Governmental expenditure and National development  of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review

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In this regard, capital expenditure that would promote infrastructure is most desired. However, in Nigeria, the government spends more on administrative cost (recurrent expenditure) than capital expenditure. Under such condition, contributions to economic growth and national development become an illusion. Methods This study employed Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (ADF) with Bound testing procedure, time series data that covers the period from 1990 to 2020 in Nigeria were used. Results The result from the analysis showed that governmental expenditure has a significant effect on the national development of Nigeria. All the variables have a long-run relationship with economic growth (RGDP), according to the ARDL model’s results. If the government poor policies on education, health services, and infrastructure etc. are addressed, in the long-run, Nigeria will achieve monumental development. Conclusion The study adopted indices such as expenditure on Social and Community Services, Economic Services and Administrative Services to reflect the dynamics of government expenditure coupled with the yearly data garnered from the Central Bank of Nigeria spanning from 1990 to 2020. " } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1393", "name": "Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020:..." } } ] } Home Browse Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020:... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Atobatele A, Moliki A, Olaoye O et al. Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157915.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] Abolaji Atobatele https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1800-2771 1 , Ahmed Moliki 2 , Olusegun Olaoye 1 , Daniel GBEREVBIE 1 , Moyosoluwa Dele-Dada 1 Abolaji Atobatele https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1800-2771 1 , Ahmed Moliki 2 , [...] Olusegun Olaoye 1 , Daniel GBEREVBIE 1 , Moyosoluwa Dele-Dada 1 PUBLISHED 19 Nov 2024 Author details Author details 1 Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria 2 Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria Abolaji Atobatele Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Ahmed Moliki Roles: Conceptualization, Project Administration, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Olusegun Olaoye Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Daniel GBEREVBIE Roles: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Moyosoluwa Dele-Dada Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS This article is included in the Political Communications gateway. Abstract Background One of the main goals of the government is to ensure a development that would enhance the living standard of the people in the society. In this regard, capital expenditure that would promote infrastructure is most desired. However, in Nigeria, the government spends more on administrative cost (recurrent expenditure) than capital expenditure. Under such condition, contributions to economic growth and national development become an illusion. Methods This study employed Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (ADF) with Bound testing procedure, time series data that covers the period from 1990 to 2020 in Nigeria were used. Results The result from the analysis showed that governmental expenditure has a significant effect on the national development of Nigeria. All the variables have a long-run relationship with economic growth (RGDP), according to the ARDL model’s results. If the government poor policies on education, health services, and infrastructure etc. are addressed, in the long-run, Nigeria will achieve monumental development. Conclusion The study adopted indices such as expenditure on Social and Community Services, Economic Services and Administrative Services to reflect the dynamics of government expenditure coupled with the yearly data garnered from the Central Bank of Nigeria spanning from 1990 to 2020. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Administrative cost, government expenditure, economic growth, national development, Nigeria. Corresponding Author(s) Abolaji Atobatele ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Abolaji Atobatele Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The Covenant University Centre for Research, Innovation, and Discovery (CUCRID) provided invaluable financial support during the course of this study, which the authors of this paper would like to acknowledge and appreciate. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2024 Atobatele A et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Atobatele A, Moliki A, Olaoye O et al. Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157915.1 ) First published: 19 Nov 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157915.1 ) Latest published: 19 Nov 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157915.1 ) 1. Introduction The dogmatic belief that government should maintain law and order in order to promote society progress rather than interfere with economic growth was debunked with the advent of Neo-classical philosophy. This was the case up until the classical theory’s inability to allocate resources fairly resulted in the application of John Keynes’s Neo-classical principles. The primary argument put out by neo-classical theorists is that the government ought to become involved in the economy by providing monetary interventions to stimulate growth and help the country emerge from the Great Depression. As a result, many governments have expressed interest in their nations’ economic development and prosperity by allocating funds to raise the standard of living for their inhabitants in the areas of transportation, education, health, and agriculture. Agbarakwe and Anowor (2018) state that the classical apologists believed that the long-term management of the economy should rest with the forces of supply and demand, and that the government should not meddle in economic matters. The classical thinkers proposed a theory according to which the government should only uphold law and order and should not interfere with the market mechanism’s ability to function. Governments work hard to make sure that their citizens and residents have a comfortable life. This is especially true in the West, where the government provides basic necessities like high-quality, affordable housing, improved health care, agriculture, a well-developed road network, and so on. However, most third-world countries lack these efforts due to obvious factors like institutional weakness and the prevalence of corruption. Governments work hard to make sure that their citizens and residents have a comfortable life. This is especially true in the West, where the government provides basic necessities like high-quality, affordable housing, improved health care, agriculture, a well-developed road network, and so on. However, most third-world countries lack these efforts due to obvious factors like institutional weakness and the prevalence of corruption. Agbarakwe and Anowor (2018) claim that by assuming that the market would supply all necessary resources, the governments of the majority of third-world nations appeared to have endorsed the theory of the classical economics. It is clear that Nigeria’s administration adopted the ideas of classical economists by letting supply and demand dictate the requirements of the populace, which ultimately resulted in the monoculture of the nation. Nonetheless, studies have shown a strong correlation between government spending and economic expansion. Keynes stated in 1936 that lowering interest rates and increasing government capital investment in infrastructure would encourage businesses to invest and be the cure-all for the economic crisis. Keynes (1936) , Ram (1986) , Ranjan and Shanma (2008) , and Barro (1990) are among the academics who have claimed that more government spending on socioeconomic development promotes economic growth. According to them, an increase in government expenditure on things like health and education will lower production costs and boost labor productivity, which will boost firm profits and private sector investment and ultimately raise the country’s gross domestic product. Even though the country’s successive governments have tried to diversify the nation in accordance with Western demands, this idea has not produced any fruitful outcomes because Nigerian leaders are inherently corrupt and have not advanced socioeconomic development sufficiently to foster the kind of robust growth required for the nation’s development. Nigeria, according to Akpakpan (1998) , was dependent on imports from other nations, particularly petroleum and agricultural supplies, for which she paid a premium. Thus, according to Akpakpan, the government had to launch intervention programs that will support Nigeria’s achievement of strong economic growth. The government intervened in the economy by launching programs under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), such as the Cash Transfer Program, the Women’s Entrepreneurship Development Scheme, the School Feeding Initiative, and the Small Business Growth Program, to mention a few. These programs will foster real socio-economic development by giving citizens the necessary funds to launch profitable ventures that will raise their standard of living and assist the government in improving transportation, agriculture, education, and other areas that will spur economic growth. However, in spite of this, Nigeria has not experienced reasonable economic growth that will redistribute resources among its citizens. The disparity between the rich and the poor continues to grow as a large number of Nigerians live in extreme poverty in comparison to the few wealthy Nigerians, who are primarily politicians. According to Vanguard (2021) , The 2019/2020 Nigerian Living Standards Survey was released by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). It shows that 82.9 million people, or 40.1% of the country’s population, are living in extreme poverty. According to the survey, a higher proportion of Nigerians reside in rural areas, with slightly over 40% residing in metropolitan centers. This indicates that poverty is widespread in these areas. According to Knoema (N.D.) , the national poverty headcount rate was 40.1 percent in 2018. In light of this, the study looks at how the government’s socioeconomic initiatives affect Nigeria’s economic expansion. 2. Review of literature This paper includes a conceptual review as well as an analysis of relevant empirical research on economic growth and socioeconomic intervention. This indicates that the concepts of growth and socioeconomic development are included in the conceptual literature evaluation. In Rivers State, Nigeria, Agbarakwe and Anowor (2021) conducted a research titled “Government Intervention and Economic Development: Lessons from Songhai Development Initiative Farm.” In order to get the necessary data, it used a survey design that included questionnaires, interviews, and in-person observations. The hypothesis was also tested using chi-square. The study’s findings show a strong correlation between economic progress and the Songhai progress Initiative Farm. Therefore, it suggested that for the best results in terms of output, job creation, income, social welfare, and technical improvement, such and comparable government direct participation in the agricultural and other sectors should be encouraged. The study did not analyze its findings using the proper statistical method. Measurement of the difference, not the relationship, is done by Chi-Square. The application of Pearson Correlation will increase the study’s perceived value. Ajide (2014) studied the factors that influence Nigeria’s economic growth. E-view was utilized in the study to analyze the findings. The study discovered that factors influencing economic growth include labor force participation, life expectancy, openness, and economic freedom. Accordingly, the research recommended cutting back on overbearing government intrusion while increasing funding for health and education. Anwana and Affia (2018) conducted a study titled Which Institutions Infrastructure Matter for Economic Growth and Development in Nigeria? We obtained time series data from the World Bank, Nigerian Central Bank, and other sources between 1986 and 2016. ECM was implemented, and a multiple regression model was used for data processing. According to the study’s findings, political, legal, and security institutions, as well as governance, have an impact on economic growth in Nigeria, whereas economic and regulatory institutions foster it. Accordingly, the study suggested that in order to maintain economic growth, the government should focus its policies on strengthening the financial, regulatory, and economic sectors of the economy; enhancing civil services and public infrastructure while shielding them from political influence; and bolstering civil liberties and the rule of law through the implementation of a strong security framework. Ibietan (2011) conducted research on Nigeria’s agricultural and rural development policies from 1960 to the present. The study came to the conclusion that while incrementalism as a decision-making model is negative, it can help prevent policy reversals and somersaults by ensuring continuity in government policies and programs. To achieve a balance between the government and policy beneficiaries, the report suggested that the critical section and stakeholders in the policy-making process should work together. While our work examines the many efforts made by the government to ensure economic growth, the analysis is restricted to the numerous mechanisms utilized in agriculture. An evaluation of agricultural financing, policies, and initiatives for sustainable development in Nigeria in the twenty-first century: 1990–2014 was carried out by Fankun & Evbuomwan (2017) . Using descriptive and inferential techniques, data for this study were collected from secondary sources, including Conference Journals and Publications, World Bank and United Nations publications, text books, Bullion, Annual Report and Statements of Accounts, Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Statistical Bulletins, and Bullion. The studies that were secondary were obtained through the use of descriptive and inferential techniques from the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Statistical Bulletins, Annual Report and Statements of Accounts, Bullion, The Economic and Statistical Review of National Planning Commission, conferences, journals, and publications, as well as World Bank and United Nations publications and textbooks. According to the report, government support for agricultural initiatives is at a low point, making it impossible to guarantee that agriculture will contribute to sustainable development. A study titled Nigerian Socio-Economic Development: The Roles and Challenges of Small and Medium Entreprises Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN) was carried out by Adegbuyi, Kehinde, Fadeyi, and Adegbuyi (2016) . To wrap up its investigation, the study used a descriptive statistic. According to the report, among other things, SMEDAN suffers difficulties with insufficient funding, nepotism, tribalism, and a lack of awareness-raising efforts. If the researchers had used survey research, the study would have been more reliable. In order to alleviate poverty in Edo State, Nigeria, Igberaese and Dania (2015) conducted study on the assessment of socio-economic characteristics of community-based organizations. The study used random and purposive sampling strategies in a survey-style research design. The study discovered that CBO establishment is unstable over time, with membership ranging from 1 to 100 individuals, the majority of whom are involved in agricultural business. Therefore, the study suggested that the government take immediate action and provide them with interventions that will raise their standard of living. The notion of poverty was not sufficiently explored in this study. A study on Governance and the Challenge of Socio-Economic Development in Nigeria was carried out by Ojo, Aworawo, and Ifedayo (2014) . According to the report, corruption has proliferated widely throughout Nigeria, impeding the establishment of good governance and, ultimately, negatively affecting the country’s socioeconomic progress. Therefore, the study suggested that if effective governance is to be implemented, Nigeria’s leadership should be corrupted. A study on The State, Governance, and Socioeconomic Development Realities in Nigeria was conducted by Ijere (2014) . According to the report, corruption and poor governance are caused by ethnic chauvinism and historical accumulation in Nigeria. As a result, the report suggested that the rule of law, accountability, and openness be established. A study titled Economic Growth in Nigeria: Evidence from the Appraisal of Financial Sector Reforms and its Causal Effects was conducted in 2014 by Manasseh, Asogwa, Agu, and Aneke. Time series data were employed in the study, and the results were analyzed using E-view. According to the report, foreign direct investment and domestic credit provided by the banking industry are two important factors that can contribute to strong economic growth. According to the report, the government could offer a tax holiday and relax strict regulations that might deter banking institutions from lending to the private sector. A study titled Economic Development in Nigeria through the Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Mining Sectors: An Econometric Approach was carried out by Uzoigwe in 2007. Using the Engle-Yoo (1991) model, sectoral-econometric modeling was used in the study. The analysis discovered a substantial positive correlation between labor input and public capital expenditure for the growing sectors and the gross production of the manufacturing, mining, and quarrying industries. The study suggested that Nigerians choose leaders who possess a solid understanding of economic concepts. 2.1 Over view of economic growth: The perspective of human development index (HDI) The United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP, 1992 ) asserts that human development ought to be the focus of development. The United Nations Population Fund (UNDP) emphasized the need for continued economic growth and income distribution to the majority of the population. The primary goal of human development is to ensure that everyone has access to the things that make life worthwhile, such as good health and affordable healthcare, education, and reliable transportation, all of which contribute to a respectable level of living. According to Uzoigwe (2007) , political freedom, the provision of human rights, and individual self-respect are further indicators of human progress. The HDI is expressed by UNDP (1992) and includes component variables including high life expectancy, high literacy, and standard of living. 2.2 Insight into Nigeria economic growth The national bureau of statistics (NBS) (2014) reports that between 1960 and 1969, Nigeria’s GDP per capita increased by 132%, and between 1970 and 1979, the growth rate peaked at 283%. However, from 1979 to 1983, there was a fiscal imbalance that had an adverse effect on the balance of payments due to high levels of inflation and a wave of unemployment that necessitated economic restructuring. The government of Nigeria implemented a thorough economic reform program in 1986 with the goal of structurally adjusting the country’s economy and improving its overall functioning. Thus, the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) was implemented from 1988 to 1997, resulting in a 4% positive GDP growth and a 7% real GDP growth overall by 2010. Divergent opinions exist regarding the significant rise in government spending overall and the performance of the Nigerian economy over time. While some authors contend that there is little correlation between government spending and economic growth in Nigeria, others maintain that there is. 2.3 Effect of government spending on economic growth It is impossible to overstate the role that government expenditure plays in any economy’s expansion. Any economy, whether capitalist or socialism, needs to cooperate with the state apparatus in order to see strong economic progress. Though, as Nigeria’s example shows, government spending can lead to the misappropriation of public funds. According to Krueger (1990) , government initiatives that involve state programs’ economic operations are ineffective and wasteful, and they can have a detrimental effect on a nation’s ability to develop economically. Smith (1776) asserts that states are thought to be the greatest misspenders of public funds. He emphasized further that people ought to be free to follow their dreams since they will eventually serve the interests of society as a whole. Keynes (1936) believed that in order to address the economy and lower unemployment, the authorities should use public expenditure as a tool of monetary policy sparingly. This calls for a comprehensive financial plan in which the government deliberately pursues a deficit budget by borrowing money rather than taxing the populace. Public spending will have a multiplier impact that will control unemployment. Break (1982) emphasized that government spending should be multifaceted since no economy has ever reached a stable stage of development without the involvement of the government. The Keynesian theory describes how increases in spending over time can result in strong economic development. The 1930s economic downturn is when the Keynesian idea originated. He believed that raising government spending and lowering taxes would ensure that the recession would end and that each person’s purchasing power would rise. Anyebe (2015) asserts that the Keynesian theory is an essential safeguard against production and employment-related crises. Without a doubt, Keynes suggested ways to combat the crisis by raising spending and lowering taxes, which finally raised people’s purchasing power. According to Musgrave and Musgrave (1989) , fiscal policy also directly affects demand by raising public spending and accelerating the expansion of the public and private sectors. 3. Method The study employed data from secondary sources. The information for variables like Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Total Government Expenditure was taken from the CBN Statistical Bulletin, 2020. This times series analysis study spans a sample period from 1990 to 2020. This study estimated the effect of government spending on the transportation sector and economic growth using multiple regression models and econometric procedures. The following is the study’s model: Functional relationship (1) R GDP = F ( SOCOM , ECONS , ADMIN ) The above functional relationship has been transformed into econometric linear models as follows. (2) RGDP = β 0 + β 1 SOCOM + β 2 ECONS + β 3 ADMIN + μ Where: RGDP = Real Gross Domestic Product SOCOM = Expenditure on Social and Community Services ECONS = Expenditure on Economic Services ADMIN = Expenditure on Administrative Services U t = Error Term. Gujarati (2004) pointed out that time series data are anticipated to be stationary, hence the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test was employed to verify the series’ stationarity as well as the order of integration. 4. Discussion and Result 4.1 Unit Root Test Time series data were used in the study’s analysis. Testing the order of integration for the variables in time series data is the initial step, as recommended by Gujarati (2004). The most popular test is the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test, which was created in 1979 by Dickey and Fuller. The following is the mathematical model to verify the unit root: (1) ∆ yt = a 0 + a 1 t + ∅ y t − 1 + ∑ t = 1 p β I ∆ y t – I + μ t Where ρ is the autoregressive process’s lag order, t is the error term, α0 is the intercept or constant, α1 is a trend term, and ∆ is the first difference operator. (See appendix Table 4.1 extended data presents the results of the ADF unit root). The ADF Stationarity test’s decision rule states that if the ADF calculated value is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis that the variable has a unit root (non-stationary) is accepted; conversely, if the ADF calculated value is greater than the critical value @5%, the null hypothesis that the variable has a unit root is rejected. Because all of the variables’ ADF test statistics are only greater than the crucial value at the first difference, table 4.1 (Extended data) result showed that all of the variables are stationary at first difference rather than at level. The variables are all integrated of order I (1), according to this. (See Table 4.1 extended data) presents the results of the ADF unit root). 4.2 Bound Test The Bound Test was run because series are integrated of different orders. In other words, they have combination of I (0) and I (1) Series. In order to find out if there is a long-run relationship amongst the variables, the Bound test was used as recommended by Pesaran, Shin, and Smith (2001) to determine whether there is a long-term association between the variables. We reject the null hypothesis, which states that there is no cointegration among the variables, because the F-Statistic is 13.73943, which is more than both 3.23 I (0) and 4.35 I (1) @ 5 percentage. We get to the conclusion that the variables have a long-term relationship. 4.3 Long run test from Bounds Testing The results of the bounds test indicated whether or not the variables are co-integrated. The ARDL Bound testing method was used to test this. If the F-statistic is larger than the upper bound I (1) of the critical value at the 5% level of probability, it is decided that there is cointegration or a long-term relationship between the variables; if not, the variables are not regarded as co-integrated and, consequently, no long-term relationship exists. H0: no cointegrating equation H1: H 0 is not true Decision criteria: We can determine that there is cointegration, or a long-term relationship, if the computed F-statistic is larger than the critical value for the upper bound I (1). Finally, the test is deemed inconclusive if the calculated F-statistic lies between the lower bound I (0) and the upper bound I(1). If the F-statistic falls below the critical value for the lower bound I (0) bound, we conclude that there is no cointegration, and thus, no long-run relationship. Table 4.2 (extended data) displays an F-statistic of 13.74943, surpassing both the lower bound I (0) of 2.70 and the upper bound I (1) of 3.77 at the 5% significance level. It follows that cointegration exists. Stated differently, the relationship is one of duration. (See Table 4.2 (extended data), the results of Bound test). According to Table 4.3 (extended data), the lag value of the coefficient RGDP (-1.841501) indicates that the present period’s adjustment speed of 184 % corrects the preceding period’s deviation from the long-run equilibrium. Additionally, in the short run, a percentage shift in SOCOM is linked, ceteris paribus, with a zero percentage decline in GDP. Similarly, ceteris paribus, a percentage change in ECONS corresponds to an average percentage gain in GDP. On average, ceteris paribus, a five percentage increase in GDP is linked to a % change in ADMIN. Among the post-model tests conducted in this work are the Serial Auto Correlation Test, which verifies that the model’s residuals are normally distributed and free from the effects of serial (auto) correlation and the heteroscedasticity problem. All post-model tests that were performed, with the exception of Jarque Bera, which indicates that the data is not normally distributed, had P-values greater than 5% at the probability level, indicating the absence of serial correlation. Therefore, we tested for heteroscedasticity, and the outcome indicates that there isn’t any. The model underwent these tests to make sure it is trustworthy enough for economic forecasting. (See Table 4.4 (extended data), the summary of Post Model Estimation result). 4.5 Summary of result The study examined the Governmental Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria, 1990-2020: An Empirical Review with special reference to social and community service, economic service and administrative service expenditure in which all socio-economic activities fall under in Nigeria. The study, which was a time series analysis, made use of CBN statistical bulletin data from 1990 to 2020. Government social and community expenditure (GSOCOM) has long-run relationship with the economic growth (RGDP), according to the ARDL model’s results. In other word, there is a long-run effect between GSOCOM and Economic growth provided government changes its pattern of spending. The primary cause of the poor quality of education and health services is the government’s low spending on social and community service, which includes, among other things, education and health, compared to administrative functions like the National Assembly, security, etc. where billions of Naira is spent. As a result, Nigerians prefer to travel abroad in order to access these services, which has an adverse effect on the country’s foreign reserve and economic growth through leakages. A strong educational system and improvements in health care are enough to support rapid economic growth. More specifically, education along with effective institutional structures, robust macroeconomic policies, and improved public health are crucial tools for reducing poverty ( Babatunde, N.D ). Additionally, government spending on economic services like road building and agriculture (GECONS) has a major beneficial long-run effect on economic growth. The Nigerian government is investing a lot of money in agriculture in an attempt to diversify the country’s economy. Farmers are given access to various packages designed to increase national food production and export the remaining food to other nations, which is contributing to economic growth. Additionally, the government is building and mending roads that will improve the quality of life for both citizens and investors in an effort to attract investment. For example, in order to promote trade, the government built sophisticated gauges from Lagos to Ibadan and Abuja to Kaduna. Other gauges were built all over the nation. For the real sector, infrastructure consists of intermediate goods and services, and for consumers, it consists of final goods and services. In order for Nigeria’s real sector to drive growth and development, infrastructure needs to receive sufficient attention. Supporting this view are Nedozi, Obasanmi, & Ighata, (2014) furthermore, infrastructure contributes to macroeconomic stability and enhances quality of life by providing utilities like transportation, energy, and communication services. Last but not least, there is a strong positive correlation between economic growth, the National Assembly, and government spending on administrative services (GADMIN). The federal government of Nigeria has invested enormous sums of money in the National Assembly and other administrative duties since the country’s enshrinement of democracy in order to enshrine good governance. In addition, the government has spent a lot of money on security over the previous seven years in the fight against terrorism. The economy of Nigeria will benefit from direct investment if terrorism and other antisocial behavior are eradicated. The study’s consideration of government expenditure components (general administration, defense) is crucial in understanding Nigeria’s economic growth; the country’s political system has no appreciable bearing on the country’s economic growth. Additionally, general administration has a major and favorable impact on Nigeria’s economic progress. This suggests that higher spending on general administration will probably lead to higher economic growth rates. Additionally, if every naira allocated for this index is spent prudently, this will accomplish its goal. (Amakor & Echomeba). 5. Conclusion and Recommendations In line with J. Paul Dunne & Nan Tian’s (2013) findings on military expenditure, economic growth, and heterogeneity, which showed that military expenditure has a negative effect on economic growth, capital expenditures on health have a positive impact on GDP but have little relationship to economic growth. Additionally, ongoing expenditures on public safety (defense) had a negligible and negative impact on economic growth. The overall or aggregate effect of government spending on economic growth, however, is statistically significant. This finding adds support to Ukpabi Nnamdi’s (2013) empirical analysis of the relationship between government spending and economic growth, which shows that government spending promotes economic growth. The Keynesian (1936) theory of government active economic intervention through the use of diverse policy tools is further supported by this. Additionally, the research confirms Wagner’s (1813) premise of Ever Increasing State Activity because the CBN data on government spending and GDP show an increasing tendency. As a result, our analysis adds credence to the mounting body of evidence showing that government spending influences economic growth and is correlated with it. The study goes on to say that the elements of government spending that were taken into account—general administration, defense, education, and health—are crucial factors in explaining Nigeria’s economic growth and that the country’s political system has no appreciable bearing on it. Therefore, the study recommended that the government increase funding for social and community service in order to provide citizens with high-quality, reasonably priced health and education services that include access to cutting-edge medical facilities. This will help to end medical tourism abroad and create a skilled labor force that leads a healthy lifestyle and will support the nation’s economic growth. Consequently, increasing funding for social and community services will contribute to the ability to experience sustainable economic growth. It was also suggested that additional funding be given to administrative services, particularly security. The government must ensure that the military equipment required to fight terrorism is acquired and put to use. Additionally, the government ought to cut back on funding for the national assembly in order to redirect the extra funds to the health and education sectors, all of which will significantly boost economic growth. Data availability statement The data used in this study can be accessed online from https://www.cbn.gov.ng/documents/statbulletin.asp Extended data FigShare: The result from the e-view. http://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27324417.v1 ( Atobatele, 2024 ). This project contains the following data: - flashare result.docx (Table 4.1 to Table 4.4) Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0). 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Reference Source Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 19 Nov 2024 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria 2 Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria Abolaji Atobatele Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Ahmed Moliki Roles: Conceptualization, Project Administration, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Olusegun Olaoye Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Daniel GBEREVBIE Roles: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Moyosoluwa Dele-Dada Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The Covenant University Centre for Research, Innovation, and Discovery (CUCRID) provided invaluable financial support during the course of this study, which the authors of this paper would like to acknowledge and appreciate. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 19 Nov 2024, 13:1393 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157915.1 Copyright © 2024 Atobatele A et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Atobatele A, Moliki A, Olaoye O et al. Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157915.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 19 Nov 2024 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Okoli UV. Reviewer Report For: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342834 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1393/v1#referee-response-342834 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 31 Dec 2024 Uju Victoria Okoli , Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra, Nigeria Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342834 Generally, the author did his best to address the research objectives. My observations will be discussed according to the sections contained in the paper. Introduction: The repetition of the first citation of Agbarakwu and Anowor (2018) ... Continue reading READ ALL Generally, the author did his best to address the research objectives. My observations will be discussed according to the sections contained in the paper. Introduction: The repetition of the first citation of Agbarakwu and Anowor (2018) should be expunged because it made reading of the work a bit clumsy. Review of Literature: No theory was reviewed in this section only empirical literature. Also the empirical literature reviewed were not up to date. The literature should be updated to 2024 paper review. Human Development Index was brought up in section 2 without any prior mention of it in the introduction as one of the important variables to be studied under the research. I suggest that the author should effect this so that reading the research paper will progress sequentially. Method: The scope of the study was selected without justifying what informed the years that were included in the analysis. Also the study estimated the effect of government spending on the transport sector without informing the reader what gave rise to studying only the transport sector. Discussion and Result: The presence of co-integration gives room for carrying out the short run analysis. This was not so in this analysis and the interpretation was based on only the outcome of the ARDL bound test. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: I have a doctorate degree in Development Economics therefore I believe I can assess this paper. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Okoli UV. Reviewer Report For: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342834 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1393/v1#referee-response-342834 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Orji A. Reviewer Report For: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342836 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1393/v1#referee-response-342836 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 04 Dec 2024 Anthony Orji , University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342836 REVIEW OF THE PAPER: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review One of the main goals of the government is to ensure a development that would enhance the ... Continue reading READ ALL REVIEW OF THE PAPER: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review One of the main goals of the government is to ensure a development that would enhance the living standard of the people in the society. In this regard, capital expenditure that would promote infrastructure is most desired. However, in Nigeria, the government spends more on administrative cost (recurrent expenditure) than capital expenditure. Under such condition, contributions to economic growth and national development become an illusion. This study employed Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (ADF) with Bound testing procedure, time series data that covers the period from 1990 to 2020 in Nigeria were used. The result from the analysis showed that governmental expenditure has a significant effect on the national development of Nigeria. All the variables have a long-run relationship with economic growth (RGDP), according to the ARDL model’s results COMMENTS The authors should remove the span of years from the title, as it is unnecessary and could be presented more professionally. The author should cite papers up to 2024. The review of literature should be rigorous, analytical, integrative, argumentative and comparative. The background and the statement of the problem shout be made more convincing and motivating for the study. Use more recent stylized facts, statistics and figures to trace the problem and make the background more convincing. The theoretical literature and theoretical framework should be better developed. We need more clarity on the theories behind this study and the theoretical foundation of the chosen model. You need better justification on the choice of the model viz-a-viz other similar model that can also address these issues. Again, the variables used in the study were not properly described and justified. The paper has no model. For example, the authors made mention of bounds test but never specified an Auto Regressive Distributed Lag Model anywhere. This is quite appalling. The interpretation and discussion of the results should be properly situated in the literature and the economic content should be properly fleshed out. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? No Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? No Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? No Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Economics I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Orji A. Reviewer Report For: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342836 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1393/v1#referee-response-342836 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 19 Nov 2024 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 Version 1 19 Nov 24 read read Anthony Orji , University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria Uju Victoria Okoli , Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Okoli U. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 31 Dec 2024 | for Version 1 Uju Victoria Okoli , Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra, Nigeria 0 Views copyright © 2025 Okoli U. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Generally, the author did his best to address the research objectives. My observations will be discussed according to the sections contained in the paper. Introduction: The repetition of the first citation of Agbarakwu and Anowor (2018) should be expunged because it made reading of the work a bit clumsy. Review of Literature: No theory was reviewed in this section only empirical literature. Also the empirical literature reviewed were not up to date. The literature should be updated to 2024 paper review. Human Development Index was brought up in section 2 without any prior mention of it in the introduction as one of the important variables to be studied under the research. I suggest that the author should effect this so that reading the research paper will progress sequentially. Method: The scope of the study was selected without justifying what informed the years that were included in the analysis. Also the study estimated the effect of government spending on the transport sector without informing the reader what gave rise to studying only the transport sector. Discussion and Result: The presence of co-integration gives room for carrying out the short run analysis. This was not so in this analysis and the interpretation was based on only the outcome of the ARDL bound test. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise I have a doctorate degree in Development Economics therefore I believe I can assess this paper. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Okoli UV. Peer Review Report For: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342834) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1393/v1#referee-response-342834 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2024 Orji A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 04 Dec 2024 | for Version 1 Anthony Orji , University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria 0 Views copyright © 2024 Orji A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions REVIEW OF THE PAPER: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review One of the main goals of the government is to ensure a development that would enhance the living standard of the people in the society. In this regard, capital expenditure that would promote infrastructure is most desired. However, in Nigeria, the government spends more on administrative cost (recurrent expenditure) than capital expenditure. Under such condition, contributions to economic growth and national development become an illusion. This study employed Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (ADF) with Bound testing procedure, time series data that covers the period from 1990 to 2020 in Nigeria were used. The result from the analysis showed that governmental expenditure has a significant effect on the national development of Nigeria. All the variables have a long-run relationship with economic growth (RGDP), according to the ARDL model’s results COMMENTS The authors should remove the span of years from the title, as it is unnecessary and could be presented more professionally. The author should cite papers up to 2024. The review of literature should be rigorous, analytical, integrative, argumentative and comparative. The background and the statement of the problem shout be made more convincing and motivating for the study. Use more recent stylized facts, statistics and figures to trace the problem and make the background more convincing. The theoretical literature and theoretical framework should be better developed. We need more clarity on the theories behind this study and the theoretical foundation of the chosen model. You need better justification on the choice of the model viz-a-viz other similar model that can also address these issues. Again, the variables used in the study were not properly described and justified. The paper has no model. For example, the authors made mention of bounds test but never specified an Auto Regressive Distributed Lag Model anywhere. This is quite appalling. The interpretation and discussion of the results should be properly situated in the literature and the economic content should be properly fleshed out. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? No Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? No Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? No Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Economics I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Orji A. Peer Review Report For: Governmental expenditure and National development of Nigeria, 1990-2020: an empirical review [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1393 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.173435.r342836) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. 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