How could linguistic capital influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers – A qualitative study of Bangladeshi workers

How could linguistic capital influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers – A qualitative study of Bangladeshi workers | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article How could linguistic capital influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers – A qualitative study of Bangladeshi workers Yongyu Lu, Suchana Das, Liang Zuo, Md. Nur-E-Alam Siddique This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6877950/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In this study, based on Bourdieu's linguistic capital theory, Gioia's method was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with 76 Bangladeshi low-skilled workers in Malaysia to explore how language capabilities influence their overtime pay. The results reveal that language capabilities constitute informal thresholds for overtime allocation through three mechanisms: communication efficiency, opportunity screening and trust in capabilities. In theoretical terms, this study extends the applicability of linguistic capital to organisational behaviour in Industry 4.0. Methodologically, qualitative research was used to compensate for the limitations of the current overreliance on quantitative models. Its practical application is a call for enterprises to establish more equitable and linguistically inclusive management mechanisms to reduce structural income inequality. Low-skilled workforce foreign labour language proficiency income qualitative research Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction As the global manufacturing industry accelerates its transformation towards digitalisation and intelligence, Industry 4.0 is gradually reshaping the industrial structure and labour demands of emerging economies (Szabó-Szentgróti et al., 2021 ). As an important manufacturing hub in Southeast Asia, Malaysia occupies a central position in labour-intensive industries such as electronics, textiles, rubber products and automobiles (Yusof, 2003 ). The production system is maintained through a large number of low-skilled foreign workers (Devadason, 2021 ). In Asia, countries such as Bangladesh and Myanmar have become major exporters of labour to both developed and developing countries such as Singapore, Japan and Malaysia (Dannecker, 2013 ). For Malaysia, foreign labour is particularly important in the manufacturing and construction sectors (Devadason, 2021 ) due to the short supply of local labour, with many Malaysians uninterested in these types of work (Abdul-Rahman et al., 2012 ). The outcome is that Malaysia has one of the world’s highest proportions of foreign workers (Gurowitz, 2000 ), and the number of such workers having reached 5.5 million (Peters et al., 2022 ). Of the foreign labour groups in Malaysia, the largest is from Indonesia, followed by Bangladesh and the Philippines. These workers are mainly employed in the manufacturing, construction and service industries (Karim et al., 1999 ). In Malaysia's multilingual context, Malay is the official language (Powell, 2020 ) while English is also widely used in communication (Wah Kam, 2003 ). Thus, in this environment, Indonesian workers face no major problems because Indonesian and Malay come from the same language family (Soderberg & Olson, 2008 ). Meanwhile, English is the second official language for Filipino workers, so they can use English for work-related communication (Lesho, 2018 ). However, the third-largest group, Bangladeshi workers, face more difficulties due to the significant differences between their native language and both English and Malay. Therefore, from the perspective of linguistic capital, Bangladeshi workers are naturally weaker than the other two groups. As Industry 4.0 drives the digitalisation and intelligent transformation of manufacturing, the operational logic of factories is also evolving, placing higher demands on the technical adaptability and communication skills of workers. In Malaysia's manufacturing system, which is highly dependent on foreign labour, language capabilities are gradually becoming a key factor influencing the division of labour and shift-scheduling decisions. This applies especially in situations involving flexible working hours and sudden adjustments to production capacity, such as overtime arrangements, where workers' language capabilities directly affect their ability to effectively understand work instructions and complete collaborative tasks. In comparison, workers from the Philippines and Indonesia have linguistic advantages in actual production because either their languages are similar to Malay or they have a certain level of English proficiency. Although Bangladesh is the third-largest source of labour, Bangladeshi workers often face communication barriers in task coordination and sudden scheduling changes due to significant differences between their own language systems and that of their workplace. This disadvantage in linguistic capital not only limits their job choices in daily work processes but may also cause additional income gaps in the distribution of overtime opportunities. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyse the income opportunities of Bangladeshi workers from the perspective of linguistic capital. In particular, as manufacturing companies develop digitally, language capabilities have gradually evolved into an implicit ‘threshold condition’ that has a profound influence on the quality of employment. As a result, this study sought to answer the following research question (RQ): “How does language capability influence the wage level of overtime pay for Bangladeshi workers?” To answer this question, this research followed a qualitative approach and referred to the protocol devised by Merriam and Tisdell ( 2009 ). Collectively, the research objective was to explore the influence of linguistic capital on the wages of low-skilled Bangladeshi workers. In terms of the qualitative research, semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data. The study highlights the role of linguistic capital in providing opportunities to the wage. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the literature and relevant theory used in this study. Section 3 discusses the research methodology and research design. Section 4 presents the main findings. Section 5 highlights the propositions and framework. Section 6 presents the conclusions from the findings, including the implications from both theoretical and practical perspectives. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Industrial 4.0 and Labour Restructuring in Malaysia Industry 4.0, a key development direction for the transformation of the global manufacturing industry, marks a profound change in production processes from traditional automation to intelligent manufacturing. Its core includes the integration of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, big data and cloud computing (Schwab, 2016 ). According to the Malaysian Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) account for more than 97% of the manufacturing industry (SME CORPORATION MALAYSIA, 2021 ). However, these are generally less digitally advanced and lack the technology, capital and human resources to transform and upgrade (Yong et al., 2020 ). Particularly in terms of the workforce structure, Malaysia's manufacturing industry is highly dependent on foreign low-skilled workers, who are mostly engaged in repetitive, low-skilled positions such as assembly, packaging, and handling (Raj-Reichert, 2020 ; Rasiah et al., 2015 ). However, the high-end automation and intelligent systems introduced via Industry 4.0 are gradually replacing these types of work tasks (Veruscka Leso et al., 2018). Today, Malaysian companies are more focused on improving the work capabilities of their staff in order to achieve successful transformation because companies increasingly need skilled or semi-skilled workers who can understand digital systems (Fahmy et al., 2022 ). However, existing research shows that the local language training curriculum in Malaysia does not meet the current occupational needs (Ahmad Tajuddin, 2015 ). Inadequate language capabilities have become a potential risk that limits the efficiency of technical learning, reduces production efficiency and even leads to accidents (Hussain et al., 2024 ; Lindhout et al., 2019 ). In summary, although the Malaysian manufacturing industry is actively moving towards Industry 4.0, the reality of its widespread reliance on low-skilled foreign labour creates tension between the workforce structure and technological upgrading. In particular, since the language training system is not yet perfect, the lack of language capabilities has gradually become a key bottleneck restricting the efficiency of enterprise transformation and the upgrading of labour skills. This situation reveals a structural paradox: despite Malaysia's rapid digital transformation, its continued reliance on workers with limited language capabilities is creating a bottleneck in the upgrading of its workforce. 2.2. Language Capability and the Incomes of Low-Skilled Workers The relationship between language capabilities and income opportunities has long been a central topic in labour economics. Chiswick and Miller ( 1995 ) found that in a multilingual labour market, workers with dominant language capabilities generally have more opportunities to receive a higher income because, the authors argued, workers with good language skills tend to have lower communication costs and stronger organisational adaptability, and they are more likely to assume additional responsibilities. In a study of British migrant workers, Dustmann and Fabbri ( 2003 ) found that each one-level increase in English proficiency could increase their average wage by 7–10%. Similar results have also been found in studies of foreign workers in the U.S. (Bleakley & Chin, 2004 ), Australia (Guven & Islam, 2015 ) and Germany (Hahm & Gazzola, 2022 ). Language capability influences not only whether workers can complete their work tasks but also whether they can be trusted by their superiors and assume supervisory or semi-skilled positions (Presbitero, 2020 ; Tenzer et al., 2014 ). Workers lacking language capabilities are often considered “unassignable” or “uncommunicative” and thus restricted to the lowest salary levels. Hahm and Gazzola ( 2022 ) found native German speakers with English language skills earn on average 13% more, while Rozhkova and Roshchin ( 2019 ) found that in Russia, foreign language skills can lead to a 9% wage premium for employees. Moreover, language capability also determines whether workers can participate in wage negotiations and access promotion opportunities. Liwiński ( 2019 ) found that in Poland, proficiency in a foreign language can lead to an average salary premium of 11%, with Spanish (32%), French (22%) or Italian (15%) commanding a higher premium than English (11%) or German (12%). Meanwhile, Guven and Islam ( 2015 ) pointed out that language capability has a significant positive influence on salary. Therefore, some scholars have suggested that even among workers with similar skill levels, language proficiency may determine access to better-paying or more frequent overtime opportunities (Hahm & Gazzola, 2022 ). Thus, exploring the role of language capability in the distribution of overtime pay can help deepen the understanding of income inequality among low-skilled workers in the manufacturing industry. 2.3. Language Capability and Overtime Extensive empirical research shows that in multilingual societies, workers with dominant language capabilities are more likely to earn higher wages, have stable jobs and enjoy better promotion opportunities (Carliner, 1981 ; Chiswick & Miller, 1995 ; Lønsmann & Kraft, 2018 ; Ridala, 2020 ). This ‘language premium’ phenomenon has been confirmed in contexts such as Europe, the United States, and Australia, indicating that language capability has become a key component of human capital that influences income differences (Boyd & Cao, 2009 ; Churkina et al., 2023 ; Guven & Islam, 2015 ). Building on this, overtime work in particular presents a sensitive organisational node where trust, immediacy and comprehension converge—all of which are mediated by language capability. On this basis, researchers began to focus on the influence of language capabilities on informal income channels (such as overtime, performance bonuses and part-time arrangements). Presbitero ( 2020 ) pointed out that language capabilities and communication skills significantly influence whether members can assume additional tasks and informal coordination responsibilities. Language barriers can undermine trust within teams, influence how organisations judge the abilities of their employees, and ultimately affect the likelihood of these workers being given additional responsibilities and rewards (Chen et al., 2006 ; Tenzer et al., 2021 ). Existing research has preliminarily revealed the mechanism of language capability in ‘work overtime’. Overtime arrangements rely on real-time communication and rapid responses in practice (Ingels & Maenhout, 2018 ). Workers with weak language capabilities are at a disadvantage in terms of understanding instructions, responding to notifications, and complying with safety requirements, so they may be excluded from informal arrangements (Lindhout et al., 2019 ). These findings suggest that language capabilities are not only a determinant of wage levels but also influence workers' access to informal income opportunities (such as overtime). However, while empirical research has highlighted this inequality, little attention has been directed to the potential theoretical mechanisms that explain why and how language creates structural disadvantages in this context. The following section introduces the theory of linguistic capital as a conceptual framework to explain these phenomena. 2.4. Underpinning Theory For this research context, the appropriation of language capability and income opportunity in Industrial 4.0 aligns with linguistic capital. Linguistic capital, as theorised by Bourdieu ( 1991 ), refers to the symbolic and functional value of an individual's language capabilities in social interactions (Bourdieu, 1991 ), especially in social or economic situations that require effective communication. These capabilities can translate into real advantages in employment, salary, and promotion (Sung-Yul Park & Wee, 2013 ). The influence of linguistic capital is particularly significant in multilingual societies like Malaysia. Malay, as the official language, and English, as the widely used lingua franca, together form the dominant workplace languages (Idris & Ismail, 2023 ; Nair-Venugopal, 2000 ). However, the large number of foreign workers who speak neither the local language nor English means that they are at a disadvantage in terms of language capabilities and thus in the overall labour market (Ubalde & Heyman, 2021 ). The advancement of Industry 4.0 means a constantly rising demand for digital system operations and cross-team communication skills in enterprises, further amplifying the importance of linguistic capital (Tenzer & Pudelko, 2012 ). For the large number of Bangladeshi workers in low-skilled jobs, their insufficient language capabilities limit not only their opportunities for training and skills upgrading but also their mobility into higher-income or semi-skilled positions. Therefore, this study adopted linguistic capital as a theoretical perspective to explore how differences in language capabilities influence the income opportunities of Bangladeshi workers in the context of the Malaysian manufacturing industry. This study emphasises that language is not only a tool of communication but also a form of social capital embedded in workplace structures and labour stratification. 2.5. Research Gap Based on the aforementioned summary, this study makes two significant contributions from a methodological and theoretical perspective. Most current research on Industry 4.0 and the workforce is based on human capital theory or technology adoption models (e.g., the TAM or TOE), emphasising the role of skills training and technology learning (Li, 2024 ; Miah et al., 2024 ). However, relatively less discussion has focused on how linguistic capital operates in manufacturing organisations and how it determines whether workers are excluded from or included in a technological transformation system. Bourdieu ( 1991 ) proposed that linguistic capital, as a form of symbolic capital, may create exclusion and inequality through implicit workplace mechanisms, but this perspective has not been fully explored with regard to Industry 4.0 research. Especially in a multilingual and multi-ethnic country like Malaysia, the ways that inequalities in language capabilities are intertwined in the labour hierarchy, digital production and wage distribution processes is an overlooked theoretical intersection. Moreover, the role of language in determining non-mandatory work assignments (such as overtime arrangements) has been an under-explored dimension in labour economics and sociolinguistics research. In addition, although existing research recognises the influence of language capability on labour market outcomes (Chiswick & Miller, 1995 ), few studies have applied this framework to the digital context of manufacturing, with a particular focus on the organisational experiences and structural marginalisation pathways of foreign workers. Therefore, there is an urgent need to combine language capital theory with the issue of labour reproduction in the context of Industry 4.0, expanding the social dimension of the current research on industrial transformation. Methodologically, most studies involving Industry 4.0 adopt quantitative methods such as surveys and economic modelling, focusing on analysing technology adoption strategies and return on investment at the enterprise level. Although some studies address the issue of workforce training, they mostly start from the perspective of enterprises and lack micro-level examinations of the subjective experiences, language challenges, and informal adaptation strategies of foreign workers. Much of the existing literature on language capabilities utilises measures like language tests or self-assessment scales, ignoring how languages are “used” and “excluded” in the workplace and how they create “hidden barriers” through organisational systems. Especially in a cross-cultural work environment, language exclusion is not just a matter of skills but also a complex interaction of power, communication, cultural capital and institutional arrangements. Although survey-based methods can provide useful macro-level insights, quantitative research often fails to capture the qualitative richness of how language barriers are experienced, addressed and institutionalised in everyday workplace interactions. To understand these deep structures, qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews, participatory observation or linguistic narrative analysis must be used. However, the linguistic adaptation of low-skilled foreign workers in the manufacturing industry in developing countries has been under-researched, and there is a lack of qualitative research designs based on the theory of linguistic capital. Therefore, this study attempted to bridge the current research gaps at the micro level and the subjective experience level from the perspective of workers by using qualitative interviews. 3. Methodology 3.1. Data collection A qualitative research methodology was adopted through a semi-structured interview protocol (Appendix A). To ensure the validity and reliability of the protocol, the researchers discussed it with two professionals and one academic expert in employee and human resources systems. Purposive sampling was used to select respondents from among the low-skilled foreign workers in various manufacturing companies in Malaysia. In this study, the definition of ‘low-skilled workers’ was based on a combination of the International Labour Organization's (ILO) classification of skill levels (ISCO-08), based on major groups nine and eight, as well as the actual employment characteristics of the Malaysian manufacturing industry. The specific criteria were as follows: The highest level of education attained by the respondents before starting work was secondary school, and they had not undertaken formal higher education, vocational training or industry certification programmes. Respondents are mainly engaged in physically intensive and highly repetitive positions, such as assembly line workers, packers, warehouse and transport workers, cleaners or support staff. Their jobs do not involve advanced equipment programming, quality control or technical management tasks. No specific professional qualifications, technical certifications or proof of language capabilities are required for employment; the work does not require complex cognitive operations or advanced language capabilities. Based on the local statutory minimum wage; the individual has long been at the bottom of the company's salary structure. Based on the above criteria, interviews were held with a total of 90 Bangladeshi low-skilled workers employed in the manufacturing industry in Malaysia. They were mainly engaged in factory operations, assembly, packaging or other similar positions. The interviews were conducted in English or the subject’s native language, with the assistance of an interpreter to ensure that the interviewees could express themselves freely in a comfortable language environment. All the interviews were recorded with the interviewees‘ consent and transcribed verbatim after the interview. To protect the interviewees’ privacy, all identifying information was anonymised. 3.2. Data Analysis In qualitative research, data saturation is an important concept for assessing whether the sample size is sufficient and the analysis results are solid. Interviews were conducted with a total of 76 foreign low-skilled workers employed in the manufacturing industry in Malaysia. The sample size was set based on the principle of information sufficiency, which refers to the point in the data collection process when no new information or themes are provided by new interviews, observations or document analysis (Lu et al., 2024 ). After collecting the raw data through semi-structured interviews, the researchers adopted Gioia’s methodology to understand the influence of linguistic capital on overtime pay for low-skilled workers (Gioia et al., 2013 ). Additionally, a four-stage research design was used, which was adopted from Gopaldas ( 2016 ) and Kawamoto et al. ( 2023 ) (see Fig. 1 ). Further, Gioia’s methodology was chosen to develop a primary protocol for the influence of linguistic capability on overtime payment for low-skilled workers, along with open, axial and selective coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2012 ). The development of concepts resulted in nine items under three main themes. The propositions were developed based on discussions of all the cases. 3.3. Trustworthiness and Ethical Considerations A preliminary interpretation of the interviews and a summary of the identified themes were shared with the participants for their feedback and approval. To ensure the reliability of the findings, the results and final themes were also reviewed by peer reviewers, experts and core researchers familiar with the study. To minimise potential bias from the researcher conducting the interviews, the data were coded and analysed by other authors, not the first author (Shufutinsky, 2020 ). Additionally, the participants' personal information would remain confidential in line with their requests for anonymity, security and privacy. Furthermore, this study was approved by International University of Business Agriculture and Technology (IUBAT) for research purposes. 3.4. Triangulation To further enhance the universality of the research, a triangulation method was used to verify the clear understanding of the relationship between the theme and sub-themes. Therefore, relevant research literature and expert opinions were integrated alongside the semi-structured interview outline. The selection was based on two criteria: (1) Each article must be included in SCOPUS or Web of Science (WOS) and (ii) the expert must have at least 10 years of professional experience in the field of human resources. Based on the research findings, four propositions were made to construct the framework, as shown in Fig. 2 . Table 1 presents the triangulation verification method adopted in this study. Table 1 Triangulation Method Research Article Subthemes Main Themes Understanding communication requires knowledge, understanding, information, meaning and perception (Varey, 2000 ). Understanding Responding Dependence Communication Low-skilled workers' participation in training and task flexibility helps improve their internal employability within the enterprise, but it does not help improve their external employability (Sanders & de Grip, 2004 ). Tasks Training Participation Opportunity In inter-organisational relationships, trust based on capability is 10 times more effective than trust based on ability in reducing management costs. This is a key factor in improving the efficiency of inter-organisational relationships (Connelly et al., 2018 ). Reliability Trust 4. Findings The following section describes the results of the analysis, whereby low-skilled foreign workers in Malaysia answered questions about how their language capabilities influence their employment opportunities and wages (Gioia et al., 2013 ). The list of themes included (i) communication, (ii) opportunities and (iii) trust. These themes were elaborated on to explain how linguistic capital could influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers. 4.1. Communication In manufacturing, overtime pay is an important source of additional income for low-skilled workers. However, overtime assignments often involve temporary scheduling, rapid responses and limited supervisory resources. Therefore, organisations tend to prioritise workers with low communication costs and high execution efficiency when assigning overtime. Language capability has become a key factor influencing overtime availability. Language capabilities improve the task comprehension and response speed of workers, enabling them to complete overtime tasks independently without relying on translation or supervision. This communication efficiency translates into a higher willingness to schedule overtime at the organisational level, reflecting the functional role of linguistic capital in actual production arrangements (Lindhout et al., 2019 ; Tenzer & Pudelko, 2012 ). In addition, language barriers significantly reduce task fit while increasing accident risks and coordination costs, thereby excluding those with low language capabilities from overtime arrangements (Selten & Warglien, 2007 ). Therefore, linguistic capital not only influences whether overtime work can be completed but also determines whether one is perceived as capable of undertaking such work. Table 2 displays quotes and codes related to the theme of communication. Table 2 Themes and codes identified under communication Selective Code Axial Code Open Code Interviewee Code Communication Understanding I was able to follow what the supervisor was asking us to do and I was able to have a brief work briefing with them. Open Code: Follow job description W12 Responding After the supervisor has explained the work content, I can complete it quickly without waiting for a translation. Open Code: Quickly start to work W22 Dependence After the supervisor has completed the work assignment, I can complete the task independently without them having to translate the work content again. Open Code: Work independently W28 4.2. Opportunity Language capabilities are not only reflected at the execution level but also embedded in the organisational structure for allocating overtime and skilled overtime opportunities. Linguistic capital manifests itself here as an informal qualification filter (Dustmann & Fabbri, 2003 ). That is, although the organisation does not openly set language requirements, in practice, language capabilities have become a key factor in determining who is eligible to participate in high-yield tasks. This is consistent with the mechanism pointed out by (Presbitero, 2020 ) that ‘language capabilities increase participation in additional responsibilities and compensation opportunities.’ In addition, Rozhkova and Roshchin ( 2019 ) found that even among groups with similar skill levels, language capabilities can entail a 9–11% wage premium. This difference derives from not only basic wages but also differences in the distribution of overtime and informal incentive systems. Table 3 displays related quotes and codes on the theme of opportunity. Table 3 Themes and codes identified under opportunity Selective Code Axial Code Open Code Interviewee Code Opportunity Tasks Once there is an urgent task, my supervisor asks me to work extra hours and pays me more overtime than others. Open Code: Urgent task W16 Training New machines have arrived at the factory, and my supervisor has asked me and the Indonesian workers to stay after work to learn how to use them, promising to pay us overtime. Open Code: Learning manual operation for new machines W29 Participation Every time there is overtime work, my supervisor asks me to join because I can understand basic Malay and English. Open Code: More chances to work overtime W44 4.3. Trust Workers with language capabilities often obtain higher levels of responsibility, such as team coordination or on-site organisational roles during overtime. This empowerment reflects the organisation's structural trust assessment mechanism for language capabilities. That is, such capabilities have become a signal for identifying the manageability and eligibility of workers. This trust is not only based on actual language capabilities but also stems from their positive spillover effects on the stability of organisational operations. According to Connelly et al. ( 2018 ), competence-based trust has a higher efficiency value than character-based trust in task-intensive fields. Linguistic capital has a dual meaning here: on the one hand, it improves task delivery efficiency, and on the other hand, it strengthens the organisation's positive perception of individuals, thereby indirectly allowing income growth and internal rank advancement to be achieved (Bourdieu, 1991 ). Table 4 displays related quotes and codes on the theme of trust. Table 4 Themes and codes identified under trust Selective Code Axial Code Open Code Interviewee Code Trust Reliability My supervisor highly recognises my language ability, so every time I work overtime, he assigns me to be the team leader for the Bangladeshi workers and gives me extra pay. Open Code: Recognition of language ability W18 4.4. Development of propositions and frameworks In a multilingual manufacturing environment, overtime tasks are often characterised by tight deadlines, their ad hoc nature and insufficient supervisory resources. When arranging overtime, organisations tend to select workers who can quickly understand the work content and complete tasks independently. Staff with language capabilities need not rely on translation or additional explanations, and they are more likely to be identified as quickly deployable human resources. This task execution efficiency becomes a practical manifestation of linguistic capital, playing a decisive role in scheduling decisions. As Tenzer and Pudelko ( 2012 ) pointed out, language barriers weaken team cognitive consistency and increase misunderstandings and conflicts, thus affecting collaborative performance. Lindhout et al. ( 2019 ) further noted that language barriers not only affect efficiency but also increase safety risks, making organisations more inclined to choose employees with strong language capabilities for overtime arrangements. P1: Low-skilled workers with high linguistic capital are more likely to be selected for overtime work due to their stronger task comprehension, response efficiency and lower supervision costs. Although a company might not stipulate language capability thresholds in its written regulations, in practice, supervisors give priority to employees with stronger language capabilities when assigning overtime work, especially in situations involving technical learning, equipment operation or rapid response tasks. This selection logic reflects an informal opportunity threshold that gives linguistic capital an opportunity allocation function. Dustmann and Fabbri ( 2003 ) found that for every higher level of language proficiency gained by migrant workers, their average wages increased by 7–10%; part of this difference came from frequent participation in overtime and temporary tasks. Presbitero ( 2020 ) also emphasised that language capabilities increase the likelihood of employees assuming additional responsibilities and receiving rewarding tasks. In addition, in their study in Russia, Rozhkova and Roshchin ( 2019 ) found that even with consistent skill levels, language capabilities significantly influence opportunities to participate in technical work. P2: As a non-institutionalised but structurally embedded screening mechanism, linguistic capital significantly increases low-skilled workers' chances of getting high-paying overtime work and training for skilled overtime work. Overtime work is not only physically demanding but often involves on-site coordination, team organisation and cross-language communication. In such situations, supervisors tend to assign organisational roles to workers with language communication skills. Language capability thus becomes a key basis for establishing competence-based trust. It also significantly influences whether workers receive additional leadership responsibilities and financial rewards for overtime work. Connelly et al. ( 2018 ) distinguished between competence-based and character-based trust, pointing out that the former is particularly critical in task-intensive, time-sensitive environments. In their study of international companies, Tenzer et al. ( 2014 ) found that language capabilities are a decisive factor influencing team trust and role division. Bourdieu's (1991) theory of linguistic capital further posits that language capability is not only a technical tool but also an important resource for organisational stratification and the reconstruction of symbolic values. P3: Linguistic capital enhances managers‘ trust in workers’ abilities, thereby increasing their chances of being assigned high-responsibility overtime work and receiving additional financial rewards. Based on the findings of this research, three propositions were established to develop a framework, which is presented in Fig. 2 . 5. Discussion and Implications Language capabilities have a highly structural significance in multilingual workplaces. They are no longer merely a communication tool; they are deeply involved in the organisational logic of task allocation, role empowerment and informal income distribution (Tenzer et al., 2014 ; Bourdieu, 1991 ). In workshop environments lacking formal norms and institutional safeguards, linguistic capital gradually transforms into a key resource that influences overtime availability, role assignability and trustworthiness (Connelly et al., 2018 ). Its function is reflected not only in operational efficiency gains but also the profound shaping of opportunity accessibility and role value (Dustmann & Fabbri, 2003 ). As an important channel for low-skilled workers to improve their economic resilience, overtime pay is subject to systematic influences from language capabilities and shows a trend of structural differentiation (Rozhkova & Roshchin, 2019 ). Specifically, those with strong language capabilities are more likely to secure urgent tasks, skilled tasks, and roles that require organisational trust, thereby enabling such staff to obtain more frequent and remunerative overtime income (Presbitero, 2020 ). This informal but institutionalised distribution mechanism has not been fully explained in the existing literature on labour markets and organisational behaviour. In particular, language capabilities have evolved into a form of real power in developing economies, multilingual labour contexts and industries where flexible working hours are prevalent (Chiswick & Miller, 1995 ; Kar et al., 2023). The revelation of this mechanism helps expand the functional boundaries of linguistic capital in organisational structures. It also provides a more explanatory perspective for understanding income opportunity differences among low-skilled migrant workers in informal labour fields (Bourdieu, 1991 ; Ooi et al., 2023). The following section systematically explores the mechanism of the role of linguistic capital on the path to overtime pay from the perspectives of theoretical contributions and practical implications. Moreover, feasible management and policy responses are proposed. 5.1. Implications for Theory The study reveals how linguistic capital profoundly influences low-skilled workers' access to overtime opportunities and informal remuneration within informal institutional arrangements in organisations. This mechanism is not only related to the efficiency of communication within organisations but also manifests itself as a socially embedded selection logic that transforms language capabilities into task qualifications, trust signals and structural opportunity thresholds (Bourdieu, 1991 ; Tenzer et al., 2014 ). In workplaces where institutional rules are lacking or vague, linguistic capital becomes an important basis on which organisations assign tasks and allocate trust, which in turn influences the actual income levels and career mobility of low-skilled workers. First, the study emphasises how linguistic capital is actually used by organisations as an informal screening criterion in the allocation of overtime tasks, which forms an informal but effective stratification mechanism for low-skilled workers. Since most factories have no transparent selection systems for overtime arrangements, in order to reduce communication costs and risk expectations, supervisors often use language capabilities to judge which of their staff can quickly understand urgent tasks, who is easier to communicate with and who is more controllable (Lindhout et al., 2019 ; Presbitero, 2020 ). This allows workers with strong language capabilities to obtain high-value overtime opportunities more frequently, while those with weak language capabilities face a structural dilemma of passive waiting and marginalisation (Rozhkova & Roshchin, 2019 ). Second, the embedding of linguistic capital into organisational trust mechanisms constructs a perception logic of symbolic capability. Managers often establish a direct link between language capability, work reliability, task comprehension and even a sense of responsibility, so they are more inclined to assign workers with strong language capabilities to coordinate tasks or lead teams in overtime scenarios (Connelly et al., 2018 ). These informal roles usually entail additional compensation, indirectly promoting the accumulation of income and prestige inequality. For low-skilled workers, language capabilities are not only a tool for survival but also form an identity label in the organisational hierarchy, influencing their eligibility to become trusted individuals. In addition, the study deepens the understanding of the access to opportunity mechanism in the labour field. Traditional studies often attribute differences in overtime pay for low-skilled workers to their experience, job type or contract type (Chiswick & Miller, 1995 ). However, this study points out that even among workers in the same section and with the same job, language capabilities can significantly influence whether or not they are assigned to high-intensity overtime shifts. This differential allocation mechanism is based on language performance rather than formal assessment, constituting a soft exclusion logic and manifesting as non-institutionalised yet highly systematic marginalisation (Dustmann & Fabbri, 2003 ). Overall, linguistic capital not only affects the communication effectiveness of low-skilled workers but also systematically influences their task visibility, role eligibility and trustworthiness within the organisation. This perspective has promoted the shift of linguistic capital research from cultural sociology to labour sociology, and it provides a new theoretical framework for explaining the inequality of opportunities for low-skilled workers in informal income systems. 5.2. Implications for Practice The study found that linguistic capital has become an important screening mechanism that determines whether low-skilled workers can access high-paying overtime work. This has key practical implications for front-line managers and human resource managers in non-technical manufacturing companies. Especially in the absence of a formal scheduling system, striking a balance between efficiency and fairness has become an important issue for the sustainable operation of organisations. The institutional role of language capability in scheduling logic reveals that the allocation of overtime opportunities in manufacturing enterprises is not entirely neutral. When faced with a multilingual workforce, organisational managers often tend to prioritise workers with stronger language capabilities for high-value overtime tasks in order to reduce communication barriers and improve task execution efficiency. However, this implicit screening criterion may inadvertently create a language monopoly that excludes linguistically disadvantaged workers from high-return tasks, resulting in informal but systematic inequality (Tenzer et al., 2014 ). To establish a more inclusive on-site management system, companies should implement transparent scheduling mechanisms, such as rotating overtime assignment systems, language-coordinated task design and training for schedulers to identify language biases. These interventions would not only enhance overall organisational efficiency but also strengthen employee identification and loyalty in a diverse workforce. 6. Conclusion The existing research generally neglects the role of linguistic capital in overtime tasks and informal income distribution in non-technical organisations. In particular, there is a lack of systematic theoretical exploration of and empirical research on how language capabilities, firstly, are embedded in scheduling processes and, secondly, influence organisational trust building and role authorisation, especially in low-skilled labour markets. Focusing on this theoretical blind spot, this study used qualitative research combined with linguistic capital theory to reveal how language capabilities have become a key variable influencing workers' access to overtime opportunities in actual operations, further shaping the income disparity structure among workers. In addition, linguistic capital is closely related to the formation of competence-based trust within organisations. Workers with strong language capabilities are often assigned informal roles such as coordinators and team leaders. Although not formally appointed, these positions entail more opportunities to engage in high-value tasks. Therefore, overtime pay is not only compensation for time but also reflects the organisation's recognition of an individual's symbolic competence. Language is the core medium in the process of constructing this competence. The core contribution of this study lies in expanding the boundaries of the application of linguistic capital theory to organisational behaviour and revealing its role in informal income distribution. Meanwhile, it also promotes organisational research to focus on the synergistic operation of language capabilities in informal work mechanisms, providing a new analytical dimension for understanding structural inequality in the labour field. Declarations Ethics approval This study was approved by International University of Business Agriculture and Technology (IUBAT). The reference number is 2025/IUBAT/005. Funding This research received no internal or external funding. Consent to publish declaration Not applicable Consent to Participate declaration All participants have been informed of the purpose of the study and have provided written consent to publish the results without any personal identifying information. Author Contribution Yongyu Lu: Conceptualization， Methodology， Data collection and validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing—original draft preparation, Writing—review and editing, and Project supervision;Suchana Das: Conceptualization， Methodology， Data collection and validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing—original draft preparation, Writing—review and editing, and Project supervision;Liang Zuo: Conceptualization, Data curation;Md. Nur-E-Alam Siddque: Writing—review and editing, and Project supervision.Author 1 and 2 contributed to this paper equally. Acknowledgement Not Applicable Data Availability Data will be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author References Abdul-Rahman, H., Wang, C., Wood, L. C., & Low, S. F. (2012). Negative impact induced by foreign workers: Evidence in Malaysian construction sector. Habitat International , 36 (4), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.03.002 Ahmad Tajuddin, A. J. (2015). A Malaysian Professional Communication Skills in English Framework for English for Occupational Purposes Courses [University of Nottingham, Malaysia]. https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/28747/1/AJAT 2015.pdf Bleakley, H., & Chin, A. (2004). Language Skills and Earnings: Evidence from Childhood Immigrants. Review of Economics and Statistics , 86 (2), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031067 Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power . Cambridge: Polity Press. Boyd, M., & Cao, X. (2009). Immigrant Language Proficiency, Earnings, and Language Policies. Canadian Studies in Population , 36 (1–2), 63. https://doi.org/10.25336/P6NP62 Carliner, G. (1981). Wage Differences by Language Group and the Market for Language Skills in Canada. The Journal of Human Resources , 16 (3), 384. https://doi.org/10.2307/145627 Chen, S., Geluykens, R., & Choi, C. J. (2006). The importance of language in global teams: A linguistic perspective. Management International Review , 46 (6), 679–696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-006-0122-6 Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1995). The Endogeneity between Language and Earnings: International Analyses. Journal of Labor Economics , 13 (2), 246–288. https://doi.org/10.1086/298374 Churkina, O., Nazareno, L., & Zullo, M. (2023). The labor market outcomes of bilinguals in the United States: Accumulation and returns effects. PLOS ONE , 18 (6), e0287711. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287711 Connelly, B. L., Crook, T. R., Combs, J. G., Ketchen, D. J., & Aguinis, H. (2018). Competence- and Integrity-Based Trust in Interorganizational Relationships: Which Matters More? Journal of Management , 44 (3), 919–945. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315596813 Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2012). Basics of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.): Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. In Basics of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.): Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory . SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452230153 Dannecker, P. (2013). Rationalities and Images Underlying Labour Migration from Bangladesh to Malaysia. International Migration , 51 (1), 40–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00547.x Devadason, E. S. (2021). Foreign Labour Policy and Employment in Manufacturing: The Case of Malaysia. Journal of Contemporary Asia , 51 (3), 398–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2020.1759675 Dustmann, C., & Fabbri, F. (2003). Language Proficiency and Labour Market Performance of Immigrants in the UK. The Economic Journal , 113 (489), 695–717. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.t01-1-00151 Fahmy, S., Deraman, A., Puteh, M., Nasir, A., Roslina, W., & Haslinda, N. (2022). An Analysis of Digital Talent in Academic Publications Reflection on Malaysia’s Digital Transformation Strategies. International Journal of Integrated Engineering , 14 (3). https://doi.org/10.30880/ijie.2022.14.03.020 Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research. Organizational Research Methods , 16 (1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428112452151 Gopaldas, A. (2016). A front-to-back guide to writing a qualitative research article. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal , 19 (1), 115–121. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-08-2015-0074 Gurowitz, A. (2000). Migrant Rights and Activism in Malaysia: Opportunities and Constraints. The Journal of Asian Studies , 59 (4), 863–888. https://doi.org/10.2307/2659215 Guven, C., & Islam, A. (2015). Age at Migration, Language Proficiency, and Socioeconomic Outcomes: Evidence From Australia. Demography , 52 (2), 513–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0373-6 Hahm, S., & Gazzola, M. (2022). The Value of Foreign Language Skills in the German Labor Market. Labour Economics , 76 , 102150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102150 Hussain, R., Sabir, A., Lee, D.-Y., Zaidi, S. F. A., Pedro, A., Abbas, M. S., & Park, C. (2024). Conversational AI-based VR system to improve construction safety training of migrant workers. Automation in Construction , 160 , 105315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105315 Idris, A. A. M., & Ismail, I. N. (2023). Request modifications by Malay speakers of English in the workplace: A contrastive pragmatic analysis. Studies in English Language and Education , 10 (2), 981–999. https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v10i2.26464 Ingels, J., & Maenhout, B. (2018). The impact of overtime as a time-based proactive scheduling and reactive allocation strategy on the robustness of a personnel shift roster. Journal of Scheduling , 21 (2), 143–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10951-017-0512-6 Karim, A. Z., Abdullah, M. A., & Haji Bakar, M. I. (1999). Foreign Workers in Malaysia: Issues and Implications (1st Editio). Utusan Publications and Distributors. Kawamoto, M., Koizumi, M., & Yoshikane, F. (2023). Proposal of a Qualitative Content Analysis Process for a Solo Researcher. Libri , 73 (2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1515/libri-2022-0068 Lesho, M. (2018). Philippine English (Metro Manila acrolect). Journal of the International Phonetic Association , 48 (3), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100317000548 Li, L. (2024). Reskilling and Upskilling the Future-ready Workforce for Industry 4.0 and Beyond. Information Systems Frontiers , 26 (5), 1697–1712. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-022-10308-y Lindhout, P., Kingston-Howlett, J. C., & Reniers, G. (2019). Learning from language problem related accident information in the process industry: A literature study. Process Safety and Environmental Protection , 130 , 140–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2019.06.017 Liwiński, J. (2019). The wage premium from foreign language skills. Empirica , 46 (4), 691–711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-019-09459-0 Lønsmann, D., & Kraft, K. (2018). Language policy and practice in multilingual production workplaces. Multilingua , 37 (4), 403–427. https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2017-0088 Lu, Y., Jian, M., Muhamad, N. S., & Hizam-Hanafiah, M. (2024). Data saturation in qualitative research: A literature review in entrepreneurship study from 2004–2024. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development , 8 (12), 9753. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i12.9753 Merriam, S., & Tisdell, E. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. In S. Merriam & E. Tisdell (Eds.), The JosseyBass higher and adult education series (4th Editio, Vol. 2nd). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1097/NCI.0b013e3181edd9b1 Miah, M. T., Erdei-Gally, S., Dancs, A., & Fekete-Farkas, M. (2024). A Systematic Review of Industry 4.0 Technology on Workforce Employability and Skills: Driving Success Factors and Challenges in South Asia. Economies , 12 (2), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12020035 Nair-Venugopal, S. (2000). English, identity and the Malaysian workplace. World Englishes , 19 (2), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-971X.00169 Peters, D., Omar, M. A., Dollah, R., & Wan Hassan, W. S. (2022). Undocumented Workers during Malaysia’s Movement Control Order (MCO). MIGRATION LETTERS , 19 (2), 107–121. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v19i2.1280 Powell, R. (2020). Conceptualising and Contextualising Malaysian Bilingual Law (pp. 1–23). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1173-8_1 Presbitero, A. (2020). Foreign language skill, anxiety, cultural intelligence and individual task performance in global virtual teams: A cognitive perspective. Journal of International Management , 26 (2), 100729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2019.100729 Raj-Reichert, G. (2020). Global Value Chains, Contract Manufacturers, and the Middle-Income Trap: The Electronics Industry in Malaysia. The Journal of Development Studies , 56 (4), 698–716. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2019.1595599 Rasiah, R., Crinis, V., & Lee, H.-A. (2015). Industrialization and labour in Malaysia. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy , 20 (1), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2014.974327 Ridala, S. (2020). Language skills and labour market returns. Language Problems and Language Planning , 44 (2), 200–241. https://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.20012.rid Rozhkova, K. V., & Roshchin, S. Y. (2019). Does knowing foreign language pay off in the Russian labor market? Voprosy Ekonomiki , 6 , 122–141. https://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2019-6-122-141 Sanders, J., & de Grip, A. (2004). Training, task flexibility and the employability of low-skilled workers. International Journal of Manpower , 25 (1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437720410525009 Schwab, K. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution . World Economic Forum. Selten, R., & Warglien, M. (2007). The emergence of simple languages in an experimental coordination game. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 104 (18), 7361–7366. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702077104 Shufutinsky, A. (2020). Employing use of self for transparency, rigor, trustworthiness, and credibility in qualitative organizational research methods. Organization Development Review , 52 (1), 50–58. SME CORPORATION MALAYSIA. (2021). TINJAUAN PMKS MSME INSIGHTS 2021 . https://smecorp.gov.my/images/Publication/MSME_Insights/SME_Insight_2021_1_English_Full_Version.pdf# :~:text=Micro%252C%2520 small%2520and% 2520medium%2520enterprises%2520(MSMEs)%2520are,Malaysia’s% 2520strong%2520and%2520sustainable%2520post%252DCOVID%252D19 Soderberg, C. D., & Olson, K. S. (2008). Indonesian. Journal of the International Phonetic Association , 38 (2), 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100308003320 Sung-Yul Park, J., & Wee, L. (2013). Markets of English: Linguistic Capital and Language Policy in a Globalizing World . Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203120323 Szabó-Szentgróti, G., Végvári, B., & Varga, J. (2021). Impact of Industry 4.0 and Digitization on Labor Market for 2030-Verification of Keynes’ Prediction. Sustainability , 13 (14), 7703. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13147703 Tenzer, H., & Pudelko, M. (2012). The Impact of Language Barriers on Shared Mental Models in Multinational Teams. Academy of Management Proceedings , 2012 (1), 13612. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2012.44 Tenzer, H., Pudelko, M., & Harzing, A.-W. (2014). The impact of language barriers on trust formation in multinational teams. Journal of International Business Studies , 45 (5), 508–535. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2013.64 Tenzer, H., Pudelko, M., & Zellmer-Bruhn, M. (2021). The impact of language barriers on knowledge processing in multinational teams. Journal of World Business , 56 (2), 101184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2020.101184 Ubalde, J., & Heyman, J. (2021). Is there a bilingual advantage? the effects of non-English language skills on occupational attainment among immigrants and natives. International Journal of the Sociology of Language , 2021 (270), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2020-0014 Varey, R. J. (2000). A critical review of conceptions of communication evident in contemporary business and management literature. Journal of Communication Management , 4 (4), 328–340. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb023530 Veruscka Leso, Luca Fontana, & Ivo Iavicoli. (2018). The occupational health and safety dimension of Industry 4.0. La Medicina Del Lavoro , 110 (5), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.23749/mdl.v110i5.7282 Wah Kam, H. (2003). International Communication: English Language Challenges for Malaysia. Asian Englishes , 6 (1), 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2003.10801109 Yong, J. Y., Yusliza, M., Ramayah, T., Chiappetta Jabbour, C. J., Sehnem, S., & Mani, V. (2020). Pathways towards sustainability in manufacturing organizations: Empirical evidence on the role of green human resource management. Business Strategy and the Environment , 29 (1), 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2359 Yusof, Z. A. (2003). Malaysia’s Response to the China Challenge. Asian Economic Papers , 2 (2), 46–73. https://doi.org/10.1162/153535103772624790 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6877950","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":475519025,"identity":"5897eab7-5882-40c0-8353-ab563ea94459","order_by":0,"name":"Yongyu Lu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National University of Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yongyu","middleName":"","lastName":"Lu","suffix":""},{"id":475519026,"identity":"10ee9c23-cdf5-4666-8cec-a48e4397b3a7","order_by":1,"name":"Suchana Das","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National University of Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suchana","middleName":"","lastName":"Das","suffix":""},{"id":475519028,"identity":"d18a98e1-7108-4a87-a594-ed7ae554332e","order_by":2,"name":"Liang Zuo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yichun University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Liang","middleName":"","lastName":"Zuo","suffix":""},{"id":475519029,"identity":"e685a51d-d791-4084-ab86-b9579f260779","order_by":3,"name":"Md. Nur-E-Alam Siddique","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABC0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZgYDiQQwg/nAgQ8VB8CCBx4QpYW9LfHgjDMHGHhAWhLw22MgAaZ4zigf5m2DaGHAp0W+nXnjjQdlh+UYJHIYDvDOuyNnL3b4IdAWOzndBhxWHGYrtkg4d9iYQSL3wAHJbc+MeaTTDIBako3NDuDQwsxjJpHYdjixQSIv4YDhtsOJPdIJIC0HErfh0CLfDNFS3yCRY3AgcQ5IS/oHvFoYDkO0JAC9b3DgYANISw5+W6B+STdsYG9LONhw7LAxz+2cggMJBrj9It9/eOPNH2XW8sCoPPz5T81hOfbZ6Zs/fKiwk8OlBQLYGBjsURUY4FMO1TIKRsEoGAWjACcAACzdZts/5FVRAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"International University of Business Agriculture and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Nur-E-Alam","lastName":"Siddique","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-12 08:08:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6877950/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6877950/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85383463,"identity":"04389774-d6f2-4786-9971-a86d71de423f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-25 09:36:20","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68960,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResearch Design\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6877950/v1/ded69de5327a568eaf7b76d4.png"},{"id":85383462,"identity":"15ef0535-b90b-4aae-8e8c-2846123a2ad1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-25 09:36:20","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48367,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLinguistic Capability Influences Overtime Pay\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage223.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6877950/v1/46b32bd2104c691f44213a93.png"},{"id":95527807,"identity":"9be94be4-6ad9-4118-a13a-1d233d37263d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-10 10:14:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1095421,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6877950/v1/bed3ffb9-8564-4ef4-bbe5-109eba1176e2.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"How could linguistic capital influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers – A qualitative study of Bangladeshi workers","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs the global manufacturing industry accelerates its transformation towards digitalisation and intelligence, Industry 4.0 is gradually reshaping the industrial structure and labour demands of emerging economies (Szab\u0026oacute;-Szentgr\u0026oacute;ti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As an important manufacturing hub in Southeast Asia, Malaysia occupies a central position in labour-intensive industries such as electronics, textiles, rubber products and automobiles (Yusof, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The production system is maintained through a large number of low-skilled foreign workers (Devadason, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Asia, countries such as Bangladesh and Myanmar have become major exporters of labour to both developed and developing countries such as Singapore, Japan and Malaysia (Dannecker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). For Malaysia, foreign labour is particularly important in the manufacturing and construction sectors (Devadason, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) due to the short supply of local labour, with many Malaysians uninterested in these types of work (Abdul-Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The outcome is that Malaysia has one of the world\u0026rsquo;s highest proportions of foreign workers (Gurowitz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), and the number of such workers having reached 5.5\u0026nbsp;million (Peters et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Of the foreign labour groups in Malaysia, the largest is from Indonesia, followed by Bangladesh and the Philippines. These workers are mainly employed in the manufacturing, construction and service industries (Karim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Malaysia's multilingual context, Malay is the official language (Powell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) while English is also widely used in communication (Wah Kam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, in this environment, Indonesian workers face no major problems because Indonesian and Malay come from the same language family (Soderberg \u0026amp; Olson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, English is the second official language for Filipino workers, so they can use English for work-related communication (Lesho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, the third-largest group, Bangladeshi workers, face more difficulties due to the significant differences between their native language and both English and Malay. Therefore, from the perspective of linguistic capital, Bangladeshi workers are naturally weaker than the other two groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs Industry 4.0 drives the digitalisation and intelligent transformation of manufacturing, the operational logic of factories is also evolving, placing higher demands on the technical adaptability and communication skills of workers. In Malaysia's manufacturing system, which is highly dependent on foreign labour, language capabilities are gradually becoming a key factor influencing the division of labour and shift-scheduling decisions. This applies especially in situations involving flexible working hours and sudden adjustments to production capacity, such as overtime arrangements, where workers' language capabilities directly affect their ability to effectively understand work instructions and complete collaborative tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn comparison, workers from the Philippines and Indonesia have linguistic advantages in actual production because either their languages are similar to Malay or they have a certain level of English proficiency. Although Bangladesh is the third-largest source of labour, Bangladeshi workers often face communication barriers in task coordination and sudden scheduling changes due to significant differences between their own language systems and that of their workplace. This disadvantage in linguistic capital not only limits their job choices in daily work processes but may also cause additional income gaps in the distribution of overtime opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the aim of this study was to analyse the income opportunities of Bangladeshi workers from the perspective of linguistic capital. In particular, as manufacturing companies develop digitally, language capabilities have gradually evolved into an implicit \u0026lsquo;threshold condition\u0026rsquo; that has a profound influence on the quality of employment. As a result, this study sought to answer the following research question (RQ): \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;How does language capability influence the wage level of overtime pay for Bangladeshi workers?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo answer this question, this research followed a qualitative approach and referred to the protocol devised by Merriam and Tisdell (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Collectively, the research objective was to explore the influence of linguistic capital on the wages of low-skilled Bangladeshi workers. In terms of the qualitative research, semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data. The study highlights the role of linguistic capital in providing opportunities to the wage. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the literature and relevant theory used in this study. Section 3 discusses the research methodology and research design. Section 4 presents the main findings. Section 5 highlights the propositions and framework. Section 6 presents the conclusions from the findings, including the implications from both theoretical and practical perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Industrial 4.0 and Labour Restructuring in Malaysia\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndustry 4.0, a key development direction for the transformation of the global manufacturing industry, marks a profound change in production processes from traditional automation to intelligent manufacturing. Its core includes the integration of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, big data and cloud computing (Schwab, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the Malaysian Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) account for more than 97% of the manufacturing industry (SME CORPORATION MALAYSIA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, these are generally less digitally advanced and lack the technology, capital and human resources to transform and upgrade (Yong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Particularly in terms of the workforce structure, Malaysia's manufacturing industry is highly dependent on foreign low-skilled workers, who are mostly engaged in repetitive, low-skilled positions such as assembly, packaging, and handling (Raj-Reichert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rasiah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, the high-end automation and intelligent systems introduced via Industry 4.0 are gradually replacing these types of work tasks (Veruscka Leso et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eToday, Malaysian companies are more focused on improving the work capabilities of their staff in order to achieve successful transformation because companies increasingly need skilled or semi-skilled workers who can understand digital systems (Fahmy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, existing research shows that the local language training curriculum in Malaysia does not meet the current occupational needs (Ahmad Tajuddin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Inadequate language capabilities have become a potential risk that limits the efficiency of technical learning, reduces production efficiency and even leads to accidents (Hussain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Lindhout et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, although the Malaysian manufacturing industry is actively moving towards Industry 4.0, the reality of its widespread reliance on low-skilled foreign labour creates tension between the workforce structure and technological upgrading. In particular, since the language training system is not yet perfect, the lack of language capabilities has gradually become a key bottleneck restricting the efficiency of enterprise transformation and the upgrading of labour skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis situation reveals a structural paradox: despite Malaysia's rapid digital transformation, its continued reliance on workers with limited language capabilities is creating a bottleneck in the upgrading of its workforce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Language Capability and the Incomes of Low-Skilled Workers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relationship between language capabilities and income opportunities has long been a central topic in labour economics. Chiswick and Miller (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) found that in a multilingual labour market, workers with dominant language capabilities generally have more opportunities to receive a higher income because, the authors argued, workers with good language skills tend to have lower communication costs and stronger organisational adaptability, and they are more likely to assume additional responsibilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a study of British migrant workers, Dustmann and Fabbri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) found that each one-level increase in English proficiency could increase their average wage by 7\u0026ndash;10%. Similar results have also been found in studies of foreign workers in the U.S. (Bleakley \u0026amp; Chin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), Australia (Guven \u0026amp; Islam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and Germany (Hahm \u0026amp; Gazzola, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage capability influences not only whether workers can complete their work tasks but also whether they can be trusted by their superiors and assume supervisory or semi-skilled positions (Presbitero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Tenzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Workers lacking language capabilities are often considered \u0026ldquo;unassignable\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;uncommunicative\u0026rdquo; and thus restricted to the lowest salary levels. Hahm and Gazzola (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found native German speakers with English language skills earn on average 13% more, while Rozhkova and Roshchin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that in Russia, foreign language skills can lead to a 9% wage premium for employees. Moreover, language capability also determines whether workers can participate in wage negotiations and access promotion opportunities. Liwiński (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that in Poland, proficiency in a foreign language can lead to an average salary premium of 11%, with Spanish (32%), French (22%) or Italian (15%) commanding a higher premium than English (11%) or German (12%). Meanwhile, Guven and Islam (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) pointed out that language capability has a significant positive influence on salary. Therefore, some scholars have suggested that even among workers with similar skill levels, language proficiency may determine access to better-paying or more frequent overtime opportunities (Hahm \u0026amp; Gazzola, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, exploring the role of language capability in the distribution of overtime pay can help deepen the understanding of income inequality among low-skilled workers in the manufacturing industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Language Capability and Overtime\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtensive empirical research shows that in multilingual societies, workers with dominant language capabilities are more likely to earn higher wages, have stable jobs and enjoy better promotion opportunities (Carliner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Chiswick \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; L\u0026oslash;nsmann \u0026amp; Kraft, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ridala, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This \u0026lsquo;language premium\u0026rsquo; phenomenon has been confirmed in contexts such as Europe, the United States, and Australia, indicating that language capability has become a key component of human capital that influences income differences (Boyd \u0026amp; Cao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Churkina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Guven \u0026amp; Islam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on this, overtime work in particular presents a sensitive organisational node where trust, immediacy and comprehension converge\u0026mdash;all of which are mediated by language capability. On this basis, researchers began to focus on the influence of language capabilities on informal income channels (such as overtime, performance bonuses and part-time arrangements). Presbitero (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) pointed out that language capabilities and communication skills significantly influence whether members can assume additional tasks and informal coordination responsibilities. Language barriers can undermine trust within teams, influence how organisations judge the abilities of their employees, and ultimately affect the likelihood of these workers being given additional responsibilities and rewards (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Tenzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExisting research has preliminarily revealed the mechanism of language capability in \u0026lsquo;work overtime\u0026rsquo;. Overtime arrangements rely on real-time communication and rapid responses in practice (Ingels \u0026amp; Maenhout, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Workers with weak language capabilities are at a disadvantage in terms of understanding instructions, responding to notifications, and complying with safety requirements, so they may be excluded from informal arrangements (Lindhout et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These findings suggest that language capabilities are not only a determinant of wage levels but also influence workers' access to informal income opportunities (such as overtime). However, while empirical research has highlighted this inequality, little attention has been directed to the potential theoretical mechanisms that explain why and how language creates structural disadvantages in this context. The following section introduces the theory of linguistic capital as a conceptual framework to explain these phenomena.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Underpinning Theory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this research context, the appropriation of language capability and income opportunity in Industrial 4.0 aligns with linguistic capital. Linguistic capital, as theorised by Bourdieu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), refers to the symbolic and functional value of an individual's language capabilities in social interactions (Bourdieu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), especially in social or economic situations that require effective communication. These capabilities can translate into real advantages in employment, salary, and promotion (Sung-Yul Park \u0026amp; Wee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influence of linguistic capital is particularly significant in multilingual societies like Malaysia. Malay, as the official language, and English, as the widely used lingua franca, together form the dominant workplace languages (Idris \u0026amp; Ismail, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nair-Venugopal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). However, the large number of foreign workers who speak neither the local language nor English means that they are at a disadvantage in terms of language capabilities and thus in the overall labour market (Ubalde \u0026amp; Heyman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe advancement of Industry 4.0 means a constantly rising demand for digital system operations and cross-team communication skills in enterprises, further amplifying the importance of linguistic capital (Tenzer \u0026amp; Pudelko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). For the large number of Bangladeshi workers in low-skilled jobs, their insufficient language capabilities limit not only their opportunities for training and skills upgrading but also their mobility into higher-income or semi-skilled positions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, this study adopted linguistic capital as a theoretical perspective to explore how differences in language capabilities influence the income opportunities of Bangladeshi workers in the context of the Malaysian manufacturing industry. This study emphasises that language is not only a tool of communication but also a form of social capital embedded in workplace structures and labour stratification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Research Gap\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the aforementioned summary, this study makes two significant contributions from a methodological and theoretical perspective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost current research on Industry 4.0 and the workforce is based on human capital theory or technology adoption models (e.g., the TAM or TOE), emphasising the role of skills training and technology learning (Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Miah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, relatively less discussion has focused on how linguistic capital operates in manufacturing organisations and how it determines whether workers are excluded from or included in a technological transformation system. Bourdieu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) proposed that linguistic capital, as a form of symbolic capital, may create exclusion and inequality through implicit workplace mechanisms, but this perspective has not been fully explored with regard to Industry 4.0 research. Especially in a multilingual and multi-ethnic country like Malaysia, the ways that inequalities in language capabilities are intertwined in the labour hierarchy, digital production and wage distribution processes is an overlooked theoretical intersection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the role of language in determining non-mandatory work assignments (such as overtime arrangements) has been an under-explored dimension in labour economics and sociolinguistics research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, although existing research recognises the influence of language capability on labour market outcomes (Chiswick \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), few studies have applied this framework to the digital context of manufacturing, with a particular focus on the organisational experiences and structural marginalisation pathways of foreign workers. Therefore, there is an urgent need to combine language capital theory with the issue of labour reproduction in the context of Industry 4.0, expanding the social dimension of the current research on industrial transformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodologically, most studies involving Industry 4.0 adopt quantitative methods such as surveys and economic modelling, focusing on analysing technology adoption strategies and return on investment at the enterprise level. Although some studies address the issue of workforce training, they mostly start from the perspective of enterprises and lack micro-level examinations of the subjective experiences, language challenges, and informal adaptation strategies of foreign workers. Much of the existing literature on language capabilities utilises measures like language tests or self-assessment scales, ignoring how languages are \u0026ldquo;used\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;excluded\u0026rdquo; in the workplace and how they create \u0026ldquo;hidden barriers\u0026rdquo; through organisational systems. Especially in a cross-cultural work environment, language exclusion is not just a matter of skills but also a complex interaction of power, communication, cultural capital and institutional arrangements. Although survey-based methods can provide useful macro-level insights, quantitative research often fails to capture the qualitative richness of how language barriers are experienced, addressed and institutionalised in everyday workplace interactions. To understand these deep structures, qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews, participatory observation or linguistic narrative analysis must be used.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the linguistic adaptation of low-skilled foreign workers in the manufacturing industry in developing countries has been under-researched, and there is a lack of qualitative research designs based on the theory of linguistic capital. Therefore, this study attempted to bridge the current research gaps at the micro level and the subjective experience level from the perspective of workers by using qualitative interviews.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA qualitative research methodology was adopted through a semi-structured interview protocol (Appendix A). To ensure the validity and reliability of the protocol, the researchers discussed it with two professionals and one academic expert in employee and human resources systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurposive sampling was used to select respondents from among the low-skilled foreign workers in various manufacturing companies in Malaysia. In this study, the definition of \u0026lsquo;low-skilled workers\u0026rsquo; was based on a combination of the International Labour Organization's (ILO) classification of skill levels (ISCO-08), based on major groups nine and eight, as well as the actual employment characteristics of the Malaysian manufacturing industry. The specific criteria were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest level of education attained by the respondents before starting work was secondary school, and they had not undertaken formal higher education, vocational training or industry certification programmes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents are mainly engaged in physically intensive and highly repetitive positions, such as assembly line workers, packers, warehouse and transport workers, cleaners or support staff. Their jobs do not involve advanced equipment programming, quality control or technical management tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo specific professional qualifications, technical certifications or proof of language capabilities are required for employment; the work does not require complex cognitive operations or advanced language capabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the local statutory minimum wage; the individual has long been at the bottom of the company's salary structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the above criteria, interviews were held with a total of 90 Bangladeshi low-skilled workers employed in the manufacturing industry in Malaysia. They were mainly engaged in factory operations, assembly, packaging or other similar positions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviews were conducted in English or the subject\u0026rsquo;s native language, with the assistance of an interpreter to ensure that the interviewees could express themselves freely in a comfortable language environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the interviews were recorded with the interviewees\u0026lsquo; consent and transcribed verbatim after the interview. To protect the interviewees\u0026rsquo; privacy, all identifying information was anonymised.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn qualitative research, data saturation is an important concept for assessing whether the sample size is sufficient and the analysis results are solid. Interviews were conducted with a total of 76 foreign low-skilled workers employed in the manufacturing industry in Malaysia. The sample size was set based on the principle of information sufficiency, which refers to the point in the data collection process when no new information or themes are provided by new interviews, observations or document analysis (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter collecting the raw data through semi-structured interviews, the researchers adopted Gioia\u0026rsquo;s methodology to understand the influence of linguistic capital on overtime pay for low-skilled workers (Gioia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, a four-stage research design was used, which was adopted from Gopaldas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Kawamoto et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Further, Gioia\u0026rsquo;s methodology was chosen to develop a primary protocol for the influence of linguistic capability on overtime payment for low-skilled workers, along with open, axial and selective coding (Corbin \u0026amp; Strauss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The development of concepts resulted in nine items under three main themes. The propositions were developed based on discussions of all the cases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Trustworthiness and Ethical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA preliminary interpretation of the interviews and a summary of the identified themes were shared with the participants for their feedback and approval. To ensure the reliability of the findings, the results and final themes were also reviewed by peer reviewers, experts and core researchers familiar with the study. To minimise potential bias from the researcher conducting the interviews, the data were coded and analysed by other authors, not the first author (Shufutinsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the participants' personal information would remain confidential in line with their requests for anonymity, security and privacy. Furthermore, this study was approved by International University of Business Agriculture and Technology (IUBAT) for research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Triangulation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further enhance the universality of the research, a triangulation method was used to verify the clear understanding of the relationship between the theme and sub-themes. Therefore, relevant research literature and expert opinions were integrated alongside the semi-structured interview outline. The selection was based on two criteria: (1) Each article must be included in SCOPUS or Web of Science (WOS) and (ii) the expert must have at least 10 years of professional experience in the field of human resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the research findings, four propositions were made to construct the framework, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the triangulation verification method adopted in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTriangulation Method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch Article\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubthemes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain Themes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding communication requires knowledge, understanding, information, meaning and perception (Varey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponding\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDependence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunication\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow-skilled workers' participation in training and task flexibility helps improve their internal employability within the enterprise, but it does not help improve their external employability (Sanders \u0026amp; de Grip, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraining\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpportunity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn inter-organisational relationships, trust based on capability is 10 times more effective than trust based on ability in reducing management costs. This is a key factor in improving the efficiency of inter-organisational relationships (Connelly et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReliability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe following section describes the results of the analysis, whereby low-skilled foreign workers in Malaysia answered questions about how their language capabilities influence their employment opportunities and wages (Gioia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The list of themes included (i) communication, (ii) opportunities and (iii) trust. These themes were elaborated on to explain how linguistic capital could influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Communication\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn manufacturing, overtime pay is an important source of additional income for low-skilled workers. However, overtime assignments often involve temporary scheduling, rapid responses and limited supervisory resources. Therefore, organisations tend to prioritise workers with low communication costs and high execution efficiency when assigning overtime. Language capability has become a key factor influencing overtime availability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage capabilities improve the task comprehension and response speed of workers, enabling them to complete overtime tasks independently without relying on translation or supervision. This communication efficiency translates into a higher willingness to schedule overtime at the organisational level, reflecting the functional role of linguistic capital in actual production arrangements (Lindhout et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Tenzer \u0026amp; Pudelko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, language barriers significantly reduce task fit while increasing accident risks and coordination costs, thereby excluding those with low language capabilities from overtime arrangements (Selten \u0026amp; Warglien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, linguistic capital not only influences whether overtime work can be completed but also determines whether one is perceived as capable of undertaking such work. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays quotes and codes related to the theme of communication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes and codes identified under communication\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelective Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAxial Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpen Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviewee Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunication\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI was able to follow what the supervisor was asking us to do and I was able to have a brief work briefing with them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: Follow job description\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the supervisor has explained the work content, I can complete it quickly without waiting for a translation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: Quickly start to work\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDependence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the supervisor has completed the work assignment, I can complete the task independently without them having to translate the work content again.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: Work independently\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Opportunity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLanguage capabilities are not only reflected at the execution level but also embedded in the organisational structure for allocating overtime and skilled overtime opportunities. Linguistic capital manifests itself here as an informal qualification filter (Dustmann \u0026amp; Fabbri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). That is, although the organisation does not openly set language requirements, in practice, language capabilities have become a key factor in determining who is eligible to participate in high-yield tasks. This is consistent with the mechanism pointed out by (Presbitero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) that \u0026lsquo;language capabilities increase participation in additional responsibilities and compensation opportunities.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, Rozhkova and Roshchin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that even among groups with similar skill levels, language capabilities can entail a 9\u0026ndash;11% wage premium. This difference derives from not only basic wages but also differences in the distribution of overtime and informal incentive systems. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e displays related quotes and codes on the theme of opportunity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes and codes identified under opportunity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelective Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAxial Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpen Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviewee Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpportunity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce there is an urgent task, my supervisor asks me to work extra hours and pays me more overtime than others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: Urgent task\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNew machines have arrived at the factory, and my supervisor has asked me and the Indonesian workers to stay after work to learn how to use them, promising to pay us overtime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: Learning manual operation for new machines\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvery time there is overtime work, my supervisor asks me to join because I can understand basic Malay and English.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: More chances to work overtime\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Trust\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorkers with language capabilities often obtain higher levels of responsibility, such as team coordination or on-site organisational roles during overtime. This empowerment reflects the organisation's structural trust assessment mechanism for language capabilities. That is, such capabilities have become a signal for identifying the manageability and eligibility of workers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis trust is not only based on actual language capabilities but also stems from their positive spillover effects on the stability of organisational operations. According to Connelly et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), competence-based trust has a higher efficiency value than character-based trust in task-intensive fields. Linguistic capital has a dual meaning here: on the one hand, it improves task delivery efficiency, and on the other hand, it strengthens the organisation's positive perception of individuals, thereby indirectly allowing income growth and internal rank advancement to be achieved (Bourdieu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays related quotes and codes on the theme of trust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes and codes identified under trust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelective Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAxial Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpen Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviewee Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReliability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy supervisor highly recognises my language ability, so every time I work overtime, he assigns me to be the team leader for the Bangladeshi workers and gives me extra pay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOpen Code: Recognition of language ability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Development of propositions and frameworks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a multilingual manufacturing environment, overtime tasks are often characterised by tight deadlines, their ad hoc nature and insufficient supervisory resources. When arranging overtime, organisations tend to select workers who can quickly understand the work content and complete tasks independently. Staff with language capabilities need not rely on translation or additional explanations, and they are more likely to be identified as quickly deployable human resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis task execution efficiency becomes a practical manifestation of linguistic capital, playing a decisive role in scheduling decisions. As Tenzer and Pudelko (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) pointed out, language barriers weaken team cognitive consistency and increase misunderstandings and conflicts, thus affecting collaborative performance. Lindhout et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) further noted that language barriers not only affect efficiency but also increase safety risks, making organisations more inclined to choose employees with strong language capabilities for overtime arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eP1: Low-skilled workers with high linguistic capital are more likely to be selected for overtime work due to their stronger task comprehension, response efficiency and lower supervision costs.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough a company might not stipulate language capability thresholds in its written regulations, in practice, supervisors give priority to employees with stronger language capabilities when assigning overtime work, especially in situations involving technical learning, equipment operation or rapid response tasks. This selection logic reflects an informal opportunity threshold that gives linguistic capital an opportunity allocation function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDustmann and Fabbri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) found that for every higher level of language proficiency gained by migrant workers, their average wages increased by 7\u0026ndash;10%; part of this difference came from frequent participation in overtime and temporary tasks. Presbitero (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) also emphasised that language capabilities increase the likelihood of employees assuming additional responsibilities and receiving rewarding tasks. In addition, in their study in Russia, Rozhkova and Roshchin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that even with consistent skill levels, language capabilities significantly influence opportunities to participate in technical work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eP2: As a non-institutionalised but structurally embedded screening mechanism, linguistic capital significantly increases low-skilled workers' chances of getting high-paying overtime work and training for skilled overtime work.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvertime work is not only physically demanding but often involves on-site coordination, team organisation and cross-language communication. In such situations, supervisors tend to assign organisational roles to workers with language communication skills. Language capability thus becomes a key basis for establishing competence-based trust. It also significantly influences whether workers receive additional leadership responsibilities and financial rewards for overtime work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConnelly et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) distinguished between competence-based and character-based trust, pointing out that the former is particularly critical in task-intensive, time-sensitive environments. In their study of international companies, Tenzer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) found that language capabilities are a decisive factor influencing team trust and role division. Bourdieu's (1991) theory of linguistic capital further posits that language capability is not only a technical tool but also an important resource for organisational stratification and the reconstruction of symbolic values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eP3: Linguistic capital enhances managers\u0026lsquo; trust in workers\u0026rsquo; abilities, thereby increasing their chances of being assigned high-responsibility overtime work and receiving additional financial rewards.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this research, three propositions were established to develop a framework, which is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion and Implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eLanguage capabilities have a highly structural significance in multilingual workplaces. They are no longer merely a communication tool; they are deeply involved in the organisational logic of task allocation, role empowerment and informal income distribution (Tenzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bourdieu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). In workshop environments lacking formal norms and institutional safeguards, linguistic capital gradually transforms into a key resource that influences overtime availability, role assignability and trustworthiness (Connelly et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Its function is reflected not only in operational efficiency gains but also the profound shaping of opportunity accessibility and role value (Dustmann \u0026amp; Fabbri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs an important channel for low-skilled workers to improve their economic resilience, overtime pay is subject to systematic influences from language capabilities and shows a trend of structural differentiation (Rozhkova \u0026amp; Roshchin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, those with strong language capabilities are more likely to secure urgent tasks, skilled tasks, and roles that require organisational trust, thereby enabling such staff to obtain more frequent and remunerative overtime income (Presbitero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This informal but institutionalised distribution mechanism has not been fully explained in the existing literature on labour markets and organisational behaviour. In particular, language capabilities have evolved into a form of real power in developing economies, multilingual labour contexts and industries where flexible working hours are prevalent (Chiswick \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Kar et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe revelation of this mechanism helps expand the functional boundaries of linguistic capital in organisational structures. It also provides a more explanatory perspective for understanding income opportunity differences among low-skilled migrant workers in informal labour fields (Bourdieu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Ooi et al., 2023). The following section systematically explores the mechanism of the role of linguistic capital on the path to overtime pay from the perspectives of theoretical contributions and practical implications. Moreover, feasible management and policy responses are proposed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1. Implications for Theory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study reveals how linguistic capital profoundly influences low-skilled workers' access to overtime opportunities and informal remuneration within informal institutional arrangements in organisations. This mechanism is not only related to the efficiency of communication within organisations but also manifests itself as a socially embedded selection logic that transforms language capabilities into task qualifications, trust signals and structural opportunity thresholds (Bourdieu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Tenzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In workplaces where institutional rules are lacking or vague, linguistic capital becomes an important basis on which organisations assign tasks and allocate trust, which in turn influences the actual income levels and career mobility of low-skilled workers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, the study emphasises how linguistic capital is actually used by organisations as an informal screening criterion in the allocation of overtime tasks, which forms an informal but effective stratification mechanism for low-skilled workers. Since most factories have no transparent selection systems for overtime arrangements, in order to reduce communication costs and risk expectations, supervisors often use language capabilities to judge which of their staff can quickly understand urgent tasks, who is easier to communicate with and who is more controllable (Lindhout et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Presbitero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This allows workers with strong language capabilities to obtain high-value overtime opportunities more frequently, while those with weak language capabilities face a structural dilemma of passive waiting and marginalisation (Rozhkova \u0026amp; Roshchin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the embedding of linguistic capital into organisational trust mechanisms constructs a perception logic of symbolic capability. Managers often establish a direct link between language capability, work reliability, task comprehension and even a sense of responsibility, so they are more inclined to assign workers with strong language capabilities to coordinate tasks or lead teams in overtime scenarios (Connelly et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These informal roles usually entail additional compensation, indirectly promoting the accumulation of income and prestige inequality. For low-skilled workers, language capabilities are not only a tool for survival but also form an identity label in the organisational hierarchy, influencing their eligibility to become trusted individuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the study deepens the understanding of the access to opportunity mechanism in the labour field. Traditional studies often attribute differences in overtime pay for low-skilled workers to their experience, job type or contract type (Chiswick \u0026amp; Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). However, this study points out that even among workers in the same section and with the same job, language capabilities can significantly influence whether or not they are assigned to high-intensity overtime shifts. This differential allocation mechanism is based on language performance rather than formal assessment, constituting a soft exclusion logic and manifesting as non-institutionalised yet highly systematic marginalisation (Dustmann \u0026amp; Fabbri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, linguistic capital not only affects the communication effectiveness of low-skilled workers but also systematically influences their task visibility, role eligibility and trustworthiness within the organisation. This perspective has promoted the shift of linguistic capital research from cultural sociology to labour sociology, and it provides a new theoretical framework for explaining the inequality of opportunities for low-skilled workers in informal income systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2. Implications for Practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study found that linguistic capital has become an important screening mechanism that determines whether low-skilled workers can access high-paying overtime work. This has key practical implications for front-line managers and human resource managers in non-technical manufacturing companies. Especially in the absence of a formal scheduling system, striking a balance between efficiency and fairness has become an important issue for the sustainable operation of organisations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe institutional role of language capability in scheduling logic reveals that the allocation of overtime opportunities in manufacturing enterprises is not entirely neutral. When faced with a multilingual workforce, organisational managers often tend to prioritise workers with stronger language capabilities for high-value overtime tasks in order to reduce communication barriers and improve task execution efficiency. However, this implicit screening criterion may inadvertently create a language monopoly that excludes linguistically disadvantaged workers from high-return tasks, resulting in informal but systematic inequality (Tenzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). To establish a more inclusive on-site management system, companies should implement transparent scheduling mechanisms, such as rotating overtime assignment systems, language-coordinated task design and training for schedulers to identify language biases. These interventions would not only enhance overall organisational efficiency but also strengthen employee identification and loyalty in a diverse workforce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe existing research generally neglects the role of linguistic capital in overtime tasks and informal income distribution in non-technical organisations. In particular, there is a lack of systematic theoretical exploration of and empirical research on how language capabilities, firstly, are embedded in scheduling processes and, secondly, influence organisational trust building and role authorisation, especially in low-skilled labour markets. Focusing on this theoretical blind spot, this study used qualitative research combined with linguistic capital theory to reveal how language capabilities have become a key variable influencing workers' access to overtime opportunities in actual operations, further shaping the income disparity structure among workers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, linguistic capital is closely related to the formation of competence-based trust within organisations. Workers with strong language capabilities are often assigned informal roles such as coordinators and team leaders. Although not formally appointed, these positions entail more opportunities to engage in high-value tasks. Therefore, overtime pay is not only compensation for time but also reflects the organisation's recognition of an individual's symbolic competence. Language is the core medium in the process of constructing this competence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe core contribution of this study lies in expanding the boundaries of the application of linguistic capital theory to organisational behaviour and revealing its role in informal income distribution. Meanwhile, it also promotes organisational research to focus on the synergistic operation of language capabilities in informal work mechanisms, providing a new analytical dimension for understanding structural inequality in the labour field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by International University of Business Agriculture and Technology (IUBAT). The reference number is 2025/IUBAT/005.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no internal or external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants have been informed of the purpose of the study and have provided written consent to publish the results without any personal identifying information.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYongyu Lu: Conceptualization， Methodology， Data collection and validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, Writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, and Project supervision;Suchana Das: Conceptualization， Methodology， Data collection and validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, Writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, and Project supervision;Liang Zuo: Conceptualization, Data curation;Md. Nur-E-Alam Siddque: Writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, and Project supervision.Author 1 and 2 contributed to this paper equally.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Availability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdul-Rahman, H., Wang, C., Wood, L. C., \u0026amp; Low, S. F. (2012). Negative impact induced by foreign workers: Evidence in Malaysian construction sector. \u003cem\u003eHabitat International\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e(4), 433\u0026ndash;443. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.03.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.03.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad Tajuddin, A. J. (2015). \u003cem\u003eA Malaysian Professional Communication Skills in English Framework for English for Occupational Purposes Courses\u003c/em\u003e [University of Nottingham, Malaysia]. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/28747/1/AJAT\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/28747/1/AJAT\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 2015.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBleakley, H., \u0026amp; Chin, A. (2004). Language Skills and Earnings: Evidence from Childhood Immigrants. \u003cem\u003eReview of Economics and Statistics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e86\u003c/em\u003e(2), 481\u0026ndash;496. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031067\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1162/003465304323031067\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBourdieu, P. (1991). \u003cem\u003eLanguage and Symbolic Power\u003c/em\u003e. Cambridge: Polity Press.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBoyd, M., \u0026amp; Cao, X. (2009). Immigrant Language Proficiency, Earnings, and Language Policies. \u003cem\u003eCanadian Studies in Population\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e(1\u0026ndash;2), 63. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.25336/P6NP62\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.25336/P6NP62\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarliner, G. (1981). Wage Differences by Language Group and the Market for Language Skills in Canada. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Human Resources\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(3), 384. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2307/145627\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2307/145627\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen, S., Geluykens, R., \u0026amp; Choi, C. J. (2006). The importance of language in global teams: A linguistic perspective. \u003cem\u003eManagement International Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e46\u003c/em\u003e(6), 679\u0026ndash;696. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-006-0122-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11575-006-0122-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChiswick, B. R., \u0026amp; Miller, P. W. (1995). The Endogeneity between Language and Earnings: International Analyses. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Labor Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(2), 246\u0026ndash;288. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1086/298374\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1086/298374\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChurkina, O., Nazareno, L., \u0026amp; Zullo, M. (2023). The labor market outcomes of bilinguals in the United States: Accumulation and returns effects. \u003cem\u003ePLOS ONE\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(6), e0287711. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287711\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0287711\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eConnelly, B. L., Crook, T. R., Combs, J. G., Ketchen, D. J., \u0026amp; Aguinis, H. (2018). Competence- and Integrity-Based Trust in Interorganizational Relationships: Which Matters More? \u003cem\u003eJournal of Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e(3), 919\u0026ndash;945. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315596813\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0149206315596813\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCorbin, J., \u0026amp; Strauss, A. (2012). Basics of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.): Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. In \u003cem\u003eBasics of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.): Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory\u003c/em\u003e. SAGE Publications, Inc. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4135/9781452230153\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4135/9781452230153\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDannecker, P. (2013). Rationalities and Images Underlying Labour Migration from Bangladesh to Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eInternational Migration\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e51\u003c/em\u003e(1), 40\u0026ndash;60. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00547.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00547.x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDevadason, E. S. (2021). Foreign Labour Policy and Employment in Manufacturing: The Case of Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Contemporary Asia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e51\u003c/em\u003e(3), 398\u0026ndash;418. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2020.1759675\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/00472336.2020.1759675\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDustmann, C., \u0026amp; Fabbri, F. (2003). Language Proficiency and Labour Market Performance of Immigrants in the UK. \u003cem\u003eThe Economic Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e113\u003c/em\u003e(489), 695\u0026ndash;717. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.t01-1-00151\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/1468-0297.t01-1-00151\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFahmy, S., Deraman, A., Puteh, M., Nasir, A., Roslina, W., \u0026amp; Haslinda, N. (2022). An Analysis of Digital Talent in Academic Publications Reflection on Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s Digital Transformation Strategies. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Integrated Engineering\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(3). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.30880/ijie.2022.14.03.020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.30880/ijie.2022.14.03.020\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., \u0026amp; Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research. \u003cem\u003eOrganizational Research Methods\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(1), 15\u0026ndash;31. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/1094428112452151\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/1094428112452151\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGopaldas, A. (2016). A front-to-back guide to writing a qualitative research article. \u003cem\u003eQualitative Market Research: An International Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(1), 115\u0026ndash;121. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-08-2015-0074\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1108/QMR-08-2015-0074\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGurowitz, A. (2000). Migrant Rights and Activism in Malaysia: Opportunities and Constraints. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Asian Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e59\u003c/em\u003e(4), 863\u0026ndash;888. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2307/2659215\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2307/2659215\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuven, C., \u0026amp; Islam, A. (2015). Age at Migration, Language Proficiency, and Socioeconomic Outcomes: Evidence From Australia. \u003cem\u003eDemography\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e52\u003c/em\u003e(2), 513\u0026ndash;542. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0373-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13524-015-0373-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHahm, S., \u0026amp; Gazzola, M. (2022). The Value of Foreign Language Skills in the German Labor Market. \u003cem\u003eLabour Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e76\u003c/em\u003e, 102150. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102150\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102150\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHussain, R., Sabir, A., Lee, D.-Y., Zaidi, S. F. A., Pedro, A., Abbas, M. S., \u0026amp; Park, C. (2024). Conversational AI-based VR system to improve construction safety training of migrant workers. \u003cem\u003eAutomation in Construction\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e160\u003c/em\u003e, 105315. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105315\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105315\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIdris, A. A. M., \u0026amp; Ismail, I. N. (2023). Request modifications by Malay speakers of English in the workplace: A contrastive pragmatic analysis. \u003cem\u003eStudies in English Language and Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(2), 981\u0026ndash;999. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v10i2.26464\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24815/siele.v10i2.26464\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIngels, J., \u0026amp; Maenhout, B. (2018). The impact of overtime as a time-based proactive scheduling and reactive allocation strategy on the robustness of a personnel shift roster. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Scheduling\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(2), 143\u0026ndash;165. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10951-017-0512-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10951-017-0512-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKarim, A. Z., Abdullah, M. A., \u0026amp; Haji Bakar, M. I. (1999). \u003cem\u003eForeign Workers in Malaysia: Issues and Implications\u003c/em\u003e (1st Editio). Utusan Publications and Distributors.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKawamoto, M., Koizumi, M., \u0026amp; Yoshikane, F. (2023). Proposal of a Qualitative Content Analysis Process for a Solo Researcher. \u003cem\u003eLibri\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e73\u003c/em\u003e(2), 139\u0026ndash;152. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1515/libri-2022-0068\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1515/libri-2022-0068\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLesho, M. (2018). Philippine English (Metro Manila acrolect). \u003cem\u003eJournal of the International Phonetic Association\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e48\u003c/em\u003e(3), 357\u0026ndash;370. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100317000548\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0025100317000548\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, L. (2024). Reskilling and Upskilling the Future-ready Workforce for Industry 4.0 and Beyond. \u003cem\u003eInformation Systems Frontiers\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1697\u0026ndash;1712. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-022-10308-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10796-022-10308-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLindhout, P., Kingston-Howlett, J. C., \u0026amp; Reniers, G. (2019). Learning from language problem related accident information in the process industry: A literature study. \u003cem\u003eProcess Safety and Environmental Protection\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e130\u003c/em\u003e, 140\u0026ndash;152. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2019.06.017\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.psep.2019.06.017\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiwiński, J. (2019). The wage premium from foreign language skills. \u003cem\u003eEmpirica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e46\u003c/em\u003e(4), 691\u0026ndash;711. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-019-09459-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10663-019-09459-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eL\u0026oslash;nsmann, D., \u0026amp; Kraft, K. (2018). Language policy and practice in multilingual production workplaces. \u003cem\u003eMultilingua\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e37\u003c/em\u003e(4), 403\u0026ndash;427. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2017-0088\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1515/multi-2017-0088\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLu, Y., Jian, M., Muhamad, N. S., \u0026amp; Hizam-Hanafiah, M. (2024). Data saturation in qualitative research: A literature review in entrepreneurship study from 2004\u0026ndash;2024. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(12), 9753. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i12.9753\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.24294/jipd.v8i12.9753\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMerriam, S., \u0026amp; Tisdell, E. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. In S. Merriam \u0026amp; E. Tisdell (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eThe JosseyBass higher and adult education series\u003c/em\u003e (4th Editio, Vol. 2nd). Wiley. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1097/NCI.0b013e3181edd9b1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1097/NCI.0b013e3181edd9b1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMiah, M. T., Erdei-Gally, S., Dancs, A., \u0026amp; Fekete-Farkas, M. (2024). A Systematic Review of Industry 4.0 Technology on Workforce Employability and Skills: Driving Success Factors and Challenges in South Asia. \u003cem\u003eEconomies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(2), 35. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/economies12020035\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/economies12020035\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNair-Venugopal, S. (2000). English, identity and the Malaysian workplace. \u003cem\u003eWorld Englishes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(2), 205\u0026ndash;213. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/1467-971X.00169\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/1467-971X.00169\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePeters, D., Omar, M. A., Dollah, R., \u0026amp; Wan Hassan, W. S. (2022). Undocumented Workers during Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s Movement Control Order (MCO). \u003cem\u003eMIGRATION LETTERS\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(2), 107\u0026ndash;121. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v19i2.1280\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.33182/ml.v19i2.1280\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePowell, R. (2020). \u003cem\u003eConceptualising and Contextualising Malaysian Bilingual Law\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 1\u0026ndash;23). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1173-8_1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-981-15-1173-8_1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePresbitero, A. (2020). Foreign language skill, anxiety, cultural intelligence and individual task performance in global virtual teams: A cognitive perspective. \u003cem\u003eJournal of International Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(2), 100729. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2019.100729\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.intman.2019.100729\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRaj-Reichert, G. (2020). Global Value Chains, Contract Manufacturers, and the Middle-Income Trap: The Electronics Industry in Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Development Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e56\u003c/em\u003e(4), 698\u0026ndash;716. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2019.1595599\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/00220388.2019.1595599\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRasiah, R., Crinis, V., \u0026amp; Lee, H.-A. (2015). Industrialization and labour in Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eJournal of the Asia Pacific Economy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e(1), 77\u0026ndash;99. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2014.974327\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/13547860.2014.974327\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRidala, S. (2020). Language skills and labour market returns. \u003cem\u003eLanguage Problems and Language Planning\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e(2), 200\u0026ndash;241. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.20012.rid\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1075/lplp.20012.rid\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRozhkova, K. V., \u0026amp; Roshchin, S. Y. (2019). Does knowing foreign language pay off in the Russian labor market? \u003cem\u003eVoprosy Ekonomiki\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e, 122\u0026ndash;141. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2019-6-122-141\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.32609/0042-8736-2019-6-122-141\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSanders, J., \u0026amp; de Grip, A. (2004). Training, task flexibility and the employability of low-skilled workers. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Manpower\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e(1), 73\u0026ndash;89. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1108/01437720410525009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1108/01437720410525009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchwab, K. (2016). \u003cem\u003eThe Fourth Industrial Revolution\u003c/em\u003e. World Economic Forum.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSelten, R., \u0026amp; Warglien, M. (2007). The emergence of simple languages in an experimental coordination game. \u003cem\u003eProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e104\u003c/em\u003e(18), 7361\u0026ndash;7366. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702077104\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1073/pnas.0702077104\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShufutinsky, A. (2020). Employing use of self for transparency, rigor, trustworthiness, and credibility in qualitative organizational research methods. \u003cem\u003eOrganization Development Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e52\u003c/em\u003e(1), 50\u0026ndash;58.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSME CORPORATION MALAYSIA. (2021). \u003cem\u003eTINJAUAN PMKS MSME INSIGHTS 2021\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://smecorp.gov.my/images/Publication/MSME_Insights/SME_Insight_2021_1_English_Full_Version.pdf# :~:text=Micro%252C%2520\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://smecorp.gov.my/images/Publication/MSME_Insights/SME_Insight_2021_1_English_Full_Version.pdf#:~: text=Micro%252C%2520\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003esmall%2520and% 2520medium%2520enterprises%2520(MSMEs)%2520are,Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s% 2520strong%2520and%2520sustainable%2520post%252DCOVID%252D19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSoderberg, C. D., \u0026amp; Olson, K. S. (2008). Indonesian. \u003cem\u003eJournal of the International Phonetic Association\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e38\u003c/em\u003e(2), 209\u0026ndash;213. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100308003320\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0025100308003320\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSung-Yul Park, J., \u0026amp; Wee, L. (2013). \u003cem\u003eMarkets of English: Linguistic Capital and Language Policy in a Globalizing World\u003c/em\u003e. Routledge. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4324/9780203120323\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4324/9780203120323\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSzab\u0026oacute;-Szentgr\u0026oacute;ti, G., V\u0026eacute;gv\u0026aacute;ri, B., \u0026amp; Varga, J. (2021). Impact of Industry 4.0 and Digitization on Labor Market for 2030-Verification of Keynes\u0026rsquo; Prediction. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(14), 7703. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/su13147703\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/su13147703\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTenzer, H., \u0026amp; Pudelko, M. (2012). The Impact of Language Barriers on Shared Mental Models in Multinational Teams. \u003cem\u003eAcademy of Management Proceedings\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2012\u003c/em\u003e(1), 13612. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2012.44\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5465/AMBPP.2012.44\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTenzer, H., Pudelko, M., \u0026amp; Harzing, A.-W. (2014). The impact of language barriers on trust formation in multinational teams. \u003cem\u003eJournal of International Business Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e(5), 508\u0026ndash;535. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2013.64\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1057/jibs.2013.64\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTenzer, H., Pudelko, M., \u0026amp; Zellmer-Bruhn, M. (2021). The impact of language barriers on knowledge processing in multinational teams. \u003cem\u003eJournal of World Business\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e56\u003c/em\u003e(2), 101184. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2020.101184\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jwb.2020.101184\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUbalde, J., \u0026amp; Heyman, J. (2021). Is there a bilingual advantage? the effects of non-English language skills on occupational attainment among immigrants and natives. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of the Sociology of Language\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2021\u003c/em\u003e(270), 19\u0026ndash;38. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2020-0014\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1515/ijsl-2020-0014\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarey, R. J. (2000). A critical review of conceptions of communication evident in contemporary business and management literature. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Communication Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(4), 328\u0026ndash;340. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1108/eb023530\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1108/eb023530\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVeruscka Leso, Luca Fontana, \u0026amp; Ivo Iavicoli. (2018). The occupational health and safety dimension of Industry 4.0. \u003cem\u003eLa Medicina Del Lavoro\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e110\u003c/em\u003e(5), 327\u0026ndash;338. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.23749/mdl.v110i5.7282\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.23749/mdl.v110i5.7282\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWah Kam, H. (2003). International Communication: English Language Challenges for Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eAsian Englishes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(1), 80\u0026ndash;85. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2003.10801109\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/13488678.2003.10801109\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYong, J. Y., Yusliza, M., Ramayah, T., Chiappetta Jabbour, C. J., Sehnem, S., \u0026amp; Mani, V. (2020). Pathways towards sustainability in manufacturing organizations: Empirical evidence on the role of green human resource management. \u003cem\u003eBusiness Strategy and the Environment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e29\u003c/em\u003e(1), 212\u0026ndash;228. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2359\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/bse.2359\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYusof, Z. A. (2003). Malaysia\u0026rsquo;s Response to the China Challenge. \u003cem\u003eAsian Economic Papers\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e(2), 46\u0026ndash;73. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1162/153535103772624790\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1162/153535103772624790\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Low-skilled workforce, foreign labour, language proficiency, income, qualitative research","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6877950/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6877950/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, based on Bourdieu's linguistic capital theory, Gioia's method was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with 76 Bangladeshi low-skilled workers in Malaysia to explore how language capabilities influence their overtime pay. The results reveal that language capabilities constitute informal thresholds for overtime allocation through three mechanisms: communication efficiency, opportunity screening and trust in capabilities. In theoretical terms, this study extends the applicability of linguistic capital to organisational behaviour in Industry 4.0. Methodologically, qualitative research was used to compensate for the limitations of the current overreliance on quantitative models. Its practical application is a call for enterprises to establish more equitable and linguistically inclusive management mechanisms to reduce structural income inequality.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"How could linguistic capital influence the overtime pay of low-skilled workers – A qualitative study of Bangladeshi workers","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-25 09:36:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6877950/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"850c619d-a8f7-4597-88a5-f284b0eeea26","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-09T08:23:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-25 09:36:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6877950","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6877950","identity":"rs-6877950","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}