Efficacy of newer insecticides against Agrotis ipsilon Hufnagel in cabbage and its influence on soil microbial dynamics

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Among all the insecticides, the maximum per cent reduction of A. ipsilon was observed in the plots treated with chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR @100 g a.i ./ha followed by imidacloprid @ 300 g a.i ./ha which was statistically at par with clothianidin @120 g a.i ./ha. Soil microbial population analysis revealed a decrease in both bacterial and fungal colonies in the treated plots compared to control, with chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR-treated plots maintaining the highest microbial populations, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG. Both PME and FDA activity in treated soils significantly decreased relative to the control. Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR-treated plots recorded the highest PME and FDA activity, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG and thiamethoxam 25 WG. The greatest reductions in microbial populations, PME and FDA activity were observed at 15 DAS, but these parameters gradually recovered by 30 and 45 DAS, indicating soil resilience to the insecticides. These findings highlight chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR as an effective and economically viable solution for managing A. ipsilon in cabbage while minimizing long-term adverse effects on the soil ecosystem. Efficacy chlorantraniliprole imidacloprid clothianidin phosphomonoesterase fluorescein diacetate randomized block design Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Vegetables hold a pivotal role in the human diet, constituting a crucial element in the food basket of Indian consumers and fulfilling their nutritional needs. Among these, cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol and other varieties are much prominent in Indian agriculture. Among all the cole crops, cabbage ( Brassica oleracea , Family: Brassicaceae) is highly regarded and prized for its appealing colour, delicious taste and high nutritional content. It is among the most significant vegetable crop that is grown in our region, and our country ranks second in its production after China (FAO, 2021). The total productivity of this crop in India and Assam is 9,606 thousand metric tons and 744.75 thousand metric tons, respectively (Horticulture Production in 2021–2022, Ministry of Agriculture and Family Welfare, Govt. of India). However, there has been a decline in cabbage production due to various reasons, with numerous pest infestations being a major contributing factor. The insect pests on cabbage alone cause a huge amount of production losses ranging from 57 to 97%. In total, 37 insect pests have been found to feed on cabbage in India, of which cutworm ( Agrotis ipsilon Hfn.), flea beetle ( Monolepta signata Oliv.), cabbage butterfly ( Pieris canidia L.) and diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella L.) are the key pests that pose a threat to this crop. Among all the insect pests, Agrotis ipsilon is one of the most dominant (Rameash et al., 2014 ) causing nearly 80% damage to the crop (Lee et al., 2023 ). A. ipsilon (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) commonly known as "black cutworm” is a polyphagous pest that is found over the entire world. This pest possesses a significant threat to agricultural crops, affecting both the quality and quantity of agricultural products. The larvae go through several instars, with the early instars primarily targeting the seedlings for consumption. In contrast, the older larvae pose a more severe threat, as they not only consume seedlings but also cause damage to the tender stem by tunneling and thereby damaging the growing point by reducing water and nutrient uptake. These larvae exhibit nocturnal feeding behaviour, hiding in the soil during the daytime and emerging at night to slash the plant at ground level. To minimize the harm caused by A. ipsilon , it is imperative to employ effective management strategies. A variety of management techniques are available to address the issue of black cutworm infestations. These methods encompass intercropping, deep ploughing of fields after harvest, flooding of the infested fields, manual collection of larvae, biological control methods, etc. For instance, microbial insecticides like Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae have been tested under field conditions for controlling Agrotis segetum in potatoes, but promising results were not obtained for managing this pest (Anonymous, 2004 ). Therefore, chemical treatment with synthetic pesticide seems to be the only practical method for controlling this issue. The significance of pesticides is seen to be vital for contemporary agriculture and cannot be overstated. India's unique meteorological conditions create an optimal breeding environment for insects, leading to an escalated demand for pesticides and pest control measures. Over the past few decades, India has witnessed a corresponding surge in both the production and utilization of pesticides. Although recent efforts in agricultural pest management with these newer insecticides have yielded hopeful results, research concerning their impact on soil diversity is still in its nascent stages. According to a study by Mukhopadhay et al. ( 2005 ), it was found that only a mere 1% of a pesticide application is effectively utilized to kill the target and eliminate the intended species, while the other 99% of the pesticide dissolves into the soil. The accumulated chemicals, i.e ., the residues, cause disturbance to the soil ecosystem, and thus this leads to qualitative and quantitative changes in soil diversity. The concentration of pesticide residue may exert a detrimental effect on the proliferation of beneficial microbes and their associated biotransformation processes within the soil. Additionally, these pesticides can alter the enzymatic activities of the microorganisms present in soil as studied by Hussain et al. ( 2009 ). As per the aforementioned circumstances, field experiments were carried out to find a sustainable approach for controlling A. ipsilon in cabbage and to assess the effectiveness of newer insecticides on soil biological parameters. Materials and methods Field Experiment The experiment was conducted at Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, during the rabi season of 2023-24. The field study was conducted using randomized block design (RBD) with five treatments including one control and four replications. The field was prepared by ploughing to a fine tilth, ensuring that it was free from clods and weeds. Following the package of practices for rabi crops of Assam, FYM (dry cow dung) and fertilizers like urea, SSP and MOP were applied. The hybrid variant "Pride of India" was selected as the experimental crop, and 30 days old seedlings were transplanted from the nursery bed to the main field with a spacing of 45 cm between rows and plants. The required amount of selected insecticides (Table 1 ) i.e ., thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 80 g a.i . ha − 1 , imidacloprid 70 WDG @ 300 g a.i . ha − 1 and clothianidin 50 WDG @ 120 g a.i . ha − 1 were mixed with required amount of water and sprayed in the furrows using a manually operated knapsack sprayer, whereas chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR @ 100 a.i . ha − 1 was mixed with pulverised soil and applied in the furrows. In the control plots, water spraying was done. Table 1 Details of insecticides used in the experiment Chemical name Formulation Trade name Chemical group Source Thiamethoxam 25 WG Actara Neonicotinoid Syngenta Group Co. Ltd. Imidacloprid 70 WDG Admire Neonicotinoid Bayer Crop Science Clothianidin 50 WDG Dantotsu Neonicotinoid Sumitomo Chemical India Ltd. Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR Ferterra Diamide FMC India Pvt. Ltd. Estimation of black cutworm ( Agrotis ipsilon ) larvae population As per the study, number of black cutworm larvae (Fig. 1 ) were recorded 1 day before spraying and 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 days after spraying. The mean number as well as percentage increase or decrease of the pest were calculated. Soil sample collection Rhizospheric soil samples were collected upto a depth of 10 cm from each experimental plot in sterile polyethylene ziplock bags. Samples were collected at pre-treatment, 15, 30 and 45 days after insecticide application. All the samples were properly labelled and sealed to prevent contamination for further analysis. Soil microbial analysis In the laboratory, total bacterial and fungal populations in soil samples were assessed by employing the serial dilution technique followed by the pour plate method. The process proceeded with counting of the number of colonies formed. Both bacterial and fungal colonies (Fig. 2 ) were counted in terms of colony forming unit (cfu/g or ml) which was calculated by using following standard formula, log cfu/g of soil = log (n×d×S) where n = number of cfu d = dilution factor S = aliquot size Soil enzyme analysis The assessment of soil enzymes i.e ., phosphomonoesterase (PME) and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) activity (Fig. 3 ) was performed following the method described by Tabatabai and Bremner, 1969 and Adam and Duncan, 2001 , respectively. Statistical analysis The data obtained from the field experiment were subjected to statistical analysis using ANOVA as outlined by Panse and Sukhatme ( 1985 ). Additionally, the DMRT was employed to further analyze the mean differences. All analysis were performed using the SPSS software. Results Mortality of black cutworm The data analysis revealed that at 15 days after spraying (DAS) chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR @ 100 g a.i. ha − 1 exhibited the highest efficacy, with a 100% reduction in the A. ipsilon population compared to pre-treatment levels. Following this, imidacloprid 70 WDG @ 300 g a.i . ha − 1 , achieved a 71.43% reduction, which was statistically comparable to clothianidin 50 WDG @ 120 g a.i. ha − 1 , resulting in a 65.38% reduction. Additionally, thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 80 g a.i . ha − 1 , demonstrated a 44.83% reduction. All these treatments were significantly more effective than the untreated check, which showed a 28.57% increase in the black cutworm population (Table 2 ). Table 2 Effect of treatments at different days after spraying against black cutworm, A. ipsilon population Treatments Dosage (g a.i . ha − 1 ) Pre-treatment 1 DAS 3 DAS 5 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS Thiamethoxam 25 WG 80 1.45 a 1.40 b (-3.45) 1.35 b (-6.89) 1.35 bc (-6.89) 1.05 bc (-27.58) 1.00 bc (-31.03) 0.80 b (-44.83) Imidacloprid 70 WDG 300 1.40 a 1.20 ab (-14.28) 1.05 ab (-25.00) 0.65 ab (-53.57) 0.60 ab (-57.14) 0.55 ab (-60.71) 0.40 ab (-71.43) Clothianidin 50 WDG 120 1.30 a 1.15 ab (-11.54) 1.00 ab (-23.07) 0.70 ab (-46.15) 0.65 ab (-50.00) 0.55 ab (-57.69) 0.45 ab (-65.38) Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR 100 1.20 a 0.65 a (-45.83) 0.45 a (-62.50) 0.30 a (-75.00) 0.20 a (-83.33) 0.05 a (-95.83) 0.00 a (-100.00) Control - 1.40 a 1.60 b (+ 14.28) 1.60 b (+ 14.28) 1.65 c (+ 17.86) 1.65 c (+ 17.86) 1.65 c (+ 17.86) 1.80 c (+ 28.57) SEd± NS 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.41 0.35 CD (p = 0.05) - 0.60 0.66 0.75 0.83 0.90 0.78 DAS= Days After Spraying NS= Non- significant Data are mean of 4 replications (5 plants per plot) Figures in parentheses indicate per cent increase (+) or decrease (-) in population over pre-treatment count Means were compared with DMRT analysis and means denoting by same letter within the columns were statistically at par Effect of treatments on total bacterial and fungal population The effect of tested insecticides on the total bacterial and fungal population in terms of log cfu (colony forming unit) per gram of soil was presented in Table 3 . The distribution of bacterial and fungal population across different treatments, including the control was consistent one day prior to spraying, which indicates a uniform presence throughout the experimental plot. The experimental result demonstrates that the population of bacteria (log cfu/g of soil) in all the insecticidal treated plots at 15 DAS of insecticides was significantly reduced (6.54–6.58) as compared to the control plots (6.87) and the population of fungi (log cfu/g of soil) at 15 DAS of insecticides was significantly reduced (4.37–4.42) as compared to the control plots (4.81). At 30 DAS of insecticides, the bacterial and fungal population (log cfu/g of soil) in the insecticidal treated plots ranged between 6.65–6.66 and 4.43–4.47 which showed significant reduction in the abundance of bacteria and fungi compared to the control i.e ., 6.88 and 4.84. respectively. While statistical analysis indicated no significant differences among the insecticide treatments, chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR and clothianidin 50 WDG exhibited the highest bacterial count, followed by thiamethoxam 25 WG and imidacloprid 70. Notably, the total bacterial and fungal population in insecticidal treated plots recorded at 30 DAS was found to be comparatively higher than those observed at 15 days after treatment. When the soil bacteria and fungi were assessed at 45 DAS of insecticides it was found that, the total bacterial population in insecticidal treated plots at 45 DAS was relatively higher than 30 DAS. Table 3 Effect of treatments on total bacterial and fungal population (log cfu/g of soil) Treatment Dosage (g a.i. ha − 1 ) Pre- treatment 15 DAS 30 DAS 45 DAS Bacteria Fungi Bacteria Fungi Bacteria Fungi Bacteria Fungi Thiamethoxam 25 WG 80 6.89 a 4.74 a 6.56 a 4.41 a 6.65 a 4.44 a 6.71 a 4.56 a Imidacloprid 70 WDG 300 6.85 a 4.75 a 6.54 a 4.37 a 6.65 a 4.43 a 6.71 a 4.54 a Clothianidin 50 WDG 120 6.89 a 4.74 a 6.57 a 4.41 a 6.66 a 4.45 a 6.72 a 4.57 a Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR 100 6.86 a 4.74 a 6.58 a 4.42 a 6.66 a 4.47 a 6.73 a 4.58 a Control 6.88 a 4.75 a 6.87 b 4.81 b 6.88 b 4.84 b 6.91 b 4.87 b S.Ed. (±) NS NS 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 CD (p = 0.05) - - 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.06 DAS = Days After Spraying NS = Non- significant Data are mean of 4 replications Means were compared with DMRT analysis and means denoting by same letter within the columns were statistically at par Effect of treatments on soil enzymes The effect of various insecticides on phosphomonoesterase and fluorescein diacetate activity are presented in Table 4 . Phosphomonoesterase activity The activity of PME in the soil across different treatments, including the control was consistent (72.40-73.87 µg p-nitrophenol g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹) one day prior to spraying, which indicates a uniform activity throughout the experimental plot. From the results, it was clear that the activity of PME in all the insecticidal treated plots at 15 DAS was significantly reduced (52.61–56.63 µg p- nitrophenol g − 1 soil h − 1 ) as compared to the control plots (69.44 µg p- nitrophenol g − 1 soil h − 1 ). At 30 DAS of insecticides, the PME activity in all the insecticidal treated plots ranged between 54.51–57.29 µg p- nitrophenol g − 1 soil h − 1 which showed significant reduction as compared to the control (69.77 µg p- nitrophenol g − 1 soil h − 1 ). After 45 DAS, the PME activity in all the treated plots indicated significant reduction (68.22–70.89 µg p-nitrophenol g − 1 soil h − 1 ) as compared to the control (77.18 µg p-nitrophenol g − 1 soil h − 1 ). However, the total PME activity in the insecticidal treated plots recorded at 30 and 45 DAS was found to be comparatively higher than the data recorded at 15 DAS of insecticides. Among the treatments, chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR recorded the highest PME activity, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG, thiamethoxam 25 WG, and imidacloprid 70 WDG, with no statistical differences among the insecticides. Fluorescein diacetate activity Prior to insecticide application, FDA activity across all treatments, including the control, was consistent, ranging from 15.04–15.85 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹, indicating uniform activity throughout the experimental plot. The results demonstrated that FDA activity in the insecticide-treated plots significantly declined at 15 DAS, ranging between 7.48–9.96 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹, compared to 13.47 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹ in the control. At 30 DAS, the activity in treated plots ranged from 9.73–12.06 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹, also showing a marked reduction relative to the control (16.22 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹). Notably, FDA activity at 30 DAS in treated plots was higher than at 15 DAS. By 45 DAS, FDA activity in treated plots showed further reductions, ranging from 11.03–13.96 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹, in comparison to the control (18.19 µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹). Additionally, FDA activity in treated plots at 45 DAS was relatively higher than at 30 DAS. Among the insecticidal treatments, FDA activity levels were statistically comparable, with the highest activity recorded in plots treated with chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG, thiamethoxam 25 WG, and imidacloprid 70 WDG. Table 4 Effect of treatments on soil enzyme activity Treatment Dosage (g a.i. ha − 1 ) Pre treatment 15 DAT 30 DAT 45 DAT PME FDA PME FDA PME FDA PME FDA Thiamethoxam 25 WG 80 73.32 a 15.30 a 54.94 a 8.19 a 55.32 a 10.35 a 68.59 a 11.30 a Imidacloprid 70 WDG 300 72.90 a 15.85 a 52.61 a 7.48 a 54.51 a 9.73 a 68.22 a 11.03 a Clothianidin 50 WDG 120 72.40 a 15.40 a 55.27 a 9.15 a 56.02 a 11.89 a 70.79 a 13.39 a Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR 100 73.38 a 15.50 a 56.63 a 9.96 a 57.29 a 12.06 a 70.89 a 13.96 a Control - 73.87 a 15.04 a 69.44 b 13.47 b 69.77 b 16.22 b 77.18 b 18.19 b SEd (±) NS NS 1.95 1.44 2.17 1.60 2.04 1.97 CD (p = 0.05) - - 4.27 3.13 4.74 3.49 4.44 4.30 DAS= Days After Spraying NS= Non- significant PME = phosphomonoesterase (µg p-nitrophenol g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹) FDA= fluorescein diacetate (µg fluorescein g⁻¹ soil h⁻¹) Data are mean of 4 replications Means were compared with DMRT analysis and means denoting by same letter within the columns were statistically at par Discussion Effect of treatments against Agrotis ipsilon The findings are supported by several studies showcasing the efficacy of insecticides like chlorantraniliprole and others in controlling various pest populations. Liu et al. ( 2023 ) found chlorantraniliprole highly effective against black cutworm in tobacco fields, while Jerez et al. ( 2023 ) highlighted its success alongside cyantraniliprole in managing noctuid larvae in early soybean growth. Aquino et al. ( 2022 ) revealed that mixtures of cyantraniliprole-thiamethoxam and imidacloprid-thiodicarb effectively reduced larvae of Spodoptera spp . and A. ipsilon in soybeans. Similarly, Abd-El-Aziz et al. ( 2019 ) observed a significant black cutworm reduction (over 92%) using lambda-cyhalothrin, its co-formulation with thiamethoxam and chlorantraniliprole, with the latter showing the greatest efficacy. Karuppaiah et al. ( 2017 ) affirmed chlorantraniliprole's effectiveness against S. litura @1–4 ppm, and He et al. ( 2019 ) highlighted its ability to hinder A. ipsilon development, reproduction and fertility even at low doses. Effect of treatments on soil biology The findings of the research emphasize that insecticides such as thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, clothianidin and chlorantraniliprole initially reduce soil enzyme activities and microbial populations, reflecting their inhibitory effects on soil microbial metabolism. However, enzymatic activity and populations showed moderate recovery by 30 to 45 DAS, as microbes adapted to use insecticides and their by-products as nutrient sources. Studies, such as Tang et al. (2018), observed pesticide degradation by microbial enzymatic processes, resulting in less toxic by-products. Chlorantraniliprole-treated soil exhibited a weaker initial impact, followed by increased microbial population and enzymatic activity (Thankam et al., 2021 ). Ghosal et al . (2019) noted significant short-term negative effects of insecticides on soil bacteria and fungi, with gradual recovery over time. Mahapatra et al. ( 2017 ) highlighted the disruption of bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria in presence of imidacloprid. Interestingly, rynaxypyr-treated plots supported higher fungal populations due to milder impacts on non-target fauna (Ghosal et al ., 2019), while Akter et al. ( 2023 ) identified imidacloprid as having the strongest adverse effects on soil microbial communities. This evidence underscores the dynamic but eventually adaptive responses of microbial populations to insecticides. Conclusion In the study to evaluate the efficacy of certain novel insecticides against A. ipsilon in cabbage and its toxicity profile on the soil ecosystem, several significant findings were observed. Results indicated that all the tested insecticides effectively reduced A. ipsilon populations, with chlorantraniliprole proving to be the most effective treatment. Chlorantraniliprole, in particular, provided consistent control over A. ipsilon throughout the study period. Furthermore, the study examined the impact of these insecticides on various soil biological parameters. It was found that the influence on soil biological parameters was most significant during the initial period following insecticide application and gradually diminished over time, allowing different groups of soil microorganisms to recover. This recovery is essential for maintaining soil health and fertility. The findings of this research are instrumental in guiding the selection of appropriate insecticides for sustainable Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies. By choosing insecticides that effectively control pests while minimizing their impact on the soil ecosystem, farmers can achieve better crop protection and yield outcomes. The present study suggests that chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR@ 100 g a.i./ ha, offers a promising and economically viable solution for managing A. ipsilon in cabbage cultivation. This insecticide provides effective pest control while exhibiting relatively lower persistence in the environment, reducing the potential for long-term ecological harm. Its use can contribute to the development of sustainable agricultural practices that prioritize both productivity and environmental stewardship. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Funding Not applicable. Author contributions Conceptualization was done by KC and BB; methodology by KC and AJ; experimentation by SK and PH; statistical analysis by SK and MB; writing-original draft preparation by SK; editing by SK and MB; supervision by KC, BB and AJ. Acknowledgement The authors are indebted to Head of the Department, Department of Entomology and Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, India for providing infrastructural facilities. 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Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:19667–19675 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revisions 01 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 20 Oct, 2025 Editor invited by journal 03 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 05 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 01 May, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6519774","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":532341170,"identity":"93beb9f2-ac95-4cb4-aade-09ed1ce53bc3","order_by":0,"name":"Sagarika 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05:54:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":254655,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCounting of microbial colonies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6519774/v1/5e9808b625fd31a5ef674788.png"},{"id":94826087,"identity":"939be703-06e2-4d67-9ff3-46411b98de0d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:51:03","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":245671,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEstimation of soil enzyme (PME and FDA activity)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6519774/v1/ee90028176e52db87e6ad499.png"},{"id":94827442,"identity":"f8ee2f46-6861-4913-9e64-b26b94d88d21","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:58:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2212020,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6519774/v1/fbd11430-4136-4781-930b-745ba252320f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Efficacy of newer insecticides against Agrotis ipsilon Hufnagel in cabbage and its influence on soil microbial dynamics","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eVegetables hold a pivotal role in the human diet, constituting a crucial element in the food basket of Indian consumers and fulfilling their nutritional needs. Among these, cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol and other varieties are much prominent in Indian agriculture. Among all the cole crops, cabbage (\u003cem\u003eBrassica oleracea\u003c/em\u003e, Family: Brassicaceae) is highly regarded and prized for its appealing colour, delicious taste and high nutritional content. It is among the most significant vegetable crop that is grown in our region, and our country ranks second in its production after China (FAO, 2021). The total productivity of this crop in India and Assam is 9,606 thousand metric tons and 744.75 thousand metric tons, respectively (Horticulture Production in 2021\u0026ndash;2022, Ministry of Agriculture and Family Welfare, Govt. of India). However, there has been a decline in cabbage production due to various reasons, with numerous pest infestations being a major contributing factor. The insect pests on cabbage alone cause a huge amount of production losses ranging from 57 to 97%. In total, 37 insect pests have been found to feed on cabbage in India, of which cutworm (\u003cem\u003eAgrotis ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e Hfn.), flea beetle (\u003cem\u003eMonolepta signata\u003c/em\u003e Oliv.), cabbage butterfly (\u003cem\u003ePieris canidia\u003c/em\u003e L.) and diamondback moth (\u003cem\u003ePlutella xylostella\u003c/em\u003e L.) are the key pests that pose a threat to this crop. Among all the insect pests, \u003cem\u003eAgrotis ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e is one of the most dominant (Rameash et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) causing nearly 80% damage to the crop (Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) commonly known as \"black cutworm\u0026rdquo; is a polyphagous pest that is found over the entire world. This pest possesses a significant threat to agricultural crops, affecting both the quality and quantity of agricultural products. The larvae go through several instars, with the early instars primarily targeting the seedlings for consumption. In contrast, the older larvae pose a more severe threat, as they not only consume seedlings but also cause damage to the tender stem by tunneling and thereby damaging the growing point by reducing water and nutrient uptake. These larvae exhibit nocturnal feeding behaviour, hiding in the soil during the daytime and emerging at night to slash the plant at ground level. To minimize the harm caused by \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e, it is imperative to employ effective management strategies. A variety of management techniques are available to address the issue of black cutworm infestations. These methods encompass intercropping, deep ploughing of fields after harvest, flooding of the infested fields, manual collection of larvae, biological control methods, etc. For instance, microbial insecticides like \u003cem\u003eBeauveria bassiana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMetarhizium anisopliae\u003c/em\u003e have been tested under field conditions for controlling \u003cem\u003eAgrotis segetum\u003c/em\u003e in potatoes, but promising results were not obtained for managing this pest (Anonymous, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, chemical treatment with synthetic pesticide seems to be the only practical method for controlling this issue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe significance of pesticides is seen to be vital for contemporary agriculture and cannot be overstated. India's unique meteorological conditions create an optimal breeding environment for insects, leading to an escalated demand for pesticides and pest control measures. Over the past few decades, India has witnessed a corresponding surge in both the production and utilization of pesticides. Although recent efforts in agricultural pest management with these newer insecticides have yielded hopeful results, research concerning their impact on soil diversity is still in its nascent stages. According to a study by Mukhopadhay et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), it was found that only a mere 1% of a pesticide application is effectively utilized to kill the target and eliminate the intended species, while the other 99% of the pesticide dissolves into the soil. The accumulated chemicals, \u003cem\u003ei.e\u003c/em\u003e., the residues, cause disturbance to the soil ecosystem, and thus this leads to qualitative and quantitative changes in soil diversity. The concentration of pesticide residue may exert a detrimental effect on the proliferation of beneficial microbes and their associated biotransformation processes within the soil. Additionally, these pesticides can alter the enzymatic activities of the microorganisms present in soil as studied by Hussain et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs per the aforementioned circumstances, field experiments were carried out to find a sustainable approach for controlling \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e in cabbage and to assess the effectiveness of newer insecticides on soil biological parameters.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eField Experiment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted at Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, during the rabi season of 2023-24. The field study was conducted using randomized block design (RBD) with five treatments including one control and four replications. The field was prepared by ploughing to a fine tilth, ensuring that it was free from clods and weeds. Following the package of practices for rabi crops of Assam, FYM (dry cow dung) and fertilizers like urea, SSP and MOP were applied. The hybrid variant \"Pride of India\" was selected as the experimental crop, and 30 days old seedlings were transplanted from the nursery bed to the main field with a spacing of 45 cm between rows and plants. The required amount of selected insecticides (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cem\u003ei.e\u003c/em\u003e., thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 80 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, imidacloprid 70 WDG @ 300 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and clothianidin 50 WDG @ 120 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e were mixed with required amount of water and sprayed in the furrows using a manually operated knapsack sprayer, whereas chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR @ 100 \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e was mixed with pulverised soil and applied in the furrows. In the control plots, water spraying was done.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDetails of insecticides used in the experiment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChemical name\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFormulation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTrade name\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChemical group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThiamethoxam\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25 WG\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eActara\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeonicotinoid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSyngenta Group Co. Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImidacloprid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e70 WDG\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdmire\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeonicotinoid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBayer Crop Science\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClothianidin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e50 WDG\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDantotsu\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeonicotinoid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSumitomo Chemical India Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChlorantraniliprole\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.4 GR\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFerterra\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiamide\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFMC India Pvt. Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEstimation of black cutworm (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAgrotis ipsilon\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e) larvae population\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per the study, number of black cutworm larvae (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) were recorded 1 day before spraying and 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 days after spraying. The mean number as well as percentage increase or decrease of the pest were calculated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSoil sample collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRhizospheric soil samples were collected upto a depth of 10 cm from each experimental plot in sterile polyethylene ziplock bags. Samples were collected at pre-treatment, 15, 30 and 45 days after insecticide application. All the samples were properly labelled and sealed to prevent contamination for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSoil microbial analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the laboratory, total bacterial and fungal populations in soil samples were assessed by employing the serial dilution technique followed by the pour plate method. The process proceeded with counting of the number of colonies formed. Both bacterial and fungal colonies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) were counted in terms of colony forming unit (cfu/g or ml) which was calculated by using following standard formula,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003elog cfu/g of soil\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;log (n\u0026times;d\u0026times;S)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;number of cfu\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ed\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;dilution factor\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;aliquot size\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSoil enzyme analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe assessment of soil enzymes \u003cem\u003ei.e\u003c/em\u003e., phosphomonoesterase (PME) and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) activity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) was performed following the method described by Tabatabai and Bremner, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1969\u003c/span\u003e and Adam and Duncan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data obtained from the field experiment were subjected to statistical analysis using ANOVA as outlined by Panse and Sukhatme (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the DMRT was employed to further analyze the mean differences. All analysis were performed using the SPSS software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eMortality of black cutworm\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data analysis revealed that at 15 days after spraying (DAS) chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR @ 100 g \u003cem\u003ea.i.\u003c/em\u003e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e exhibited the highest efficacy, with a 100% reduction in the \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e population compared to pre-treatment levels. Following this, imidacloprid 70 WDG @ 300 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, achieved a 71.43% reduction, which was statistically comparable to clothianidin 50 WDG @ 120 g \u003cem\u003ea.i.\u003c/em\u003e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, resulting in a 65.38% reduction. Additionally, thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 80 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, demonstrated a 44.83% reduction. All these treatments were significantly more effective than the untreated check, which showed a 28.57% increase in the black cutworm population (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments at different days after spraying against black cutworm, \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e population\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDosage\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e. ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePre-treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThiamethoxam 25 WG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.40\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-3.45)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.35\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-6.89)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.35\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-6.89)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.05\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-27.58)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-31.03)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.80\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-44.83)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImidacloprid 70 WDG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.20\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-14.28)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.05\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-25.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-53.57)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.60 \u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-57.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-60.71)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-71.43)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClothianidin 50 WDG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.15\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-11.54)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-23.07)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.70\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-46.15)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-50.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-57.69)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-65.38)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.20\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-45.83)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-62.50)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-75.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-83.33)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-95.83)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(-100.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControl\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.60\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;14.28)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.60\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;14.28)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.65\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;17.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.65\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;17.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.65\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;17.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.80\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;28.57)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEd\u0026plusmn;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDAS= Days After Spraying\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNS= Non- significant\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eData are mean of 4 replications (5 plants per plot)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFigures in parentheses indicate per cent increase (+) or decrease (-) in population over pre-treatment count\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeans were compared with DMRT analysis and means denoting by same letter within the columns were statistically \u003cem\u003eat par\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEffect of treatments on total bacterial and fungal population\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effect of tested insecticides on the total bacterial and fungal population in terms of log cfu (colony forming unit) per gram of soil was presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The distribution of bacterial and fungal population across different treatments, including the control was consistent one day prior to spraying, which indicates a uniform presence throughout the experimental plot. The experimental result demonstrates that the population of bacteria (log cfu/g of soil) in all the insecticidal treated plots at 15 DAS of insecticides was significantly reduced (6.54\u0026ndash;6.58) as compared to the control plots (6.87) and the population of fungi (log cfu/g of soil) at 15 DAS of insecticides was significantly reduced (4.37\u0026ndash;4.42) as compared to the control plots (4.81). At 30 DAS of insecticides, the bacterial and fungal population (log cfu/g of soil) in the insecticidal treated plots ranged between 6.65\u0026ndash;6.66 and 4.43\u0026ndash;4.47 which showed significant reduction in the abundance of bacteria and fungi compared to the control \u003cem\u003ei.e\u003c/em\u003e., 6.88 and 4.84. respectively. While statistical analysis indicated no significant differences among the insecticide treatments, chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR and clothianidin 50 WDG exhibited the highest bacterial count, followed by thiamethoxam 25 WG and imidacloprid 70. Notably, the total bacterial and fungal population in insecticidal treated plots recorded at 30 DAS was found to be comparatively higher than those observed at 15 days after treatment. When the soil bacteria and fungi were assessed at 45 DAS of insecticides it was found that, the total bacterial population in insecticidal treated plots at 45 DAS was relatively higher than 30 DAS.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on total bacterial and fungal population (log cfu/g of soil)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDosage\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(g \u003cem\u003ea.i.\u003c/em\u003e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePre- treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45 DAS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBacteria\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFungi\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBacteria\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFungi\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBacteria\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFungi\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBacteria\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFungi\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThiamethoxam 25 WG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.89\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.74\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.56\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.65\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.44\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.71\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.56\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImidacloprid 70 WDG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.85\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.54\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.37\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.65\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.43\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.71\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.54\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClothianidin 50 WDG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.89\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.74\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.57\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.66\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.72\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.57\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.86\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.74\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.42\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.66\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.47\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.73\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControl\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.88\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.87\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.81\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.88\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.84\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.91\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.87\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS.Ed. (\u0026plusmn;)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDAS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Days After Spraying\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Non- significant\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData are mean of 4 replications\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeans were compared with DMRT analysis and means denoting by same letter within the columns were statistically \u003cem\u003eat par\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEffect of treatments on soil enzymes\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effect of various insecticides on phosphomonoesterase and fluorescein diacetate activity are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePhosphomonoesterase activity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe activity of PME in the soil across different treatments, including the control was consistent (72.40-73.87 \u0026micro;g p-nitrophenol g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;) one day prior to spraying, which indicates a uniform activity throughout the experimental plot. From the results, it was clear that the activity of PME in all the insecticidal treated plots at 15 DAS was significantly reduced (52.61\u0026ndash;56.63 \u0026micro;g p- nitrophenol g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as compared to the control plots (69.44 \u0026micro;g p- nitrophenol g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). At 30 DAS of insecticides, the PME activity in all the insecticidal treated plots ranged between 54.51\u0026ndash;57.29 \u0026micro;g p- nitrophenol g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e which showed significant reduction as compared to the control (69.77 \u0026micro;g p- nitrophenol g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). After 45 DAS, the PME activity in all the treated plots indicated significant reduction (68.22\u0026ndash;70.89 \u0026micro;g p-nitrophenol g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) as compared to the control (77.18 \u0026micro;g p-nitrophenol g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e soil h\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). However, the total PME activity in the insecticidal treated plots recorded at 30 and 45 DAS was found to be comparatively higher than the data recorded at 15 DAS of insecticides. Among the treatments, chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR recorded the highest PME activity, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG, thiamethoxam 25 WG, and imidacloprid 70 WDG, with no statistical differences among the insecticides.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFluorescein diacetate activity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to insecticide application, FDA activity across all treatments, including the control, was consistent, ranging from 15.04\u0026ndash;15.85 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;, indicating uniform activity throughout the experimental plot. The results demonstrated that FDA activity in the insecticide-treated plots significantly declined at 15 DAS, ranging between 7.48\u0026ndash;9.96 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;, compared to 13.47 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1; in the control. At 30 DAS, the activity in treated plots ranged from 9.73\u0026ndash;12.06 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;, also showing a marked reduction relative to the control (16.22 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;). Notably, FDA activity at 30 DAS in treated plots was higher than at 15 DAS. By 45 DAS, FDA activity in treated plots showed further reductions, ranging from 11.03\u0026ndash;13.96 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;, in comparison to the control (18.19 \u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;). Additionally, FDA activity in treated plots at 45 DAS was relatively higher than at 30 DAS. Among the insecticidal treatments, FDA activity levels were statistically comparable, with the highest activity recorded in plots treated with chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG, thiamethoxam 25 WG, and imidacloprid 70 WDG.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of treatments on soil enzyme activity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDosage\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(g \u003cem\u003ea.i.\u003c/em\u003e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePre treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15 DAT\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30 DAT\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45 DAT\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePME\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFDA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePME\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFDA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePME\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFDA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePME\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFDA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThiamethoxam 25 WG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e73.32\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e54.94\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.19\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e55.32\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.35\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e68.59\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImidacloprid 70 WDG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e72.90\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.85\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e52.61\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.48\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e54.51\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.73\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e68.22\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClothianidin 50 WDG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e72.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e55.27\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.15\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e56.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.89\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e70.79\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.39\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e73.38\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e56.63\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.96\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e57.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e70.89\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.96\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControl\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e73.87\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15.04\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e69.44\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.47\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e69.77\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16.22\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e77.18\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.19\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEd (\u0026plusmn;)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.74\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.49\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.44\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDAS= Days After Spraying\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNS= Non- significant\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePME = phosphomonoesterase (\u0026micro;g p-nitrophenol g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFDA= fluorescein diacetate (\u0026micro;g fluorescein g⁻\u0026sup1; soil h⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eData are mean of 4 replications\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeans were compared with DMRT analysis and means denoting by same letter within the columns were statistically \u003cem\u003eat par\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffect of treatments against\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAgrotis ipsilon\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings are supported by several studies showcasing the efficacy of insecticides like chlorantraniliprole and others in controlling various pest populations. Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) found chlorantraniliprole highly effective against black cutworm in tobacco fields, while Jerez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted its success alongside cyantraniliprole in managing noctuid larvae in early soybean growth. Aquino et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that mixtures of cyantraniliprole-thiamethoxam and imidacloprid-thiodicarb effectively reduced larvae of \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera spp\u003c/em\u003e. and \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e in soybeans. Similarly, Abd-El-Aziz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) observed a significant black cutworm reduction (over 92%) using lambda-cyhalothrin, its co-formulation with thiamethoxam and chlorantraniliprole, with the latter showing the greatest efficacy. Karuppaiah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) affirmed chlorantraniliprole's effectiveness against \u003cem\u003eS. litura\u003c/em\u003e @1\u0026ndash;4 ppm, and He et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted its ability to hinder \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e development, reproduction and fertility even at low doses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffect of treatments on soil biology\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the research emphasize that insecticides such as thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, clothianidin and chlorantraniliprole initially reduce soil enzyme activities and microbial populations, reflecting their inhibitory effects on soil microbial metabolism. However, enzymatic activity and populations showed moderate recovery by 30 to 45 DAS, as microbes adapted to use insecticides and their by-products as nutrient sources. Studies, such as Tang \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2018), observed pesticide degradation by microbial enzymatic processes, resulting in less toxic by-products. Chlorantraniliprole-treated soil exhibited a weaker initial impact, followed by increased microbial population and enzymatic activity (Thankam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Ghosal \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2019) noted significant short-term negative effects of insecticides on soil bacteria and fungi, with gradual recovery over time. Mahapatra et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the disruption of bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria in presence of imidacloprid. Interestingly, rynaxypyr-treated plots supported higher fungal populations due to milder impacts on non-target fauna (Ghosal \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019), while Akter et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) identified imidacloprid as having the strongest adverse effects on soil microbial communities. This evidence underscores the dynamic but eventually adaptive responses of microbial populations to insecticides.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the study to evaluate the efficacy of certain novel insecticides against \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e in cabbage and its toxicity profile on the soil ecosystem, several significant findings were observed. Results indicated that all the tested insecticides effectively reduced \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e populations, with chlorantraniliprole proving to be the most effective treatment. Chlorantraniliprole, in particular, provided consistent control over \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e throughout the study period. Furthermore, the study examined the impact of these insecticides on various soil biological parameters. It was found that the influence on soil biological parameters was most significant during the initial period following insecticide application and gradually diminished over time, allowing different groups of soil microorganisms to recover. This recovery is essential for maintaining soil health and fertility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this research are instrumental in guiding the selection of appropriate insecticides for sustainable Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies. By choosing insecticides that effectively control pests while minimizing their impact on the soil ecosystem, farmers can achieve better crop protection and yield outcomes. The present study suggests that chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR@ 100 g \u003cem\u003ea.i./\u003c/em\u003eha, offers a promising and economically viable solution for managing \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e in cabbage cultivation. This insecticide provides effective pest control while exhibiting relatively lower persistence in the environment, reducing the potential for long-term ecological harm. Its use can contribute to the development of sustainable agricultural practices that prioritize both productivity and environmental stewardship.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualization was done by KC and BB; methodology by KC and AJ; experimentation by SK and PH; statistical analysis by SK and MB; writing-original draft preparation by SK; editing by SK and MB; supervision by KC, BB and AJ.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors are indebted to Head of the Department, Department of Entomology and Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, India for providing infrastructural facilities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbd-El-Aziz H, El Abd ES, Salama MA (2019) Field evaluation of some insecticides for controlling black cutworm, \u003cem\u003eAgrotis ypsilon\u003c/em\u003e and their effect on some histological aspects. \u003cem\u003eEgyptian Academic Journal of Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, D. Histology \u0026amp; Histochemistry, 11(2): 57\u0026ndash;68\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdam G, Duncan H (2001) Development of a sensitive and rapid method for the measurement of total microbial activity using Fluorescein Diacetate (FDA) in a range of soils. Soil Biol Biochem 33:943\u0026ndash;951\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkter S, Hulugalle NR, Jasonsmith J, Strong CL (2023) Changes in soil microbial communities after exposure to neonicotinoids: A systematic review. Environ Microbiol Rep 15(6):431\u0026ndash;444\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl-Ani MA, Hmoshi RM, Kanaan IA, Thanoon AA (2019) Effect of pesticides on soil microorganisms. 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Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:19667\u0026ndash;19675\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Efficacy, chlorantraniliprole, imidacloprid, clothianidin, phosphomonoesterase, fluorescein diacetate, randomized block design","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6519774/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6519774/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of four newer insecticides in reducing the infestation of \u003cem\u003eAgrotis ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e in cabbage and to determine its impact on soil biological health. Among all the insecticides, the maximum per cent reduction of \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e was observed in the plots treated with chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR @100 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e./ha followed by imidacloprid @ 300 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e./ha which was statistically \u003cem\u003eat par\u003c/em\u003e with clothianidin @120 g \u003cem\u003ea.i\u003c/em\u003e./ha. Soil microbial population analysis revealed a decrease in both bacterial and fungal colonies in the treated plots compared to control, with chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR-treated plots maintaining the highest microbial populations, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG. Both PME and FDA activity in treated soils significantly decreased relative to the control. Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR-treated plots recorded the highest PME and FDA activity, followed by clothianidin 50 WDG and thiamethoxam 25 WG. The greatest reductions in microbial populations, PME and FDA activity were observed at 15 DAS, but these parameters gradually recovered by 30 and 45 DAS, indicating soil resilience to the insecticides. These findings highlight chlorantraniliprole 0.4 GR as an effective and economically viable solution for managing \u003cem\u003eA. ipsilon\u003c/em\u003e in cabbage while minimizing long-term adverse effects on the soil ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Efficacy of newer insecticides against Agrotis ipsilon Hufnagel in cabbage and its influence on soil microbial dynamics","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-31 05:54:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6519774/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2026-02-01T07:17:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-10-20T13:57:48+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-20T13:25:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","date":"2025-10-03T08:29:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-05T14:32:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","date":"2025-05-01T12:35:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"87fec961-bfae-4db1-ab97-c380275ac2e3","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-02T16:10:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-31 05:54:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6519774","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6519774","identity":"rs-6519774","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}