, ethanol extract, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractionate respectively. These groups were later divided into further groups; (A1, A2 and A3), (B1, B2 and B3), (C1, C2 and C3), (D1, D2 and D3). Each subgroup consisted of three replicates of five rats. The control group (A1, A2 and A3) consisted of the Normal control, Negative control and Positive control group. The normal control was not induced, the negative control was induced with no treatment given, Positive control was induced and treated with a standard drug (200 mg/kg of silymarin) orally for 56 days. The wistar rats in the B (ethanol extract), C (ethyl acetate fraction) and D (n-butanol fraction) group were orally induced with nephrotoxicity and treated with a graded dose of 100, 200 and 400mg/kg of Pentaclathra macrophylla extract and fraction respectively. The standard drug and Pentaclathra macrophylla extract and fractions were administered daily using oral gavage for 56 days Induction of Nephrotoxicity Nephrotoxicity was induced in the Wistar albino rats using paracetamol. The paracetamol was prepared as a solution by dissolving an appropriate quantity in distilled water to achieve the desired dosage. Prior to induction, the rats were fasted for 12 hours with free access to water to ensure uniform absorption of the drug. The nephrotoxicity was induced in the animals with a single dose of paracetamol (3000 mg/kg body weight) administered orally (Alsheika, ( 2018 ). Following the induction, the rats were observed for signs of nephrotoxicity, such as reduced activity and changes in fur condition, and their treatment with the respective plant extracts or standard drug commenced after 3 days. Collection of Blood Sample Blood samples were collected from the medial canthus of the rats' eyes using the retro-orbital bleeding technique. A fine capillary tube (heparinized) was used for the procedure. The capillary tube was carefully inserted at the medial canthus of the eye, angling it slightly to puncture the retro-orbital sinus. Blood samples meant for serum analysis were collected in plain tubes and allowed to clot for 15–30 minutes at room temperature before centrifugation, while those intended for plasma analysis were collected in anticoagulant-treated tubes. Determination of Kidney and Lipid Markers Kidney function markers such creatinine, urea, uric acid, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), were assessed in the serum obtained from the collected blood samples. The levels of kidney markers were determined using Fully Automated Biochemical Analyzer (Mindray XL-200). Lipid profile markers, including cholesterol, triglycerides, High-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very low-density lipoprotein ( VLDL) were also determined using auto biochemical analyser (Mindray XL-200) Histopathological Evaluation of Kidney Tissues The kidneys tissues were dissected out and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for at least 24–48 hours to preserve the tissue structure. The tissues were processed and embedded in paraffin wax and sectioned at a thickness of 5 microns similar to the standard procedure. The tissue was then deparaffined with xylol and histological observations were performed using H- E technique (Alsheika, ( 2018 ). The slides were examined using light microscope (X400). Statistical Analysis Data obtained are expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM). The result was analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), while Duncan multiple range test was used to separate the means. Significance levels were set at P < 0.05. RESULTS Phytochemical Composition of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf Table 1 shows the phytochemical composition of ethanol extracts, ethyl acetate and N-Butanol fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf. The results indicate significant variations (p < 0.05) in the phytochemical composition of ethanol, n-butanol, and ethyl acetate fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla leaf. The ethanol extract had significantly higher (P < 0.05) tannin, phytate, Steroid and terpenoids content compared with ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions. The cyanide content, alkaloid, saponins, flavonoids and phenolic compounds were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions when compared with the ethanol extract (Table 1 ). Table 1 Phytochemical composition of Pentaclathra macrophylla leaf extracts GROUPS Ethanol Extract N-Butanol Ethyl Acetate Tannin 0.85 ± 0.02 2 0.31 ± 0.01 1 0.32 ± 0.01 1 Phytate 6.24 ± 0.01 2 3.07 ± 0.04 1 3.21 ± 0.18 1 Cyanide 5.73 ± 0.01 1 10.55 ± 0.03 2 10.43 ± 0.47 2 Alkaloids 1.25 ± 0.02 1 1.39 ± 0.01 12 1.47 ± 0.07 2 Saponin 0.95 ± 0.02 1 2.41 ± 0.01 2 2.34 ± 0.24 2 Flavonoid 5.65 ± 0.02 1 7.07 ± 0.07 3 6.07 ± 0.07 2 Phenol 5.11 ± 0.07 1 7.42 ± 0.02 2 7.22 ± 0.62 2 Steroid 3.43 ± 0.01 2 2.53 ± 0.02 1 2.37 ± 0.20 1 Terpenoids 4.07 ± 0.04 2 3.21 ± 0.01 1 3.12 ± 0.06 1 Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p 0.05). Effects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of P entaclathra macrophylla Leaf on Kidney parameters of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity Group A1 (Normal Control) serves as a baseline with creatinine at 45.44 ± 0.2212 µmol/L and urea at 3.01 ± 0.051 mmol/L, indicating normal kidney function. Group A2 (Negative Control) shows a significant increase in urea (6.35 ± 0.285 mmol/L, p < 0.05) compared to A1, suggesting renal stress (Table 2 ). Group A3 (Positive Control) has slightly higher creatinine and urea (4.86 ± 0.01234 mmol/L) than A1 but remains lower than A2, indicating mild stress without significant impairment (p > 0.05). Among the ethanol extract groups (B1–B3), B1 and B2 exhibited significantly elevated creatinine, suggesting potential renal stress. B3 maintains near-normal creatinine but has slightly elevated urea (p > 0.05), indicating a dose-dependent effect. The ethyl acetate extract groups (C1–C3) show significantly lower renal markers, possibly indicating preserved glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The creatinine levels of N-butanol extract groups (D1–D3) show no significant difference from the normal control while slightly elevated urea values (p < 0.05), suggesting minimal renal stress (Table 2 ). Group A2 (Negative Control) shows a significant increase in BUN (2.97 ± 0.134 mmol/L, p < 0.05) and uric acid (163.53 ± 0.284 µmol/L, p < 0.05) compared to A1, suggesting renal stress (Table 3 ). Group A3 (Positive Control) has significantly higher BUN than A1 (2.28 ± 0.0023 mmol/L, p < 0.05) but lower than A2, with uric acid reduced by approximately half compared to A2 (p < 0.05), indicating partial renal protection. Among the ethanol extract groups (B1–B3) showed significantly elevated BUN compared to A1 (p < 0.05), slightly higher uric acid than A1 (p < 0.05), suggesting a protective effect. The ethyl acetate extract groups (C1–C3) exhibited a near-normal BUN level across all doses (p < 0.05), with non-significantly increase in uric acid levels showing normal renal protection (Table 3 ). The N-butanol extract groups (D1–D3) present mixed effects with normal level of BUN and uric acid in D2 and two other groups with significantly higher BUN and uric acid than A1 (p < 0.05), indicating minimal renal impact. Table 2 Effects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of P entaclathra macrophylla Leaf on Kidney Parameters of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity GROUPS Creatinine (µmol/L) Urea (mmol/L) BUN (mmol/L) Uric Acid (µmol/L) A1:Normal control 45.44 ± 0.22 12 3.01 ± 0.05 1 1.41 ± 0.02 1 60.08 ± 9.53 12 A2:Negative control 51.46 ± 3.96 123 6.35 ± 0.28 5 2.97 ± 0.13 4 163.53 ± 0.28 4 A3:Positive control 52.72 ± 3.12 123 4.86 ± 0.01 234 2.28 ± 0.00 23 130.83 ± 2.79 234 B1:100mg/kg EE 61.43 ± 2.33 3 5.13 ± 0.24 2345 2.41 ± 0.11 234 73.63 ± 34.63 123 B2:200mg/kg EE 61.48 ± 9.74 3 6.44 ± 0.86 5 3.01 ± 0.40 4 148.97 ± 44.63 34 B3:400mg/kg EE 47.98 ± 0.67 12 4.62 ± 0.56 23 2.20 ± 0.06 23 39.00 ± 0.58 1 C1:100mg/kg EA 45.75 ± 0.58 12 3.28 ± 0.20 1 3.02 ± 0.01 4 101.11 ± 1.73 1234 C2:200mg/kg EA 41.39 ± 2.62 1 4.44 ± 0.83 2345 2.54 ± 0.38 234 77.10 ± 28.03 123 C3:400mg/kg EA 40.74 ± 0.43 123 4.32 ± 0.79 2345 2.48 ± 0.37 234 129.13 ± 32.23 234 D1:100mg/kg NB 52.43 ± 0.71 123 5.96 ± 0.11 345 2.74 ± 0.82 34 120.90 ± 19.01 234 D2:200mg/kg NB 44.51 ± 3.89 1 4.46 ± 0.28 2 2.03 ± 0.16 2 111.13 ± 12.44 1234 D3:400mg/kg NB 56.97 ± 3.12 23 4.19 ± 0.14 2345 2.82 ± 0.12 34 155.07 ± 26.64 4 Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p 0.05). EE: Ethanol extract, EA: Ethyla cetate, NB: N-butanol Effects of on paracetamol and P. macrophylla Treatments on Rat kidney The kidney sections of rats from experimental groups A1 (normal control showing apparently normal features, A2 (negative control) showed severe interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations and renal tubular degenerations while A3 (positive control), B1 treated with 100 mg/kg of Ethanol Extract of P. macrophylla (EEPM), B2 (200 mg/kg EEPP) and B3 (400 mg/kg EEPM) shows mild interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations (Fig. 1 ). Kidney sections of rats from experimental groups C1, treated with 100 mg/kg of Ethyl Acetate Fraction of P. macrophylla (EAFPM) and C2 (200 mg/kg EAEPM) showed interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations while C3 (400 mg/kg EAEPM) shows mild renal tubular degenerations (Fig. 2 ). Kidney sections of rats from experimental groups D1 treated with 100 mg/kg of N-Butanol Fraction of P. macrophylla (NBFPM) and D2 (200 mg/kg NBEPM) showed moderate renal tubular degenerations while D3 (400 mg/kg NBEPM) shows normal histological features (Fig. 3 ). Effects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf on the lipid parameters of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity Table 3 shows the effects of ethanol extract, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions of P. macrophylla leaf on cholesterol, tryglycerides, High-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). No significant difference was observed in total cholesterol levels, triglyceride, VDL, HDL and LDL levels of the negative and positive control groups when compared with the normal group. However, there was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the mean value of total cholesterol levels of rats treated with ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions throughout the period of the study when compared with the normal control and a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the ethanol fraction groups. There was no significant difference observed in tryglycerides levels of rats treated with ethanol extracts. However, there was a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the tryglycerides levels of the ethlyl acetate and N-butanol fraction groups when compared with the normal control. There was a significant increase in the HDL level of the rats across the treatment groups and doses. There is no significant difference (p 0.05) in the mean values of VLDL and LDL of rats treated with ethanol extract of P. macrophylla when compared to the normal control group. There is a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the LDL and VLDL levels of rats treated with n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions. Table 3 Effects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf on the Lipid Profile of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity GROUPS CHOLESTEROL (mmol/L) TRYGLYCERIDES (mmol/L) HDL (mmol/L) LDL (mmol/L) VLDL (mmol/L) A1:Normal control 1.17 ± 0.11 12 0.95 ± 0.60 1 0.46 ± 0.05 2 0.25 ± 0.06 12 0.45 ± 0.03 123 A2: Negative control 1.25 ± 0.27 12 0.95 ± 0.21 1 0.48 ± 0.007 2 0.33 ± 0.11 12 0.43 ± 0.10 123 A3:Positive control 1.25 ± 0.12 12 0.93 ± 0.10 1 0.55 ± 0.02 23 0.27 ± 0.06 12 0.42 ± 0.04 123 B1:100mg/kg EE 1.49 ± 0.72 23 1.22 ± 0.20 123 0.61 ± 0.04 34 0.31 ± 0.13 12 0.56 ± 0.10 234 B2:200mg/kg EE 1.77 ± 0.38 34 1.22 ± 0.20 123 0.51 ± 0.16 23 0.64 ± 0.25 3 0.65 ± 0.92 4 B3:400mg/kg EE 1.81 ± 0.33 34 1.34 ± 0.33 23 0.72 ± 0.03 4 0.45 ± 0.02 23 0.57 ± 0.33 1234 C1:100mg/kg EA 1.08 ± 0.22 12 0.80 ± 0.60 1 0.54 ± 0.01 23 0.15 ± 0.003 12 0.37 ± 0.31 1 C2:200mg/kg EA 0.81 ± 0.01 1 0.93 ± 0.10 1 0.46 ± 0.01 1 0.05 ± 0.01 1 0.42 ± 0.01 123 C3:400mg/kg EA 2.23 ± 0.01 4 0.87 ± 0.10 1 0.65 ± 0.04 34 0.01 ± 0.01 1 0.60 ± 0.04 34 D1:100mg/kg NB 1.15 ± 0.01 12 0.86 ± 0.04 1 0.57 ± 0.02 3 0.21 ± 0.01 12 0.39 ± 0.02 12 D2:200mg/kg NB 1.15 ± 0.01 12 0.800 ± 0.04 1 0.76 ± 0.01 4 0.14 ± 0.10 12 0.44 ± 0.02 123 D3:400mg/kg NB 1.25 ± 0.08 12 0.96 ± 0.03 1 0.64 ± 0.03 34 0.20 ± 0.03 12 0.44 ± 0.01 123 Values are expressed as Mean + SEM of three replicates. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p 0.05). EE: Ethanol extract, EA: Ethyla cetate, NB: N-butanol. High-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) Effects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf on the body weight and organ weight of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity There was slight decrease in the body weights of treated animals though with no significance (p > 0.5) when compared to the normal control. There was no significant difference in the heart and liver weights across the control and treatment groups. A mild non-significant (p > 0.5) decrease was recorded in the spleen weights while the lung and kidney weights increased slightly though not significant (Table 4 ). Table 4 Effects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf on the body weight and organ weight of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity Groups Body weight Liver Heart Spleen Lungs Kidney A1:Normal control 168.33 ± 9.17 b 3.21 ± 0.15 a 0.38 ± 0.01 a 0.64 ± 0.20 bc 0.68 ± 0.02 b 0.70 ± 0.04 a A2: Negative control 147.67 ± 9.82 ab 3.20 ± 0.27 a 0.40 ± 0.04 a 0.52 ± 0.05 b 0.69 ± 0.03 0.71 ± 0.05 a A3:Positive control 158.33 ± 2.03 ab 2.67 ± 0.26 a 0.43 ± 0.01 a 0.44 ± 0.01 a 0.72 ± 0.03 b 0.80 ± 0.03 ab B1:100mg/kg EE 156.67 ± 12.71 ab 3.83 ± 0.02 a 0.40 ± 0.02 a 0.55 ± 0.03 bc 0.62 ± 0.10 a 0.80 ± 0.03 ab B2:200mg/kg EE 157.67 ± 13.64 ab 3.23 ± 0.13 a 0.38 ± 0.04 a 0.43 ± 0.04 a 0.69 ± 0.06 0.75 ± 0.07 ab B3:400mg/kg EE 135.00 ± 0.58 a 3.39 ± 0.12 a 0.42 ± 0.05 a 0.51 ± 0.04 b 0.76 ± 0.04 bc 0.80 ± 0.02 ab C1:100mg/kg EA 157.67 ± 1.45 ab 2.61 ± 1.07 a 0.43 ± 0.02 a 0.41 ± 0.01 a 0.67 ± 0.02 b 0.75 ± 0.02 ab C2:200mg/kg EA 131.67 ± 17.17 a 3.67 ± 0.28 a 0.47 ± 0.05 b 0.54 ± 0.02 b 0.81 ± 0.07 c 0.79 ± 0.05 ab C3:400mg/kg EA 148.67 ± 2.91 ab 3.65 ± 0.33 a 0.38 ± 0.01 a 0.52 ± 0.09 b 0.73 ± 0.06 b 0.75 ± 0.02 ab D1:100mg/kg NB 149.33 ± 10.53 ab 3.48 ± 0.03 a 0.40 ± 0.03 a 0.46 ± 0.05 b 0.73 ± 0.08 b 0.77 ± 0.05 ab D2:200mg/kg NB 152.67 ± 11.20 ab 3.27 ± 0.06 a 0.40 ± 0.02 a 0.40 ± 0.01 a 0.73 ± 0.02 b 0.71 ± 0.03 a D3:400mg/kg NB 144.67 ± 1.20 ab 3.82 ± 0.26 a 0.36 ± 0.02 a 0.58 ± 0.10 bc 0.69 ± 0.00 b 0.77 ± 0.02 ab Values are expressed as Mean + SEM of three replicates. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p 0.05). EE: Ethanol extract, EA: Ethyla cetate, NB: N-butanol Discussion T The findings from this research offer important information about the phytochemical profile and potential liver-protective effects of Pentaclethra macrophylla leaf extracts. The results reveal notable differences in the phytochemical compositions of the ethanol (EE), ethyl acetate (EA), and n-butanol (NB) fractions (Ukoro et al., 2020 ; Boomgning et al ., 2021; Nnamani et al., 2023 ; Ojimelukwe, 2024 ). The ethanol extract showed the greatest levels of tannins and phytates, which are recognized for their antioxidant and metal-binding abilities (Okafor and Ojimelukwe, 2021 ). Specifically, tannins have been shown to defend against oxidative stress-related liver injury by neutralizing free radicals and lowering lipid peroxidation (Zhang et al., 2022 ). While the increased cyanide levels in the n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions could be potentially harmful at high doses, they may also play a role in the biological activities observed, as cyanogenic glycosides have been reported to have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects (Gleadow and Møller, 2014 ). Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are well-known for their capacity to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are significant factors in liver damage (Ukoro et al ., 2023; Ojimelukwe, 2024 ). The notably higher content of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds in the ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions corresponds with their strong antioxidant and liver-protective properties. Steroidal and terpenoid compounds are recognized for their anti-inflammatory and liver-protecting qualities (Sinda et al., 2021 ). The higher concentrations in the ethanol extract may account for its moderate capability to enhance liver function (Lee et al ., 2023). The results suggest that Pentaclethra macrophylla has considerable antioxidant activity, with the n-butanol fraction exhibiting the strongest scavenging capability. This indicates a likely higher concentration of polar bioactive substances, such as flavonoids and phenolic acids, in this fraction. Previous research has demonstrated that extracts rich in flavonoids typically show greater antioxidant activity. The antioxidant capacity noted in this study is consistent with earlier findings on related species that exhibit nephroprotective properties. The increase in kidney marker levels can be attributed to nephrotoxicity induced by paracetamol, which compromises kidney functions such as glomerular filtration and reabsorption (Adil et al., 2024 ). This suggests that a high dose of paracetamol adversely affected kidney functions. Nevertheless, the nearly normal levels of BUN and reduced uric acid observed after administering Pentaclethra macrophylla indicate a protective effect. Past research on the ethanol extract has shown its potential to boost uric acid excretion by modulating renal transporters, resulting in decreased serum uric acid levels (Zheng et al ., 2022). The favorable histological characteristics of the examined rat kidneys, ranging from normal tissues to moderate degeneration in some high doses, demonstrate the ameliorative and protective effects of P. macrophylla leaf extract. The data indicated significant reductions in average cholesterol and triglyceride levels. This aligns with studies on the administration of P. macrophylla fermented seed extract, which enhanced lipid metabolism and provided a protection percentage against atherogenesis of 61%-90% (Anioke, 2019 ). Such findings support earlier research that identified hypolipidemic effects in various plant extracts (Anioke, 2019 ; Nwozo et al., 2022 ; Izunya et al., 2024 ). Specifically, research on the impact of the ethanol extract from Vernonia amygdalina on the lipid profile in rats found significant reductions in both cholesterol and triglyceride levels (Anioke, 2019 ). The observed decline in cholesterol and triglyceride levels among the treated groups is advantageous for lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Elevated cholesterol levels can result in the development of atherosclerotic plaques, leading to blood vessel narrowing and reduced blood flow to essential organs (Libby et al., 2010 ). Conversely, lower cholesterol levels may aid in diminishing the risk of heart disease, strokes, and peripheral artery disease. Increased levels of triglyceride are associated with an increased risk of CVD, as they can lead to the development of small, dense LDL particles, which are more atherogenic than bigger, buoyant LDL particles (Krauss, 2010). The increased levels of ApoA-1, the primary HDL component protein, in the liver may be the cause of the notable rise in HDL levels observed in the various therapy groups (Afia, 2020 ). The hepatocytes' ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCAI), which moves cholesterol from cells to Apo A-1 to generate pre-HDL, might have used those phytonutrients from P. macrophylla seeds to boost the HDL fraction (Eze et al., 2023 ). HDL that has a lower phospholipid content is more likely to break down and is readily broken down by endothelial lipase (EL) (Eze et al., 2023 ; Afia, 2020 ). Because of its phospholipase activity and capacity to hydrolyze phospholipid in HDL particles, EL is one of the elements that promote HDL catabolism. Accordingly, it seems that the extract might have reduced the bulk or activity of serum endothelial lipase (EL), which would have in turn reduced HDL catabolism (Afia, 2020 ). Thus, the higher HDL level could have been caused by the extract's reduction of EL activity. Another mechanism that can account for this is inhibition of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), which controls the transfer of cholesteryl ester from HDL to other fractions of plasma cholesterol. Therefore, it is possible that P. macrophylla seed extract's suppression of CETP increased the HDL fraction (Omeh et al., 2014 ; Anioke, 2019 ; Afia, 2020 ). The rise in HDL fraction is clinically significant in maintaining excellent cardiovascular health because an increase in HDL-C concentration has been shown to inversely correlate with coronary heart disease. By moving cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver for processing and excretion, HDL-C reduces the quantity of cholesterol that is retained in the tissue and lowers the risk of atherosclerotic plaque formation (Nnamani et al., 2023 ). HDL cholesterol is therefore regarded as the healthy cholesterol since it is thought to have anti-atherogenic qualities. The application of P. macrophylla leaf extract was found to reduce the LDL level. This is consistent with Afia's (2020) reports. The abundance of tannin and saponins, which help to prevent the stomach from absorbing fats, may be the cause of the drop in LDL (Libby et al., 2010 ; Affia, 2020). A notable weight reduction was recorded in the treated animals. There were reports that certain phytochemicals can cause decreased physical activities and loss of appetite in laboratory animals (Nwozo et al., 2022 ). The case of weight loss could be attributed to decreased feed and water intake. Also, similar observations were made in a study where albino rats were treated with Allium cepa L. leaves to treat obesity (Babafemi et al., 2022 ; Abdul Aziz et al., 2023 ). Weight losses in albino rats administered with Cosmos caudatus Kunth leaf extracts have also been reported (Abdul Rahman et al., 2017 ). Conclusion This study may be the first to evaluate lipid profiles and test for nephrotoxicity using leaf extracts from Pentaclathra macrophylla . The findings show that the leaf extract of P. macrophylla has hypolipidemic and nephroprotective qualities, which may be attributed to its phytochemical constituents. Treatment of patients with such natural herbs could be an efficient and safe way to improve patient outcomes and reduce the budget on medicals related to kidney injury management. This study may enhance wider adoption and usage of phytomedicine as supplemental remedies with orthodox medication as a prophylactic measure for cardiac problems by ascertaining the effectiveness of P. macrophylla extracts in lipid metabolism Abbreviations P. macrophylla Pentaclathra macrophylla BUN Blood Urea Nitrogen EE Ethanol extract EA Ethyla cetate NB N-butanol HDL High-density lipoprotein LDL low-density lipoprotein VLDL Very low-density lipoprotein EEPM Ethanol Extract of P. macrophylla (EEPM) EAFPM Ethyl Acetate Fraction of P. macrophylla (EAEPM) NBFPM N-Butanol Fraction of P. macrophylla Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not Applicable Consent for publication Not Applicable Availability of data and material All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests" in this section. Funding This work was completely funded by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), Nigeria through the Institutional Bases Reasearch (IBR) grant, 2025. Authors' contributions Ugwu, CL and Ezugwu MC contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and data collection was done by Ugwu, CL, Ogbobe FO, and Omeh JC. Data analysis were performed by Benjamin GY and Egbuji JV. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ugwu Godwin Chigozie and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements Not Applicable References Abdul Aziz, M. S. M., Tahmina A. S. H., Md Islam, S. M., Farzana A, Asma K, Mohammad N. A & Mohammad S. I. (2023). A comprehensive review on clinically proven medicinal plants in the treatment of overweight and obesity, with mechanistic insights. Heliyon , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13493 Abdul Rahman, H., Najla, G. 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Food Chemistry , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132389 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7161945","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":498295523,"identity":"7ece8719-55b9-40dc-92c6-eefe7e121c8c","order_by":0,"name":"Ugwu Chinagorom Laureta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"State University of Medical and Applied Sciences, Igbo-Eno Enugu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ugwu","middleName":"Chinagorom","lastName":"Laureta","suffix":""},{"id":498295524,"identity":"467d9c69-4490-43db-a7a2-e3a9f0e6ef13","order_by":1,"name":"Ugwu Godwin Chigozie","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACA4YECIPxAYROIF4LswHxWqCATYIoLfLuzdskHu5gSJwfkWNWzbvjDgM/e44Bc8Ev3FoMzxwrk0g8w5C48UaO2W3eM88YJHveGDDP7MOjZUaO2Y3ENqCW2SAtbYcZDG4AbeHtIVJLMUiLPSEt8hJQLfOlc8yYwbZIALXw/MCtxYDnWPmPxDYJ4w3yz4ol57Yd5pE486zgMG8DHlvamzcb/myzkZ3fc3jjh7dth+X425M3Pub5g8eWA2BKAsZg4AERBxjb8NjSgM6AADy2jIJRMApGwYgDAKM4Ug1Zm+rhAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ugwu","middleName":"Godwin","lastName":"Chigozie","suffix":""},{"id":498295525,"identity":"3c3e72ea-dfee-43fb-8c90-de1a83cca525","order_by":2,"name":"Benjamin Gideon Yakusak","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"State University of Medical and Applied Sciences, Igbo-Eno Enugu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benjamin","middleName":"Gideon","lastName":"Yakusak","suffix":""},{"id":498295526,"identity":"a1e86b7f-e230-4805-a07e-f867aa3994c6","order_by":3,"name":"Egbuji Jude Victor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Egbuji","middleName":"Jude","lastName":"Victor","suffix":""},{"id":498295527,"identity":"58fadf96-71be-443a-86c5-2b40015fdfd9","order_by":4,"name":"Omeh Juliet Chinonso","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Omeh","middleName":"Juliet","lastName":"Chinonso","suffix":""},{"id":498295528,"identity":"fc2b78a1-299a-4f73-8920-803acbc78832","order_by":5,"name":"Ogbobe Faith Okwukwe","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ogbobe","middleName":"Faith","lastName":"Okwukwe","suffix":""},{"id":498295529,"identity":"8e778d19-14fb-41a4-813c-f1189e4d7c81","order_by":6,"name":"Ezugwu Martha Chioma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"State University of Medical and Applied Sciences, Igbo-Eno Enugu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ezugwu","middleName":"Martha","lastName":"Chioma","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-19 05:23:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7161945/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7161945/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41936-025-00529-3","type":"published","date":"2025-11-26T15:58:20+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89021558,"identity":"df57c6c6-95c6-4c5b-9ca9-a3441293a708","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-13 20:38:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2323901,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrograph of kidney sections of rats from experimental groups A1 (normal control showing apparently normal features, A2 (negative control) showing\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003esevere\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003einterstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations (arrows) and renal tubular degenerations (asterisk) while A3 (positive control), B1 (100 mg/kg EEMP), B2\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(200 mg/kg EEMP) and B3\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(400 mg/kg EEMP) shows mild interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations (thin arrows). H and E stain × 400.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7161945/v1/37128a93f233228905b91f5f.jpeg"},{"id":89021271,"identity":"147f7015-1097-4056-b2a8-cd078c1beae1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-13 20:30:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1199492,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrograph of kidney sections of rats from experimental groups C1 (100 mg/kg EAEMP) and C2\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(200 mg/kg EAEMP) showing\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003einterstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations (arrows) while C3\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(400 mg/kg EAEMP) shows mild renal tubular degenerations (asterisk). H and E stain × 400.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7161945/v1/be296e331479dba533530553.jpeg"},{"id":89021559,"identity":"3562dd08-64a0-4a36-bee0-4e01adb3d6f0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-13 20:38:56","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":952248,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrograph of kidney sections of rats from experimental groups D1 (100 mg/kg NBEMP) and D2\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(200 mg/kg NBEMP) showing\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003emoderate\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003erenal tubular degenerations (asterisk). (while D3\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(400 mg/kg NBEMP) shows normal histological features. H and E stain × 400.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7161945/v1/e032e33d27fc2d16733a3ace.jpeg"},{"id":97178796,"identity":"3bc4bed3-64e5-49ac-aa8d-c6a5a2aebbc5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:13:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5912985,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7161945/v1/f0703620-429f-46ae-aa25-ffde23c951fb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Nephroprotective and Anti-hyperlipidemic Effects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf Extract on Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Wistar Rat","fulltext":[{"header":"BACKGROUND","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Leguminosae family includes \u003cem\u003ePentaclethra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e, sometimes known as the African oil bean, which is native to equatorial Africa (Afia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Due to its widespread use in traditional medicine across many countries, this plant has drawn a lot of attention. It is especially useful in treating illnesses including infections, inflammation, and dyslipidemia (Anosike et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla's\u003c/em\u003e medicinal qualities are attributed to the abundance of bioactive substances found in its leaves, seeds, and bark, such as flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids (Nwagwe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). According to phytochemical analyses, the plant contains phenolic chemicals, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins, all of which support its pharmacological properties, such as hepatoprotective and antioxidant actions. Although it has been used historically, there have been little scientific studies on its pharmacological effects, therefore there is need for further research to validate its medicinal claims (Nnamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eP. macrophylla seed has been shown to be a good source of dietary nutrients with carbohydrate (10.6%), protein (13.4%) and fat (52.8%) and a good source of important phytochemical components. Fermented \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e contains about 2% of fiber (Anioke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ugbogu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Studies report that plant fiber exerts a physiological effect on the lipid metabolism, in that, it prevents the reabsorption of bile acids and also absorption of dietary cholesterol in the intestine thereby leading to the reduction in the quantity of cholesterol entering the circulation (Omeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Also the presence of some phytosterols and phytostanols (e.g. steroids) found in many plant sources including fermented \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e seed can inhibit cholesterol absorption (Eze et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ugbogu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Any plant product possessing lipid-lowering and antioxidants properties plays a key role in the anti-atherosclerotic process. \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e has emerged as one of many dietary herbal products with the potential to reduce cholesterol as well as enhance the safety profile by increasing high density lipoprotein (HDL) levels in plasma. The administration of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e seed extract significantly increased HDL (Alinnor and Oze, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Although, the mechanism by which HDL increased is not completely understood; however, \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e seeds may have influenced a variety of molecules involved in HDL metabolism and the Reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNephrotoxicity is a critical concern associated with the use of certain pharmaceuticals, including paracetamol, which can lead to chronic kidney injury (Kurnijasanti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanism of paracetamol-induced nephrotoxicity involves the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative stress and subsequent renal cell apoptosis (Kurnijasanti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is one of the most commonly used over-the-counter medications globally (Freo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e); however, its potential for causing acute kidney injury is a significant public health concern. It is widely used as an analgesic and antipyretic agent, though its overuse or misuse can lead to severe damage in the liver (hepatotoxicity) and kidney (nephrotoxicity) (Ayoub, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ekhuemelo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch has demonstrated that various stem bark or root extracts of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e can exert nephroprotective effects by enhancing renal function parameters and reducing markers of kidney damage in experimental models. The ability of these extracts to modulate oxidative stress responses suggests their potential utility in preventing or alleviating drug-induced nephrotoxicity. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is widely used as an analgesic and antipyretic agent (Ayoub, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ekhuemelo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e); however, its overuse or misuse can lead to severe liver and kidney damage, known as nephrotoxicity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrea, creatinine, uric acid, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) are critical biochemical markers used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels of these parameters often indicate renal impairment or toxicity. In Wistar rats, normal serum creatinine levels range from 0.2 to 0.7 mg/dL (or 17.7\u0026ndash;70.7 \u0026micro;mol/L), urea concentrations range from 11 to 25 mg/dL and normal BUN from 10\u0026ndash;30 mg/dL. Elevated BUN may indicate renal dysfunction, dehydration, or high-protein intake, while low levels suggest liver disease or malnutrition (Miller and Dwyer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Uric Acid is the final product of purine metabolism, excreted primarily by the kidneys. Normal serum levels in Wistar rats are 1.0\u0026ndash;3.5 mg/dL. High levels (hyperuricemia) are linked to renal impairment, oxidative stress, and metabolic disorders, while low levels (hypouricemia) may result from excessive renal loss or impaired synthesis (Branten et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e has a long history of use in traditional medicine for various ailments, including those related to kidney health (Estella \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). This study will provide an alternative in the use of its leaves which is more abundant and sustainable as against the use of seed which is very expensive; roots and stem barks which reduces the availability of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e trees in the ecosystem. This study will provide scientific validation for these traditional practices, potentially encouraging the integration of ethnomedicinal knowledge into modern healthcare systems. By demonstrating the efficacy of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e extracts in lipid metabolism and protecting against nephrotoxicity, this research may promote greater acceptance and use of herbal remedies as complementary therapies alongside conventional medicine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study could lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies for preventing paracetamol-induced nephrotoxicity, particularly in vulnerable populations who may be at higher risk due to pre-existing conditions or poly pharmacy. Establishing a safe and effective natural remedy could enhance patient outcomes and reduce healthcare costs associated with managing kidney damage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research aims to fill existing gaps in the literature regarding the nephroprotective and hypolipidemic effects of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla.\u003c/em\u003e While previous studies have focused on seed and stem bark extracts and highlighted its hepatoprotective properties (Ugbogu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Eze et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Okonkwo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nnamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), there is limited data on its effects on renal tissues and lipid profile particularly on extracts gotten from \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003emacrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaves. Furthermore, variations in extraction methods may yield different concentrations of bioactive compounds, potentially influencing their therapeutic efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCollection and identification of plant\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaves of \u003cem\u003ePentaclethra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e were collected from Orba in Udenu local government area of Enugu state, South-East Nigeria in the month of October, 2024. The plant was identified and authenticated by Dr. Felix I. Nwafor of the Department of Plant science and Biotechnology University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. The plant was deposited in University of Nigeria Herbarium with an identification number of UNN/11789.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExtraction and Fractionation of plant materials\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe leaves were washed and air-dried for two weeks and then pulverized into coarse powder using a milling machine and sieved to control the particle size. About 200 g of \u003cem\u003ePentaclethra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e was soaked in 1 L of ethanol, with the mixture intermittently stirred and then allowed to stand for 48 hours. After 48 hours, the mixture was filtered using Whatman No 1 filter paper. The filtrate was then concentrated using a rotary evaporator at 60\u0026ordm;c and further dried in an oven at 40\u0026deg;C. The resulting extract was stored in an amber bottle and kept in a refrigerator for use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFractionation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fractionation was performed using liquid-liquid partitioning. First, an equal volume of ethyl acetate was added to the aqueous extract in a separatory funnel, shaken vigorously, and allowed to separate into two layers. The upper ethyl acetate layer, containing semi-polar compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, phenolics, and terpenoids, was collected, and the process was repeated three times to maximize extraction. The pooled ethyl acetate fractions were then concentrated using a rotary evaporator and stored at 4\u0026deg;C for further analysis. The remaining aqueous phase underwent partitioning with n-butanol by adding an equal volume of the solvent, shaking, and allowing phase separation. The upper organic phase, which contained more polar compounds like glycosides, flavonoid glycosides, and saponins, was collected and pooled from three successive extractions. The n-butanol fractions were concentrated using a rotary evaporator or water bath at 40\u0026ndash;50\u0026deg;C, yielding the final fraction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical determination\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quantity of some bioactive compounds such as tannin, saponin, flavonoids, alkaloids and phenols (Adil \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2014) steroids and terpenoids, phytate and cyanide (Nnamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) present in the ethanol extracts, ethyl acetate fraction and n-butanol fraction of \u003cem\u003eP. microphylla\u003c/em\u003e leaves were determined using standard methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProcurement and Management of Experimental Animals\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilymarin (Livergol, Silipide and Legalon \u0026reg;) tablets (Berlin Pharmaceutical company limited, Thailand) and Paracetamol tablets (500 mg) (Emzor Company, Nigeria) were purchased from the local drugstores in the Nsukka, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 60 female wistar rats weighing 150\u0026ndash;200 g were used. Rats were kept and maintained under laboratory conditions with 12 h light/dark cycles in the Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka were given free access to food (standard pellet diet) and water ad libitum. The animals were randomly divided into 4 groups (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15) of 3 replicates (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5). The experiment was performed with the approval of the Animal Ethics Committee of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nigeria Nsukka, and handled according to ethic of animal handling in compliance with institution`s guidelines and criteria for human care (National Institute of Health Guidelines for the care and Use of Laboratory animals).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental Design\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe procured rats were randomly selected and grouped into four major groups (A, B, C, and D). A, B, C and D represented the control group, ethanol extract, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractionate respectively. These groups were later divided into further groups; (A1, A2 and A3), (B1, B2 and B3), (C1, C2 and C3), (D1, D2 and D3). Each subgroup consisted of three replicates of five rats. The control group (A1, A2 and A3) consisted of the Normal control, Negative control and Positive control group. The normal control was not induced, the negative control was induced with no treatment given, Positive control was induced and treated with a standard drug (200 mg/kg of silymarin) orally for 56 days. The wistar rats in the B (ethanol extract), C (ethyl acetate fraction) and D (n-butanol fraction) group were orally induced with nephrotoxicity and treated with a graded dose of 100, 200 and 400mg/kg of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e extract and fraction respectively. The standard drug and \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e extract and fractions were administered daily using oral gavage for 56 days\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInduction of Nephrotoxicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNephrotoxicity was induced in the Wistar albino rats using paracetamol. The paracetamol was prepared as a solution by dissolving an appropriate quantity in distilled water to achieve the desired dosage. Prior to induction, the rats were fasted for 12 hours with free access to water to ensure uniform absorption of the drug. The nephrotoxicity was induced in the animals with a single dose of paracetamol (3000 mg/kg body weight) administered orally (Alsheika, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the induction, the rats were observed for signs of nephrotoxicity, such as reduced activity and changes in fur condition, and their treatment with the respective plant extracts or standard drug commenced after 3 days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCollection of Blood Sample\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlood samples were collected from the medial canthus of the rats' eyes using the retro-orbital bleeding technique. A fine capillary tube (heparinized) was used for the procedure. The capillary tube was carefully inserted at the medial canthus of the eye, angling it slightly to puncture the retro-orbital sinus. Blood samples meant for serum analysis were collected in plain tubes and allowed to clot for 15\u0026ndash;30 minutes at room temperature before centrifugation, while those intended for plasma analysis were collected in anticoagulant-treated tubes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDetermination of Kidney and Lipid Markers\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKidney function markers such creatinine, urea, uric acid, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), were assessed in the serum obtained from the collected blood samples. The levels of kidney markers were determined using Fully Automated Biochemical Analyzer (Mindray XL-200). Lipid profile markers, including cholesterol, triglycerides, High-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very low-density lipoprotein \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eVLDL) were also determined using auto biochemical analyser (Mindray XL-200)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHistopathological Evaluation of Kidney Tissues\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe kidneys tissues were dissected out and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for at least 24\u0026ndash;48 hours to preserve the tissue structure. The tissues were processed and embedded in paraffin wax and sectioned at a thickness of 5 microns similar to the standard procedure. The tissue was then deparaffined with xylol and histological observations were performed using H- E technique (Alsheika, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The slides were examined using light microscope (X400).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData obtained are expressed as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error of mean (SEM). The result was analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), while Duncan multiple range test was used to separate the means. Significance levels were set at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical Composition of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeaf\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the phytochemical composition of ethanol extracts, ethyl acetate and N-Butanol fractions of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e Leaf. The results indicate significant variations (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the phytochemical composition of ethanol, n-butanol, and ethyl acetate fractions of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf. The ethanol extract had significantly higher (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) tannin, phytate, Steroid and terpenoids content compared with ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions. The cyanide content, alkaloid, saponins, flavonoids and phenolic compounds were significantly higher (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions when compared with the ethanol extract (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhytochemical composition of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extracts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGROUPS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthanol Extract\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-Butanol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthyl Acetate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTannin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhytate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCyanide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlkaloids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaponin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlavonoid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhenol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteroid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerpenoids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SEM. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) while those with similar numeric superscript are not statistically different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of P\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeaf on Kidney parameters of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup A1 (Normal Control) serves as a baseline with creatinine at 45.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2212 \u0026micro;mol/L and urea at 3.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.051 mmol/L, indicating normal kidney function. Group A2 (Negative Control) shows a significant increase in urea (6.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.285 mmol/L, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) compared to A1, suggesting renal stress (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Group A3 (Positive Control) has slightly higher creatinine and urea (4.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01234 mmol/L) than A1 but remains lower than A2, indicating mild stress without significant impairment (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Among the ethanol extract groups (B1\u0026ndash;B3), B1 and B2 exhibited significantly elevated creatinine, suggesting potential renal stress. B3 maintains near-normal creatinine but has slightly elevated urea (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating a dose-dependent effect. The ethyl acetate extract groups (C1\u0026ndash;C3) show significantly lower renal markers, possibly indicating preserved glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The creatinine levels of N-butanol extract groups (D1\u0026ndash;D3) show no significant difference from the normal control while slightly elevated urea values (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting minimal renal stress (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup A2 (Negative Control) shows a significant increase in BUN (2.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.134 mmol/L, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and uric acid (163.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.284 \u0026micro;mol/L, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) compared to A1, suggesting renal stress (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Group A3 (Positive Control) has significantly higher BUN than A1 (2.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0023 mmol/L, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) but lower than A2, with uric acid reduced by approximately half compared to A2 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating partial renal protection. Among the ethanol extract groups (B1\u0026ndash;B3) showed significantly elevated BUN compared to A1 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), slightly higher uric acid than A1 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting a protective effect. The ethyl acetate extract groups (C1\u0026ndash;C3) exhibited a near-normal BUN level across all doses (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with non-significantly increase in uric acid levels showing normal renal protection (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The N-butanol extract groups (D1\u0026ndash;D3) present mixed effects with normal level of BUN and uric acid in D2 and two other groups with significantly higher BUN and uric acid than A1 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating minimal renal impact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of P\u003cem\u003eentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e Leaf on Kidney Parameters of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGROUPS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCreatinine (\u0026micro;mol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrea (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBUN (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUric Acid (\u0026micro;mol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA1:Normal control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.53\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA2:Negative control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.96\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e163.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA3:Positive control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.12\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e130.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.79\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB1:100mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.33\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003csup\u003e2345\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;34.63\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB2:200mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.74\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e148.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;44.63\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB3:400mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC1:100mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73\u003csup\u003e1234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC2:200mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.62\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.83\u003csup\u003e2345\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.03\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC3:400mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.79\u003csup\u003e2345\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32.23\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD1:100mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.71\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003csup\u003e345\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.82\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.01\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD2:200mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.89\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.44\u003csup\u003e1234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD3:400mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.12\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003csup\u003e2345\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;26.64\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eValues are expressed as Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SEM. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) while those with similar numeric superscript are not statistically different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). EE: Ethanol extract, EA: Ethyla cetate, NB: N-butanol\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffects of on paracetamol and\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eTreatments on Rat kidney\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe kidney sections of rats from experimental groups A1 (normal control showing apparently normal features, A2 (negative control) showed severe interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations and renal tubular degenerations while A3 (positive control), B1 treated with 100 mg/kg of Ethanol Extract of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e (EEPM), B2 (200 mg/kg EEPP) and B3 (400 mg/kg EEPM) shows mild interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKidney sections of rats from experimental groups C1, treated with 100 mg/kg of Ethyl Acetate Fraction of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e (EAFPM) and C2 (200 mg/kg EAEPM) showed interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrations while C3 (400 mg/kg EAEPM) shows mild renal tubular degenerations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKidney sections of rats from experimental groups D1 treated with 100 mg/kg of N-Butanol Fraction of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e (NBFPM) and D2 (200 mg/kg NBEPM) showed moderate renal tubular degenerations while D3 (400 mg/kg NBEPM) shows normal histological features (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeaf on the lipid parameters of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the effects of ethanol extract, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf on cholesterol, tryglycerides, High-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). No significant difference was observed in total cholesterol levels, triglyceride, VDL, HDL and LDL levels of the negative and positive control groups when compared with the normal group. However, there was a significant decrease (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the mean value of total cholesterol levels of rats treated with ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions throughout the period of the study when compared with the normal control and a significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) increase in the ethanol fraction groups. There was no significant difference observed in tryglycerides levels of rats treated with ethanol extracts. However, there was a significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) decrease in the tryglycerides levels of the ethlyl acetate and N-butanol fraction groups when compared with the normal control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was a significant increase in the HDL level of the rats across the treatment groups and doses. There is no significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) observed in LDL and VLDL for negative and positive control groups when compared with the normal group (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, there was no significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the mean values of VLDL and LDL of rats treated with ethanol extract of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e when compared to the normal control group. There is a significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) decrease in the LDL and VLDL levels of rats treated with n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e Leaf on the Lipid Profile of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGROUPS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHOLESTEROL (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTRYGLYCERIDES (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHDL (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLDL (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVLDL (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA1:Normal control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA2: Negative control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.007\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA3:Positive control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB1:100mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003e234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB2:200mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB3:400mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33\u003csup\u003e1234\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC1:100mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.003\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC2:200mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC3:400mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD1:100mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD2:200mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.800\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD3:400mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003e123\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eValues are expressed as Mean\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SEM of three replicates. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) while those with similar numeric superscript are not statistically different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). EE: Ethanol extract, EA: Ethyla cetate, NB: N-butanol. High-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeaf on the body weight and organ weight of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was slight decrease in the body weights of treated animals though with no significance (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.5) when compared to the normal control. There was no significant difference in the heart and liver weights across the control and treatment groups. A mild non-significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.5) decrease was recorded in the spleen weights while the lung and kidney weights increased slightly though not significant (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffects Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeaf on the body weight and organ weight of Wistar Rat with Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiver\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeart\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpleen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLungs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKidney\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA1:Normal control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.17\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20 \u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA2: Negative control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e147.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.82 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA3:Positive control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.03 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB1:100mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.71 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB2:200mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.64 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB3:400mg/kg EE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 \u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC1:100mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.07 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC2:200mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.17 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC3:400mg/kg EA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e148.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.91 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD1:100mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e149.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.53 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD2:200mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.20 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD3:400mg/kg NB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.20 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 \u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eValues are expressed as Mean\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SEM of three replicates. Values with different numeric superscript differ significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) while those with similar numeric superscript are not statistically different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). EE: Ethanol extract, EA: Ethyla cetate, NB: N-butanol\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eT The findings from this research offer important information about the phytochemical profile and potential liver-protective effects of \u003cem\u003ePentaclethra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extracts. The results reveal notable differences in the phytochemical compositions of the ethanol (EE), ethyl acetate (EA), and n-butanol (NB) fractions (Ukoro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Boomgning \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021; Nnamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ojimelukwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The ethanol extract showed the greatest levels of tannins and phytates, which are recognized for their antioxidant and metal-binding abilities (Okafor and Ojimelukwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, tannins have been shown to defend against oxidative stress-related liver injury by neutralizing free radicals and lowering lipid peroxidation (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While the increased cyanide levels in the n-butanol and ethyl acetate fractions could be potentially harmful at high doses, they may also play a role in the biological activities observed, as cyanogenic glycosides have been reported to have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects (Gleadow and M\u0026oslash;ller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are well-known for their capacity to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are significant factors in liver damage (Ukoro \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023; Ojimelukwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The notably higher content of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds in the ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions corresponds with their strong antioxidant and liver-protective properties. Steroidal and terpenoid compounds are recognized for their anti-inflammatory and liver-protecting qualities (Sinda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The higher concentrations in the ethanol extract may account for its moderate capability to enhance liver function (Lee \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). The results suggest that \u003cem\u003ePentaclethra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e has considerable antioxidant activity, with the n-butanol fraction exhibiting the strongest scavenging capability. This indicates a likely higher concentration of polar bioactive substances, such as flavonoids and phenolic acids, in this fraction. Previous research has demonstrated that extracts rich in flavonoids typically show greater antioxidant activity. The antioxidant capacity noted in this study is consistent with earlier findings on related species that exhibit nephroprotective properties. The increase in kidney marker levels can be attributed to nephrotoxicity induced by paracetamol, which compromises kidney functions such as glomerular filtration and reabsorption (Adil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that a high dose of paracetamol adversely affected kidney functions. Nevertheless, the nearly normal levels of BUN and reduced uric acid observed after administering \u003cem\u003ePentaclethra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e indicate a protective effect. Past research on the ethanol extract has shown its potential to boost uric acid excretion by modulating renal transporters, resulting in decreased serum uric acid levels (Zheng \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). The favorable histological characteristics of the examined rat kidneys, ranging from normal tissues to moderate degeneration in some high doses, demonstrate the ameliorative and protective effects of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract. The data indicated significant reductions in average cholesterol and triglyceride levels. This aligns with studies on the administration of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e fermented seed extract, which enhanced lipid metabolism and provided a protection percentage against atherogenesis of 61%-90% (Anioke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Such findings support earlier research that identified hypolipidemic effects in various plant extracts (Anioke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Nwozo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Izunya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, research on the impact of the ethanol extract from \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e on the lipid profile in rats found significant reductions in both cholesterol and triglyceride levels (Anioke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The observed decline in cholesterol and triglyceride levels among the treated groups is advantageous for lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Elevated cholesterol levels can result in the development of atherosclerotic plaques, leading to blood vessel narrowing and reduced blood flow to essential organs (Libby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, lower cholesterol levels may aid in diminishing the risk of heart disease, strokes, and peripheral artery disease.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncreased levels of triglyceride are associated with an increased risk of CVD, as they can lead to the development of small, dense LDL particles, which are more atherogenic than bigger, buoyant LDL particles (Krauss, 2010). The increased levels of ApoA-1, the primary HDL component protein, in the liver may be the cause of the notable rise in HDL levels observed in the various therapy groups (Afia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The hepatocytes' ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCAI), which moves cholesterol from cells to Apo A-1 to generate pre-HDL, might have used those phytonutrients from \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e seeds to boost the HDL fraction (Eze et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). HDL that has a lower phospholipid content is more likely to break down and is readily broken down by endothelial lipase (EL) (Eze et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Afia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Because of its phospholipase activity and capacity to hydrolyze phospholipid in HDL particles, EL is one of the elements that promote HDL catabolism. Accordingly, it seems that the extract might have reduced the bulk or activity of serum endothelial lipase (EL), which would have in turn reduced HDL catabolism (Afia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the higher HDL level could have been caused by the extract's reduction of EL activity. Another mechanism that can account for this is inhibition of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), which controls the transfer of cholesteryl ester from HDL to other fractions of plasma cholesterol. Therefore, it is possible that \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e seed extract's suppression of CETP increased the HDL fraction (Omeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Anioke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Afia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rise in HDL fraction is clinically significant in maintaining excellent cardiovascular health because an increase in HDL-C concentration has been shown to inversely correlate with coronary heart disease. By moving cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver for processing and excretion, HDL-C reduces the quantity of cholesterol that is retained in the tissue and lowers the risk of atherosclerotic plaque formation (Nnamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). HDL cholesterol is therefore regarded as the healthy cholesterol since it is thought to have anti-atherogenic qualities. The application of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract was found to reduce the LDL level. This is consistent with Afia's (2020) reports. The abundance of tannin and saponins, which help to prevent the stomach from absorbing fats, may be the cause of the drop in LDL (Libby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Affia, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA notable weight reduction was recorded in the treated animals. There were reports that certain phytochemicals can cause decreased physical activities and loss of appetite in laboratory animals (Nwozo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The case of weight loss could be attributed to decreased feed and water intake. Also, similar observations were made in a study where albino rats were treated with \u003cem\u003eAllium cepa\u003c/em\u003e L. leaves to treat obesity (Babafemi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Abdul Aziz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Weight losses in albino rats administered with Cosmos caudatus Kunth leaf extracts have also been reported (Abdul Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study may be the first to evaluate lipid profiles and test for nephrotoxicity using leaf extracts from \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e. The findings show that the leaf extract of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e has hypolipidemic and nephroprotective qualities, which may be attributed to its phytochemical constituents. Treatment of patients with such natural herbs could be an efficient and safe way to improve patient outcomes and reduce the budget on medicals related to kidney injury management. This study may enhance wider adoption and usage of phytomedicine as supplemental remedies with orthodox medication as a prophylactic measure for cardiac problems by ascertaining the effectiveness of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e extracts in lipid metabolism\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBUN\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlood Urea Nitrogen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eEE\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthanol extract\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eEA\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthyla cetate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNB\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-butanol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHDL\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh-density lipoprotein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLDL\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003elow-density lipoprotein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVLDL\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery low-density lipoprotein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eEEPM\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthanol Extract of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e (EEPM)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eEAFPM\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthyl Acetate Fraction of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e (EAEPM)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNBFPM\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-Butanol Fraction of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests\" in this section.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was completely funded by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), Nigeria through the Institutional Bases Reasearch (IBR) grant, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUgwu, CL and Ezugwu MC contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and data collection was done by Ugwu, CL, Ogbobe FO, and Omeh JC.\u0026nbsp;Data analysis were performed by Benjamin GY and Egbuji JV. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ugwu Godwin Chigozie and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdul Aziz, M. S. M., Tahmina A. S. H., Md Islam, S. M., Farzana A, Asma K, Mohammad N. A \u0026amp; Mohammad S. I. (2023). 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Hepatoprotective role of fenugreek seed polyphenolic extract against CCl₄-induced oxidative stress and liver damage. \u003cem\u003eFood Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132389\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132389\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Phytomedicine, Wistar rat, Pentaclathra macrophylla, Nephroprotection, Lipid profile","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7161945/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7161945/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn view of the undesirable side effects of synthetic agents, there is growing focus towards the therapeutic evaluation of medicinal plants like \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e (African oil bean) using systemic research methodology. However, scientific validation of its effects on lipid metabolism and nephroprotection is limited. This study investigates the nephroprotective and hypolipidemic effect of ethanol extract, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol fractions of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaves for 56 days. Kidney markers and lipid parameters were evaluated using auto biochemical analyzer (Mindray XL-200). Sixty (60) male Wistar rats (150-200g) were randomly selected and divided into four major groups (A, B, C, and D) of 15 rats each. Groups A, B, C, and D represented the control group, ethanol extract group, ethyl acetate fraction group, and n-butanol fraction group, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results revealed a significant reduction (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in renal parameters; creatinine, urea, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and uric acid levels in the treatment groups when compared with the positive control. There was also a corresponding favourable histology outcome in the examined kidney sections. The decline in the levels of renal parameters and the healthy histological features of the sectioned rat kidneys ranging from normal tissues to moderate degeneration in some high doses showed the ameliorative and protective properties of \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract. The lipid profile values were significantly decreased in the ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions except for the high density lipoprotein which was significantly elevated across the groups. The observed decrease in cholesterol, triglyceride, low density lipoprotein levels and a significant increase in the high density lipoprotein levels of the treatment groups is beneficial in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study results suggests that \u003cem\u003eP. macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extracts especially the ethyl acetate and N-butanol fractions could be used as nephroprotective and hypolipidemic agents. Further studies are recommended to isolate and characterize the specific bioactive compounds responsible for the nephroprotective ans hypolipidaemic effects of \u003cem\u003ePentaclathra macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Nephroprotective and Anti-hyperlipidemic Effects of Ethanol Extracts, Ethyl Acetate and N-Butanol Fractions of Pentaclathra macrophylla Leaf Extract on Paracetamol-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Wistar Rat","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-13 20:30:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7161945/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5e1e83a8-8101-4ee7-9d52-8bb549250d7b","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:07:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7161945","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41936-025-00529-3","journal":{"identity":"the-journal-of-basic-and-applied-zoology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-26 15:58:20","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 26th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-13 20:30:51","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s41936-025-00529-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41936-025-00529-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7161945","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7161945","identity":"rs-7161945","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}