Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students

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Using a cross-national design, the analysis combines non-parametric statistical techniques, correlation and regression models, and visual analytics through raincloud plots. Although numerous emotional, cognitive, and contextual profile variables were measured, this report focuses on those that showed significant cross-country differences or emerged as relevant predictors of entrepreneurial intention and action. Entrepreneurial attitude, self-efficacy, entrepreneurial action in the discovery phase, university training, and empathy were identified as significant predictors of entrepreneurial intention. Self-awareness, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial attitude explained the discovery phase, whereas financial knowledge, emotional well-being, flow at work, self-efficacy, and low cognitive load were determinants of the exploitation phase. The findings highlight the importance of adaptive entrepreneurship curricula that integrate emotional competencies, stage-specific training pathways, and institutional support strategies." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935", "name": "Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual..." } } ] } Home Browse Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Alba M, Cendales B, Garzón Umerenkova A et al. Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.3 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Revised Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] Marisleidy Alba https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6935-6097 1 , Boris Cendales 2 , Angélica Garzón Umerenkova 3 , Juan Carlos Espinosa 4 , Janitza Ariza Salazar 5 Marisleidy Alba https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6935-6097 1 , Boris Cendales 2 , [...] Angélica Garzón Umerenkova 3 , Juan Carlos Espinosa 4 , Janitza Ariza Salazar 5 PUBLISHED 14 Feb 2026 Author details Author details 1 Fundacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 2 Universidad El Bosque, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 3 Fundacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 4 Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 5 Fundacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia Marisleidy Alba Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Boris Cendales Roles: Data Curation, Methodology, Validation Angélica Garzón Umerenkova Roles: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology Juan Carlos Espinosa Roles: Methodology, Supervision, Validation Janitza Ariza Salazar Roles: Resources, Supervision, Validation OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract This study aims to examine how psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors are associated with entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial action distinguishing between discovery and exploitation phases among university students in five Latin American countries. Using a cross-national design, the analysis combines non-parametric statistical techniques, correlation and regression models, and visual analytics through raincloud plots. Although numerous emotional, cognitive, and contextual profile variables were measured, this report focuses on those that showed significant cross-country differences or emerged as relevant predictors of entrepreneurial intention and action. Entrepreneurial attitude, self-efficacy, entrepreneurial action in the discovery phase, university training, and empathy were identified as significant predictors of entrepreneurial intention. Self-awareness, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial attitude explained the discovery phase, whereas financial knowledge, emotional well-being, flow at work, self-efficacy, and low cognitive load were determinants of the exploitation phase. The findings highlight the importance of adaptive entrepreneurship curricula that integrate emotional competencies, stage-specific training pathways, and institutional support strategies. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Adaptive curriculum, Cognitive load, Emotional competencies, Entrepreneurial action phases, Entrepreneurial intention, Financial knowledge, Entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Corresponding Author(s) Marisleidy Alba ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Marisleidy Alba Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: This research was carried out with the support of the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP). The Article Processing Charge (APC) for this publication was fully funded by ACBSP. The authors gratefully acknowledge this support. ACBSP had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2026 Alba M et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Alba M, Cendales B, Garzón Umerenkova A et al. Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.3 ) First published: 18 Sep 2025, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.1 ) Latest published: 14 Feb 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.3 ) Revised Amendments from Version 2 In this revised version, the manuscript was strengthened in response to the reviewer’s comments, focusing on improving theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance. The Introduction was expanded to explicitly articulate the study’s purpose, identify a key gap in the Latin American transnational entrepreneurship literature, and clearly specify the theoretical and practical contributions of the research. In addition, the research questions were refined to better reflect the analytical scope of the study, including cross-national comparisons and the examination of entrepreneurial intention and the distinct phases of entrepreneurial action.The Theoretical Background was refined through a more explicit description of the relationships among psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables, supported by recent empirical literature, along with a synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. The Abstract was revised to clearly present the study’s objectives, methodological approach, and main findings, distinguishing between entrepreneurial intention and the discovery and exploitation phases of entrepreneurial action, and highlighting the practical relevance of the results for curriculum design and the strengthening of university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Methodological transparency was further enhanced by expanding the Methods/Participants section to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the selection of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, and describe the multinational recruitment process. Although confirmatory techniques such as SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses were suggested, the exploratory and cross-national comparative design of the study was reaffirmed. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational techniques, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were retained, with mediation and moderation identified as directions for future research. Finally, the manuscript now presents clearly separated Results and Discussion sections and includes recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. In this revised version, the manuscript was strengthened in response to the reviewer’s comments, focusing on improving theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance. The Introduction was expanded to explicitly articulate the study’s purpose, identify a key gap in the Latin American transnational entrepreneurship literature, and clearly specify the theoretical and practical contributions of the research. In addition, the research questions were refined to better reflect the analytical scope of the study, including cross-national comparisons and the examination of entrepreneurial intention and the distinct phases of entrepreneurial action.The Theoretical Background was refined through a more explicit description of the relationships among psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables, supported by recent empirical literature, along with a synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. The Abstract was revised to clearly present the study’s objectives, methodological approach, and main findings, distinguishing between entrepreneurial intention and the discovery and exploitation phases of entrepreneurial action, and highlighting the practical relevance of the results for curriculum design and the strengthening of university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Methodological transparency was further enhanced by expanding the Methods/Participants section to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the selection of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, and describe the multinational recruitment process. Although confirmatory techniques such as SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses were suggested, the exploratory and cross-national comparative design of the study was reaffirmed. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational techniques, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were retained, with mediation and moderation identified as directions for future research. Finally, the manuscript now presents clearly separated Results and Discussion sections and includes recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. See the authors' detailed response to the review by Ahmet Maslakçı See the authors' detailed response to the review by Alejandro Valencia-Arias READ REVIEWER RESPONSES Introduction Entrepreneurship in university contexts has emerged as a key factor for economic development, social innovation, and improved employability. Universities are not only institutions for developing technical skills, but also incubators of entrepreneurial capacities that enable students to identify opportunities, manage resources, and develop impactful projects ( Fayolle & Gailly, 2015 ; Lackéus, 2020 ). From a psychological and behavioral perspective, entrepreneurial behavior can be understood through the Theory of Planned Behavior ( Ajzen, 1991 ), which posits that entrepreneurial intention is determined by variables such as attitude toward behavior, perceived control (self-efficacy, locus of control), and perceived social norms. Complementarily, competency-based approaches ( Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019 ) emphasize the role of emotions, self-regulation, and prior experience in shaping entrepreneurial intention and action. This study, conducted with students from business schools accredited by the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP) in five Latin American countries (Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Colombia), analyzes how psychological variables (such as attitude, self-efficacy, emotional competence, emotional well-being), cognitive variables (financial knowledge, cognitive load, flow), and contextual variables (university training, risk perception) relate to entrepreneurial intention and action—both in the discovery and exploitation phases. Based on this framework, the present study seeks to address the following research questions: RQ1. Which psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors are associated with entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial action (discovery and exploitation phases) among business students from ACBSP-accredited universities in Latin America? RQ2. Which of these factors emerge as the strongest predictors of entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial action when analyzed through correlational and regression-based approaches? RQ3. To what extent do significant differences in these variables emerge across countries, reflecting the influence of institutional and cultural contexts on students’ entrepreneurial profiles? RQ4. What implications do these empirical patterns have for curriculum design, university entrepreneurship programs, and the strengthening of entrepreneurial ecosystems in Latin American higher education? To explore these relationships, non-parametric statistical techniques were used, given the ordinal nature of the data and the lack of normality in several evaluated variables. The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to identify significant differences between countries. Spearman’s rank correlation (ρ) was also used, allowing the identification of highly interrelated variables—particularly within the emotional domain—revealing psychological profiles and influence patterns that are key to understanding the entrepreneurial phenomenon in the region. Potential predictors of entrepreneurial intention and action were examined using multiple linear regressions to determine the variables with the most significant explanatory power. Visual techniques such as raincloud plots were incorporated to represent the distribution of the analyzed variables by country, integrating density diagrams, individual scores, and central tendency measures. Overall, the findings of this report aim to provide a comprehensive and comparative perspective on the factors influencing university students’ entrepreneurial behavior in Latin America, to inform the design of more effective institutional strategies to foster entrepreneurship from a contextual, emotional, and cognitive standpoint. In this context, the present study aims to examine how psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors jointly explain entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial action distinguishing between discovery and exploitation phases—among business students from ACBSP accredited universities in five Latin American countries. The study is theoretically grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior and complemented by a competency-based perspective, allowing for an integrated analysis of attitudinal, emotional, cognitive, and institutional determinants of entrepreneurial behavior. By adopting a cross-national comparative approach, this research addresses a relevant gap in the Latin American literature, which has been predominantly characterized by single-country studies and limited integration of emotional and cognitive variables within unified explanatory frameworks. From a theoretical standpoint, the study contributes by empirically linking TPB constructs with emotional competencies, cognitive load, flow, and financial knowledge, offering a more holistic understanding of how entrepreneurial intention translates into action in university contexts. From a practical perspective, the findings provide evidence-based insights for curriculum design, university entrepreneurship programs, and institutional policies, highlighting the need for adaptive training pathways, differentiated support according to entrepreneurial stage, and the management of cognitive and emotional demands in higher education. Theoretical background Over the past fifteen years, research on University Entrepreneurial Behavior (UEB) in Latin America has undergone significant development, driven by regional efforts to promote innovation-based economies and to recognize the role of universities as key agents in cultivating entrepreneurial talent. In this context, the present study analyzes the psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors that influence the entrepreneurial behavior of business students, drawing on regional evidence and theoretical frameworks that explain the determinants of entrepreneurial intention and action. Regarding psychological factors, the literature on UEB in Latin America has been predominantly grounded in Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which highlights the role of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in shaping entrepreneurial intention. Comparative quantitative studies, such as those by López et al. (2021) and López and Álvarez (2019) , based on data from the Global University Entrepreneurial Spirit Students’ Survey (GUESSS), confirm that attitudes toward entrepreneurship and perceived control are robust predictors of entrepreneurial intention across different Latin American contexts. Complementarily, recent research has incorporated competency-based approaches ( Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019 ), recognizing that entrepreneurship education not only influences attitudes but also develops specific competencies—such as innovation, proactivity, leadership, and self-efficacy—that mediate the relationship between educational experiences and entrepreneurial intentions. The competency-based approach proposed by Fernández-Pérez et al. (2019) extends Ajzen’s (1991) cognitive model by including socio-emotional competencies, such as self-awareness, empathy, and social skills. Self-awareness refers to the ability to recognize one’s own emotions and their effects on actions, awareness of strengths and limitations, and having strong confidence in one’s self-worth and abilities. Empathy is the ability to understand others’ feelings and viewpoints, actively take an interest in what they care about, acknowledge the needs of others to progress, and anticipate and recognize the needs of others. Social skills include the ability to use effective means of persuasion, be a good listener, convey a compelling message, negotiate and resolve disagreements, and inspire, lead, and direct change. Although these competencies are not directly related to entrepreneurial intention, they are associated with the cognitive variables of the TPB model, especially attitude toward entrepreneurship and self-efficacy. These results are consistent with previous approaches in Latin America that have included socio-emotional leadership skills and locus of control as antecedents of entrepreneurial intention in university students ( Contreras et al., 2017 ). Subjective well-being is another psychological factor linked to entrepreneurship. High levels of psychological well-being provide individuals with the emotional and mental strength to successfully manage the rigorous demands and stress inherent to entrepreneurship ( Mabhena & Ncube, 2024 ). Moreover, an empirical study found that subjective well-being’s effect on entrepreneurial intent did not show a direct positive effect, but rather that subjective well-being exerts indirect effects mediated by the subjective norm, a key dimension of the TPB model ( Contreras-Barraza et al., 2022 ). Moving on to another point, the cognitive factors namely financial knowledge, cognitive load, and flow. First, financial knowledge is a critical factor for entrepreneurial success and sustainability, as evidenced by the high correlation between its absence and startup failure rates. Understanding basic financial principles—such as cash flow management and profitability analysis—allows entrepreneurs to effectively make informed strategic decisions, optimize resource allocation, and negotiate financing. Recent research, such as the study by Abdallah et al. (2025) on SME performance, highlights that the accessibility of finance moderates the positive impact of financial literacy, meaning that the value of the entrepreneur’s knowledge is maximized when mechanisms for accessing capital are available. Second, cognitive load theory classifies the mental demands on the entrepreneur into three categories: intrinsic load (inherent business complexity), extraneous load (effort wasted on inefficiencies), and Germane load (the productive effort for innovation). Entrepreneurial success depends on minimizing the extraneous load and maximizing the Germane load, thereby ensuring that mental energy is channeled toward the creative solution of core challenges (i.e., intrinsic load) and the development of a sustainable competitive advantage ( Parte et al., 2018 ). Third, the evidence suggests that a state of flow significantly contributes to the entrepreneur’s subjective well-being and productivity ( Bahsri et al., 2023 ). This vital psychological state, characterized by deep absorption and effortless action, directly influences performance and innovation capacity by unlocking higher levels of creativity and sustained productivity. Research further suggests that flow facilitates more effective decision-making and the generation of novel solutions, as the intense focus allows for the synthesis of complex information without cognitive distraction, ultimately translating into superior operational efficiency and creative output ( Patel & Singh, 2024 ). Turning now to the third aspect, institutional and cultural factors have also gained relevance in Latin American scholarship. Studies conducted in countries such as Colombia, Peru, Chile, and Ecuador demonstrate that the perception of an entrepreneurial university environment, characterized by role models, institutional support, and a culture oriented toward innovation, significantly predicts entrepreneurial intentions ( Soria-Barreto et al., 2017 ; Leiva et al., 2021 ). Despite these advances, important gaps remain in the Latin American UEB literature. Although previous research has advanced the understanding of the factors that influence entrepreneurial intention, an important limitation of the existing literature is that most studies are conducted at the local or national level, which restricts the generalizability of their findings ( Romaní et al., 2021 ). This geographical fragmentation limits the ability to compare how psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors operate across different sociocultural environments. Our study addresses this gap by adopting a regional, cross-national perspective involving five Latin American countries, thereby offering greater external validity and enabling comparative insights. Second, there is insufficient integration among psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors: few studies simultaneously model affective traits (e.g., fear of failure), cognitive processes (e.g., entrepreneurial alertness or implementation intentions), and institutional variables (e.g., university climate or national innovation systems). Third, there are notable geographical imbalances, as research tends to concentrate in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, and Chile, while the realities of Central America, the Caribbean, and parts of the Andes remain underrepresented. Finally, there is a weak connection between competency-based approaches and TPB constructs, since few studies explicitly analyze how competencies relate to attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived control within a unified causal framework. In light of these gaps, the present study offers a theoretical and empirical contribution that strengthens the regional understanding of university entrepreneurial behavior. By systematically integrating the psychological, cognitive, and contextual dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior within a model grounded in both the TPB and competency-based approaches, the study proposes a more holistic and causally grounded explanation of how business students develop and sustain their entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, the study situates this analysis within a comparative Latin American perspective, thereby contributing to the consolidation of a regional body of knowledge capable of guiding educational strategies and public policies aimed at promoting entrepreneurship as a driver of sustainable development and social inclusion. Prior empirical research over the last fifteen years provides consistent evidence that entrepreneurial intention and action are shaped by the interaction of psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors rather than by isolated determinants. Studies grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior have repeatedly shown that entrepreneurial attitude and perceived behavioral control (self-efficacy) are robust predictors of entrepreneurial intention among university students across different cultural contexts ( Ajzen, 1991 ; Kautonen et al., 2015 ; López et al., 2021 ). Complementarily, competency-based research has demonstrated that emotional competencies—such as self-awareness, empathy, and self-regulation—are indirectly linked to entrepreneurial intention and more directly associated with entrepreneurial action, particularly in early opportunity discovery stages ( Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019 ; Contreras et al., 2017 ). From a cognitive perspective, financial knowledge, cognitive load, and flow have been shown to influence entrepreneurs’ capacity to transform intentions into action, especially during the exploitation phase, where execution, persistence, and decision-making under uncertainty are required ( Leppink et al., 2013 ; Parte et al., 2018 ; Patel & Singh, 2024 ). Finally, contextual and institutional factors—such as perceived university support and entrepreneurial climate—have been consistently associated with higher entrepreneurial intention and more favorable entrepreneurial profiles in Latin American university settings ( Franke & Lüthje, 2004 ; Leiva et al., 2021 ; Romaní et al., 2021 ). Method Participants The sample for this study consisted of undergraduate students enrolled in business schools accredited by the ACBSP in four Latin American countries: Mexico (n = 170), Peru (n = 100), Ecuador (n = 147), Paraguay (n = 82), and Colombia (n = 42). Diversity was maximized by recruiting from multiple ACBSP-accredited universities in each country. This approach aligns with methodological standards in cross-national research on entrepreneurial education ( Fayolle & Gailly, 2015 ; López et al., 2021 ). The use of ACBSP accreditation as a selection criterion was intentional, as accredited business schools share common quality standards in curriculum design, learning outcomes, and entrepreneurship education, ensuring a minimum level of institutional comparability across countries. Within each national context, collaboration was established with program directors and faculty members to facilitate access to undergraduate students enrolled in business-related programs. To preserve institutional anonymity and comply with ethical approval conditions, individual university names are not disclosed. However, the shared accreditation framework provides a coherent basis for cross-national comparison while allowing for natural variation in curricular implementation and local entrepreneurial ecosystems, consistent with best practices in cross-national higher education research. A voluntary and deterministic sampling method was employed, with inclusion criteria requiring participants to be over 18 years of age and to have completed at least one entrepreneurship-related course at their educational institution. The achieved sample sizes per country exceed the minimum thresholds recommended for cross-cultural comparative analyses ( Field, 2013 ). Data collection was conducted between May 2024 and May 2025 through coordinated recruitment with program directors, including invitations sent via institutional email, announcements in virtual classrooms, and direct communication in scheduled lectures. The self-administered online survey was delivered through a secure platform and required approximately 15–20 minutes to complete. A total of 541 valid responses were obtained. The study employed a correlational, cross-sectional, and non-experimental design. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection. For the online survey, consent was documented through a mandatory digital acceptance form displayed before the questionnaire, in which participants confirmed their willingness to take part in the study and acknowledged the confidentiality terms. All participants were over 18 years of age; therefore, no parental consent or minor assent procedures were necessary. Participation was entirely voluntary, and the research instrument did not cause any discomfort, physical, or psychological harm. The study was conducted fairly and equitably, ensuring gender balance in the sample. Data confidentiality and anonymity were guaranteed by Decree 1377 of 2013, Law 1581 of 2012, Andean Decision 351 of 1993, and the institutional policy on personal data management. Measures Measurement instruments A set of validated questionnaires was administered, organized into four blocks: psychological, cognitive, contextual, and entrepreneurial. All scales used a 5-point Likert format (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree), with scores calculated as the mean of the items. The Spanish versions were reviewed through a translation–back translation process and validated by experts. Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and reliability (Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω) for the present sample are reported below. 1. Psychological variables • Entrepreneurial Attitude (PromEA): 8 items ( Song et al., 2021 ), e.g., “I want to be an agent of change in society” (AVE = 0.665, α = 0.920, ω = 0.929). • Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (PromSE): 5 items ( Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019 ), e.g., “I feel capable of recognizing opportunities for the development of new products and/or services” (AVE = 0.850, α = 0.948, ω = 0.950). • Emotional Competencies (EC): three dimensions: self-awareness (3 items, AVE = 0.859, α = 0.928, ω = 0.906), empathy (5 items, AVE = 0.849, α = 0.947, ω = 0.951), social skills (5 items, AVE = 0.812, α = 0.938, ω = 0.936) ( Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019 ). • Emotional Well-being (PromEW): SWLS, five items ( Diener et al., 1985 ), e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my ideal” (AVE = 0.750, α = 0.920, ω = 0.924). 2. Cognitive variables • Financial Knowledge (FK): 8 items ( Chen & Volpe, 1998 ), e.g., “I am knowledgeable about personal financial planning” (AVE = 0.718, α = 0.933, ω = 0.949). • Cognitive Load (PromCL): 8 items ( Leppink et al., 2013 ). e.g., “The topic or topics covered were very complex” (AVE = 0.588, α = 0.582, ω = 0.142). • Flow (PromFL): 6 items, FMQ ( Wilson & Moneta, 2016 ), e.g., “My mind does not wander. I am totally involved in what I am doing and I am not thinking of anything else” (AVE = 0.603, α = 0.868, ω = 0.902). 3. Contextual variables • Perception of the University Environment (PromU): 6 items adapted from Franke & Lüthje (2004) , e.g., “University courses … prepare you well to work on your own” (AVE = 0.742, α = 0.956). • Risk Propensity (PromR): 9 items ( Yurtkoru et al., 2014 ), e.g., “If I am afraid of something, I will try to overcome my fears” (α = 0.610, ω = 0.691). 4. Entrepreneurial variables • Entrepreneurial Intention (PromEI): 5 items (Liñán & Chen, 2009), e.g., “My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur” (AVE = 0.893, α = 0.960, ω = 0.966). • Entrepreneurial Action: 16 items ( Botha & Pietersen, 2020 ), two phases: ○ Discovery, e.g., “I have identified market opportunities” (5 items, AVE = 0.684, α = 0.884, ω = 0.891) ○ Exploitation, e.g., “I have started marketing and promotional activities” (11 items, AVE = 0.800, α = 0.965, ω = 0.993). Statistical analysis Data collection was conducted between May 2024 and May 2025 through recruitment strategies coordinated with program directors from accredited business schools, to ensure diversity in gender, age, and country representation, thereby reducing potential sampling bias. Measures to minimize common method bias included: (a) ensuring anonymity, (b) informing participants of the absence of right or wrong answers, and (c) randomizing the order of items within each block. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained to reduce social desirability bias. The statistical analysis proceeded in several stages: 1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): • Conducted separately for each instrument to evaluate its internal structure. • Extraction method: minimum residuals with Promax oblique rotation, appropriate for potentially correlated factors. • Input: polychoric correlation matrix (due to the ordinal nature of the data). • Retention criteria: eigenvalues > 1, scree plot inspection, and parallel analysis. • Items with factor loadings 0.30 were flagged for potential removal. 2. Scale scoring: • Composite scores for each variable were calculated as the arithmetic mean of the retained items per participant. • Negatively worded items were reverse-coded before computing the mean score. 3. Normality assessment: • The Shapiro–Wilk test was applied within each country group. • Skewness and kurtosis statistics, as well as histograms, were inspected. • Given violations of normality, the ordinal nature of Likert-type items ( Norman, 2010 ), and the presence of outliers, non-parametric methods were selected. 4. Group comparisons: • The Kruskal–Wallis H test was used to compare medians across countries. • Significant results were followed by Dunn’s post-hoc tests with Bonferroni and Holm corrections for multiple comparisons. 5. Visualization: • Raincloud plots were created in JASP, combining: (a) jittered raw data points representing individual participants’ responses, (b) half-violin density curves illustrating the distribution and dispersion of responses, and (c) boxplots indicating the median and interquartile range. 6. Associations and predictors: • Spearman’s rank-order correlation (ρ) was used to assess bivariate associations between variables. • Multiple linear regression models were conducted in Jamovi to identify predictors of entrepreneurial intention and action (discovery and exploitation phases), using the Enter method and reporting standardized β coefficients, p-values, and adjusted R 2 . All analyses were conducted in JASP (version 0.19.3.0) and Jamovi (version 2.6.44). Results Risk Figure 1 presents the distribution of risk perception by gender and country, revealing noteworthy patterns that may be interpreted through a gender perspective. This raises the question of whether significant differences exist in risk-taking propensity between male and female students across the university contexts studied, and how these differences manifest in each country. Figure 1. Risk perception by gender and country. Raincloud plots showing the distribution of risk perception scores among male and female undergraduate business students in Mexico (n = 170), Peru (n = 100), Ecuador (n = 147), Paraguay (n = 82), and Colombia (n = 42). Plots combine half-violin density curves, boxplots (median, interquartile range), and jittered raw data points. Scores measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Differences in risk perception by gender and country were analyzed. Although no statistically significant differences were found in most cases (p > .05), group median values showed a non-significant numerical trend toward slightly lower scores among women in countries such as Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia (medians between 3.0 and 3.5 on a 5-point scale), which may suggest lower risk-taking propensity in these contexts. Entrepreneurial intention On the other hand, Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of entrepreneurial intention across the countries studied. The results suggest that having prior entrepreneurial experience does not guarantee a higher level of entrepreneurial intention. This may indicate that experience alone does not significantly differentiate the development of intention within this sample. Figure 2. Entrepreneurial intention by country. Raincloud plots showing the distribution of entrepreneurial intention across the five countries. Colors indicate countries; plots combine density, boxplots, and raw points. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. Peru and Paraguay stood out as the countries with the highest levels of entrepreneurial intention among students, which may be attributed to sociocultural and institutional factors that foster proactive attitudes toward entrepreneurship. In contrast, students from Mexico and Ecuador showed a more dispersed distribution with a higher presence of low scores, suggesting a weaker consolidation of entrepreneurial intention in these contexts. Colombia, meanwhile, exhibited a high and homogeneous median, although without the extreme values observed in Peru. These differences may be related to the national entrepreneurial climate, perceived opportunities, or the type of training received. Entrepreneurial attitude Figure 3 reflects the trend that cumulative exposure to content, practical experiences, and entrepreneurial learning environments positively impacts entrepreneurial attitude—students in higher semesters reported greater levels of entrepreneurial attitude. Figure 3. Entrepreneurial attitude by academic semester and country. Raincloud plots showing entrepreneurial attitude levels in relation to academic progress. Data grouped by country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. Students from Peru and Paraguay exhibited the highest and most homogeneous levels of entrepreneurial attitude. This suggests that the educational or cultural context may be actively fostering favorable dispositions toward entrepreneurship. In contrast, Mexico and Ecuador showed greater dispersion in responses and a higher proportion of students with low or moderate levels of entrepreneurial attitude, particularly among those in the early semesters. Colombia, on the other hand, displayed high levels of entrepreneurial attitude, though with lower density, indicating a more heterogeneous presence of this trait within the sample. University support Perception of university support was examined through the lens of training. Figure 4 illustrates how students’ perceptions of university-based entrepreneurship education vary according to their prior entrepreneurial experience. Overall, in countries such as Peru and Colombia, both students with and without entrepreneurial experience rated the training received positively, with high medians and low dispersion, suggesting the presence of well-established educational programs. Figure 4. Perceived university support by entrepreneurial experience. Raincloud plots comparing perceived entrepreneurship education between students with and without prior entrepreneurial experience. Grouped by country; scores on a 5-point Likert scale. In contrast, in Mexico, Ecuador, and Paraguay, although median scores remain within moderate ranges, the dispersion is greater, and no substantial differences are observed between students with and without entrepreneurial experience. This may indicate that, while entrepreneurship education is present, it does not consistently translate into a differentiated perception of its usefulness or applicability. Self-efficacy On the other hand, we examined whether actual entrepreneurial experience reinforced perceived self-efficacy within the study sample ( Figure 5 ). The figure suggests that entrepreneurial expertise is associated with higher levels of perceived self-efficacy across all countries represented. Figure 5. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy by entrepreneurial experience. Raincloud plots comparing self-efficacy between students with and without prior entrepreneurial experience, grouped by country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. Peru and Mexico show a more apparent distinction between students with and without entrepreneurial experience: those with experience exhibit higher levels of self-efficacy. Ecuador, Paraguay, and Colombia also reflect this trend, although with a smaller gap between groups, suggesting that expertise still contributes, but may be interacting with other contextual factors. Cognitive load On the other hand, we found that students in advanced semesters tend to experience higher cognitive load ( Figure 6 ), particularly in Peru, Mexico, and Paraguay. This is to be expected, as academic demands increase, extracurricular commitments and vocational decisions become more frequent, and personal and societal expectations regarding professional futures intensify. Figure 6. Cognitive load by academic semester and country. Raincloud plots showing cognitive load scores by semester for each country. Higher scores indicate greater perceived load. 5-point Likert scale. Peru and Paraguay show greater dispersion across semesters, allowing for a more precise visualization of the progression of cognitive stress. In Ecuador and Colombia, the trend is less pronounced, possibly due to differences in curricular load or pedagogical approach. Emotional well-being Regarding students’ perceived emotional well-being, Figure 7 shows that, in most countries, students with prior entrepreneurial experience tend to report slightly higher or more consistent levels of well-being compared to those without experience. In Peru, students with entrepreneurial experience are more concentrated at higher levels of well-being, with lower dispersion than their inexperienced peers, which may be associated with greater self-fulfillment or a stronger sense of entrepreneurial purpose. Figure 7. Emotional well-being by entrepreneurial experience. Raincloud plots comparing well-being between students with and without prior entrepreneurial experience. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale; higher scores indicate higher well-being. In Mexico and Ecuador, although there is some overlap, a slight advantage in well-being can also be observed among experienced students, although the differences are not pronounced. In Paraguay, the high dispersion in both groups is notable, especially among those without experience, which may reflect greater uncertainty or lack of direction. Finally, in Colombia, both groups show similar levels, although students with experience appear less likely to report very low levels of emotional well-being. Flow Figure 8 shows an upward trend in work-related flow across academic semesters, which can be interpreted as a progressive increase in students’ ability to organize tasks, maintain focus, and master content as they advance in their university education. This relationship appears to be more evident in Peru and Mexico, where students in higher semesters report higher levels of flow compared to those in earlier semesters. Figure 8. Flow levels by academic semester and country. Raincloud plots showing flow scores across semesters in each country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. In countries such as Ecuador, Paraguay, and Colombia, the relationship between semester and flow level appears less clear, with a wider dispersion of responses across different academic levels. This may be due to differences in pedagogical styles, institutional support, or curricular load, which warrants further examination. Emotional competence Emotional competence was examined across three dimensions: self-awareness, empathy, and social skills. In the case of self-awareness ( Figure 9 ), several countries—notably Mexico and Colombia—show a greater concentration of high scores in mid and advanced semesters, which may indicate that prolonged exposure to university experiences fosters the development of self-awareness. Figure 9. Self-awareness by academic semester and country. Raincloud plots showing self-awareness scores across semesters for each country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. In Peru and Ecuador, scores are more dispersed, but a slight upward trend is observed in advanced semesters. In Paraguay, while there is greater overall dispersion, self-awareness levels appear to remain relatively high even in the early semesters, which may be related to specific characteristics of the academic program or type of training provided. Regarding empathy ( Figure 10 ), the data suggest that entrepreneurial experience is associated with slightly higher levels of empathy in several national contexts. This is particularly evident in Mexico, Paraguay, and Colombia, where participants with experience show score concentrations closer to the maximum. In Peru, empathy levels are generally high across all groups, with no notable difference between those with or without experience. In Ecuador, both groups show greater dispersion, although a slight advantage is observed among students with entrepreneurial experience. Figure 10. Empathy by entrepreneurial experience and country. Raincloud plots comparing empathy levels between students with and without entrepreneurial experience. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. This may be explained by the fact that entrepreneurship exposes students to situations where they must understand and anticipate the needs of others, develop effective communication, and collaborate—skills closely related to empathy. Regarding social skills ( Figure 11 ), although no drastic trend is observed, in some countries such as Peru and Colombia, there appears to be a slight positive association between academic semester and social skills. In other words, as students progress through their university education, they may be developing social skills more frequently—such as teamwork, leadership, and interpersonal relationship management—likely due to increased exposure to group experiences, presentations, internships, or collaborative projects. Figure 11. Social skills by academic semester and country. Raincloud plots showing social skills scores across semesters in each country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. However, this trend is not consistent across all countries, which may be due to curricular or institutional differences in the type of training and activities that foster these skills. Entrepreneurial action Entrepreneurial action was assessed through two dimensions: discovery and exploitation. Regarding the discovery phase, Figure 12 suggests that students with prior entrepreneurial experience tend to exhibit higher levels of entrepreneurial action compared to those who have not previously engaged in entrepreneurship. Figure 12. Entrepreneurial action – discovery phase by entrepreneurial experience. Raincloud plots showing discovery-phase entrepreneurial action scores for students with and without prior entrepreneurial experience, by country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. In countries such as Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia, a greater concentration of high scores is observed among students with entrepreneurial experience. In Peru, although overall entrepreneurial action is high, the distribution is also elevated for the experienced group. In Paraguay, the difference is less pronounced, but the general trend remains consistent. A similar finding emerges in the exploitation dimension ( Figure 13 ), where students with entrepreneurial experience tend to report slightly higher levels of entrepreneurial action—particularly in Mexico and Ecuador. However, in countries like Paraguay and Colombia, the differences are much less pronounced, and both distributions (with and without experience) show greater dispersion and overlap. Figure 13. Entrepreneurial action – exploitation phase by entrepreneurial experience. Raincloud plots showing exploitation-phase entrepreneurial action scores for students with and without prior entrepreneurial experience, by country. Scores on a 5-point Likert scale. In the case of Peru, although students with entrepreneurial experience show higher scores, there is also a group without experience that exhibits similarly high levels. This may indicate that the educational environment or local entrepreneurial ecosystem supports the transition to the exploitation phase even without prior experience. Financial knowledge Finally, regarding financial knowledge ( Figure 14 ), Peru presents the highest and most consistent levels among the countries analyzed, with a median close to 4.5 and a distribution concentrated in the upper range of the scale. Both students with entrepreneurial experience and those without it tend to perform well on this variable, suggesting a potentially more effective integration of financial content into the Peruvian university curriculum. Figure 14. Financial knowledge by entrepreneurial experience and country. Raincloud plots comparing financial knowledge scores between students with and without entrepreneurial experience. Higher scores indicate better financial knowledge. In contrast, Mexico shows greater dispersion in responses, including cases with very low levels of financial knowledge, which may reflect disparities in training or access to basic economic content. Ecuador, Paraguay, and Colombia show moderate medians (between 3.5 and 4), but also higher variability—especially in Paraguay—possibly indicating gaps in formal financial education or limited practical exposure to fundamental economic concepts. Results of differences between countries Since the variables did not meet the assumptions of normality or homogeneity of variances, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine whether significant differences existed among the five participating countries (Peru, Mexico, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Colombia) in key variables related to university entrepreneurship. Of the 18 variables analyzed, nine showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05), as summarized in Table 1 . Table 1. Variables with statistically significant differences between countries. Variable χ 2 p-value Cross-country significant differences PromU 33.82 0.001 Mexico vs. Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Paraguay PromEActD 19.07 0.001 Mexico vs. Ecuador, Paraguay PromEActE 18.35 0.001 Mexico vs. Ecuador, Paraguay PromEI 16.08 0.003 Peru > Mexico, Peru > Ecuador PromCL 29.13 0.001 Mexico > Ecuador, Colombia PromEW 13.83 0.008 Mexico > Peru, Mexico > Paraguay PromFK 11.17 0.025 Mexico > Paraguay PromR 10.99 0.027 Mexico > Ecuador, Ecuador < Paraguay PromSS 9.75 0.045 Overall difference To verify empirical adequacy, a post hoc power analysis was conducted for an omnibus comparison equivalent to the Kruskal–Wallis test (five groups, α = .05, medium effect f = 0.25 ≈ η 2 = 0.06; Cohen, 1988 ). The resulting statistical power was 0.97, indicating that the total sample was more than sufficient to detect effects of medium magnitude. Consistently, the descriptive results ( Alba et al., 2025 ) show low standard errors (SE ≤ 0.14) and small to moderate effect sizes (ω 2 and ε 2 ), supporting the precision and stability of the estimates. The results clearly show that Mexico ranks highest in several key dimensions, particularly in university training, financial knowledge, entrepreneurial action, and emotional well-being. Peru also stands out for exhibiting the highest levels of entrepreneurial intention compared to the other countries. In contrast, Ecuador and Paraguay tend to display lower scores across multiple dimensions, suggesting potential gaps in the development of the university entrepreneurial ecosystem. Correlations with entrepreneurial intention and action To assess the factors associated with entrepreneurial behavior, Spearman’s rank correlation (ρ) was applied, allowing for the identification of the strength and direction of associations between ordinal variables without assuming normality. The results reveal consistent associations between entrepreneurial intention (PromEI) and key variables of the entrepreneurial profile. Entrepreneurial attitude (PromEA) shows the strongest correlation with PromEI (ρ = 0.664, p < .001), followed by self-efficacy (PromSE, ρ = 0.370), entrepreneurial action in the discovery phase (PromEActD, ρ = 0.371), and perceived university support (PromU, ρ = 0.288). These findings suggest that strengthening personal beliefs, attitudes, and institutional support is linked to higher levels of entrepreneurial intention. Regarding entrepreneurial action in the discovery phase (PromEActD), it is strongly associated with the exploitation phase (PromEActE, ρ = 0.642), self-efficacy (PromSE, ρ = 0.507), financial knowledge (PromFK, ρ = 0.397), and self-awareness (PromSA, ρ = 0.353). These relationships suggest that students who are already acting on opportunities also tend to discover new ones, particularly when they feel capable and possess the cognitive and emotional tools to evaluate their environment. Finally, in the exploitation phase (PromEActE), in addition to its strong association with the discovery phase (ρ = 0.642), significant correlations were observed with flow (PromFL, ρ = 0.379), self-efficacy (PromSE, ρ = 0.283), emotional well-being (PromEW, ρ = 0.275), and financial knowledge (PromFK, ρ = 0.252). These results reinforce the idea that successfully executing entrepreneurial projects requires not only technical preparation but also emotional stability and personal confidence. Regression models for entrepreneurial intention and action The multiple linear regression models were statistically significant and explained a substantial proportion of variance in their respective dependent variables. The model with PromEI (entrepreneurial intention) as the dependent variable showed a good fit (F(5, 534) = 133.72, p < .001), explaining 55.2% of the variance (adjusted R 2 = 0.552). The model for PromEActD (entrepreneurial action – discovery) showed the highest fit (F(3, 536) = 269.22, p < .001), accounting for 59.9% of the variance (adjusted R 2 = 0.599). Meanwhile, the model for PromEActE (entrepreneurial action – exploitation) was also significant (F(5, 534) = 26.14, p < .001), explaining 27.3% of the variance (adjusted R 2 = 0.273). In all cases, the classical assumptions of linear regression were verified, and no multicollinearity issues were identified. In the PromEI model ( Figure 15 ), entrepreneurial attitude (PromEA) emerged as the strongest predictor (β ≈ 0.71), highlighting its key role as a transversal formative axis. It was followed by entrepreneurial action – discovery (PromEActD) (β ≈ 0.14) and self-efficacy (PromSE) (β ≈ 0.12), underscoring the importance of teaching students how to identify real opportunities and build entrepreneurial confidence. University support (PromU) also had a small but significant effect (β ≈ 0.08), indicating that the institutional environment should be reinforced. Finally, empathy (PromE) showed an adverse impact (β ≈ –0.10), possibly suggesting that in specific contexts, high levels of empathy may be associated with lower entrepreneurial intention—perhaps due to risk aversion or a less autonomous orientation. Figure 15. Multiple linear regression model predicting entrepreneurial intention. Path diagram showing standardized beta coefficients for predictors of entrepreneurial intention (PromEI). For PromEActD ( Figure 16 ), the three significant predictors were: entrepreneurial action – exploitation (PromEActE) (β ≈ 0.56), which emerged as the strongest factor, suggesting that teaching students how to execute projects enhances their ability to discover opportunities. Self-efficacy (PromSE) (β ≈ 0.26) and self-awareness (PromSA) (β ≈ 0.23) also showed significant effects, highlighting the importance of cultivating both personal confidence and the ability to recognize and regulate one’s own emotions and strengths during the early stages of the entrepreneurial process. Figure 16. Regression model for entrepreneurial action – discovery phase. Path diagram showing significant predictors of discovery-phase entrepreneurial action (PromEActD). Regarding PromEActE ( Figure 17 ), the model revealed five significant predictors. Flow (PromFL) stood out with a relevant positive effect (β ≈ 0.22), followed by self-efficacy (PromSE) (β ≈ 0.19), practical financial knowledge (PromFK) (β ≈ 0.15), and emotional well-being (PromEW) (β ≈ 0.11), pointing to the importance of preparing students who are not only technically skilled but also emotionally balanced. However, cognitive load (PromCL) showed an adverse effect (β ≈ = -0.25), which may indicate that excessive mental demands or academic overload interfere with students’ ability to carry out entrepreneurial actions. Figure 17. Regression model for entrepreneurial action – exploitation phase. Path diagram showing significant predictors of exploitation-phase entrepreneurial action (PromEActE). Discussion Although our analyses did not detect statistically significant gender differences in risk perception, the non-significant trend toward lower median risk scores among women in Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia suggests a pattern consistent with prior evidence that women tend to report lower risk-taking propensity ( Croson & Gneezy, 2009 ). In line with these studies, such differences are often attributed to differential socialization, gender role expectations, and perceptions of uncertainty. While the present results are indicative rather than conclusive, they provide a valuable empirical baseline for future work on gendered mechanisms shaping entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. These non-significant gender trends are consistent with previous Latin American research, which has documented that risk perception is often shaped by sociocultural expectations rather than by individual capacity. In this sense, the pattern observed in Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia aligns with broader regional discussions that emphasize how socialization and cultural norms influence the psychological determinants of entrepreneurial behavior ( Soria-Barreto et al., 2017 ). The finding that prior entrepreneurial experience does not guarantee higher intention supports the proposition that intention is not merely a function of past behavior, but is instead formed by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, as posited by the Theory of Planned Behavior ( Ajzen, 1991 ) and corroborated by longitudinal and robustness evidence ( Kautonen et al., 2015 ). Our regression results reinforce this mechanism: entrepreneurial attitude emerged as the strongest predictor of intention (β ≈ 0.71), followed by discovery-oriented action and self-efficacy. These effects are aligned with the TPB’s emphasis on proximal cognitive antecedents and highlight the centrality of attitudinal development as a curricular priority. This result strengthens previous Latin American evidence derived from GUESSS-based studies ( López et al., 2021 ; López & Álvarez, 2019 ), which confirm that entrepreneurial attitude and perceived control are the most robust predictors of intention across national contexts. By replicating this mechanism within ACBSP-accredited universities, the present research reinforces the applicability of the TPB in Latin American higher education, while integrating psychological and cognitive factors not frequently modeled together in regional studies. The upward trend in entrepreneurial attitude among students in higher semesters is consistent with the experiential learning view that attitudes are cultivated through authentic projects, mentoring, and engagement with entrepreneurial ecosystems ( Lackéus, 2020 ). Cross-country patterns—higher and more homogeneous attitudes in Peru and Paraguay versus greater dispersion in Mexico and Ecuador—point to contextual contingencies in how experiential opportunities and curricular designs are implemented. This is coherent with the argument that university environment and perceived institutional support shape entrepreneurial dispositions ( Franke & Lüthje, 2004 ). In our data, perceptions of university training were positive and homogeneous in Peru and Colombia but more dispersed elsewhere, suggesting that program quality, practical orientation, and local ecosystem alignment may condition how education translates into favorable attitudes and intentions. Notably, the absence of perceptual differences between students with and without entrepreneurial experience in some countries indicates that experience alone does not determine more favorable evaluations of training; rather, alignment and quality of curricular design likely play a stronger role. In line with regional findings ( Leiva et al., 2021 ), our results confirm that university context and exposure to practical entrepreneurial experiences play a central role in shaping students’ attitudes. The convergence observed between Peruvian and Paraguayan students may reflect institutional environments where entrepreneurship education is embedded within broader innovation-oriented cultures, whereas the greater heterogeneity found in Mexico and Ecuador could indicate structural differences in curricular implementation and institutional support. Self-efficacy consistently differentiated students with entrepreneurial experience from those without it across all countries, supporting Social Cognitive Theory’s claim that mastery experiences strengthen efficacy beliefs ( Bandura, 1991 ). Beyond intention, our models show that self-efficacy relates to both discovery and exploitation, while flow and emotional well-being are particularly salient for exploitation. Together, these patterns suggest that sustaining entrepreneurial action requires not only cognitive appraisals of control but also the affective–motivational states that enable concentration, persistence, and adaptive coping. Conversely, the negative association between cognitive load and exploitation (β ≈ −0.25) indicates that excessive academic or mental demands can disrupt the translation of opportunities into implemented projects. From a competency perspective, this underscores the need to manage workload and scaffold self-regulation skills so that students can maintain cognitive and emotional bandwidth during execution phases. This interpretation complements regional competency-based studies ( Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019 ), which emphasize that experiential learning and self-regulation practices strengthen self-efficacy and emotional balance—two critical psychological resources for sustaining entrepreneurial action. Thus, the association between cognitive load and decreased performance may signal the need for pedagogical models that manage academic pressure while fostering emotional competence as a transversal outcome of entrepreneurship education. Students with entrepreneurial experience tended to score higher on discovery and, to a lesser extent, exploitation. This is consistent with the view that prior experience develops entrepreneurial alertness and familiarity with environmental challenges, facilitating opportunity identification ( McMullen & Shepherd, 2006 ). The partial advantage observed in exploitation also aligns with the proposition that successful execution depends not only on recognizing opportunities but also on access to resources, prior knowledge, and institutional support ( Shane & Venkataraman, 2000 ). Between-country tests (Kruskal–Wallis) revealed significant differences in half of the analyzed variables. Mexico led in several dimensions (training, financial knowledge, entrepreneurial action, emotional well-being), while Peru showed the highest entrepreneurial intention; Ecuador and Paraguay tended to score lower across multiple variables. These contrasts, together with the dispersion patterns in attitudes and training perceptions, point to ecosystem alignment as a probable moderator: where curricular content, practical exposure, and support structures are better synchronized with local entrepreneurial conditions, students exhibit stronger profiles on intention, action, and well-being. Conversely, where training is present but unevenly perceived or weakly embedded in practical contexts, gains appear more variable and less robust. These findings resonate with comparative evidence from Latin American ecosystems, where the heterogeneity of institutional maturity and cultural orientation toward innovation explains divergent entrepreneurial outcomes ( Romaní et al., 2021 ). By integrating these contextual dynamics, this study contributes to understanding how national ecosystems moderate the translation of educational experiences into entrepreneurial intention and action. This integrative mechanism directly addresses one of the gaps identified in the Latin American literature: the limited connection between competency-based approaches and the theoretical constructs of the TPB ( Romaní et al., 2021 ). By empirically linking attitudinal, cognitive, and contextual dimensions, our study advances toward a unified model capable of explaining how education and ecosystem experiences jointly sustain entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. Our correlational and regression findings suggest a coherent mechanism: education and ecosystem experiences contribute to attitudes and self-efficacy (TPB antecedents), while competencies—including reflective self-awareness, applied financial knowledge, interpersonal skills, and the ability to enter flow states—help bridge the intention–action gap. The adverse role of excessive cognitive load highlights a boundary condition: competencies must be developed within workable cognitive demands to translate into behavior. Thus, the most plausible pathway in our data is not experience- intention directly, but education/experience- competencies & attitudes/efficacy- intention-action, with institutional climate shaping each link. Recommendations Based on the study’s findings, the following recommendations are proposed to strengthen the university’s entrepreneurial support ecosystem. These recommendations integrate strategic institutional aspects as well as curricular and operational components of academic programs, acknowledging the influence of contextual, emotional, and cognitive variables that vary across countries. Strategic Recommendations (Institutional and Curricular Level) The cross-country differences in entrepreneurial intention, attitude, and motivation highlight the need for adaptive curricula that are responsive to students’ cultural and emotional profiles. In Ecuador, it is recommended to include activities that promote proactivity and entrepreneurial vision, such as social innovation projects or entrepreneurship challenges. In Mexico, emotional well-being and self-regulation could be incorporated transversally into the entrepreneurship curriculum through reflective practices or stress management workshops. Given that empathy, self-efficacy, and motivation were highly correlated with entrepreneurial intention, it is advisable to integrate these competencies as explicit learning outcomes in key courses. This can be achieved through active methodologies such as project-based learning, role-plays, ethical decision-making simulations, cooperative activities, and peer feedback and self-assessment sessions. The impact of social support on both entrepreneurial intention and action justifies the design of collaborative training spaces such as entrepreneurship labs or academic incubators, where interaction, teamwork, tolerance for failure, and communities of practice are fostered. These spaces could be aligned with academic credit or incorporated into practical courses. The finding that cognitive load negatively affects the entrepreneurial exploitation phase (β = –0.25) suggests the need to revise the sequencing and density of entrepreneurship courses, avoiding their concentration during high-demand semesters. It is recommended to incorporate into the curriculum short sessions on mindfulness, study techniques, and emotional regulation—or even active break weeks—to help prevent cognitive and emotional exhaustion. Moreover, regression results showed that entrepreneurial attitude (β = 0.71) and self-efficacy (β ≈ 0.12–0.26) are the most relevant predictors of entrepreneurial intention and action. Therefore, it is essential to reinforce these variables across the curriculum through leadership workshops, entrepreneurial storytelling, practical challenges, and spaces for individualized feedback. In addition, self-awareness—which showed a positive effect in early stages—should be promoted through reflective portfolios and metacognitive exercises. Operational Recommendations (Entrepreneurship Programs and Student Support) It is recommended to offer personalized training pathways according to the student’s stage in the entrepreneurial process: • For those in the discovery phase, include modules on locus of control, creative thinking, design thinking, and environmental analysis. • For those in the exploitation phase, offer courses or workshops on personal finance, resource management, adaptive leadership, and uncertainty management. This is consistent with the findings that identified financial knowledge (β ≈ 0.22) and its practical application (β ≈ 0.15) as significant predictors of the exploitation phase. The correlations found between self-regulation, motivation, and self-awareness support the development of diagnostic tools to be applied at the beginning of the academic cycle (e.g., surveys on emotional competencies and entrepreneurial profiles). These results can be used to assign tailored mentoring, suggest electives, and personalize students’ learning pathways. Additionally, it is recommended to monitor indicators of cognitive load and emotional well-being during the later stages of academic training. It is also advisable to include mentorship spaces with entrepreneurial alums or emotional coaching sessions led by professionals, focused on strengthening self-efficacy, resilience, and sense of purpose. These activities can be formally integrated into capstone projects or supervised internships, with the possibility of earning academic credit. Finally, implement continuous evaluation systems that assess not only academic outcomes but also the evolution of emotional well-being, perceived institutional support, and the progression of the entrepreneurial profile. This information will support curriculum refinement, adjustment of academic workload, and better targeting of institutional resources. Practical implications derived from the evidence Because attitude is the dominant predictor of intention and self-efficacy, flow, and financial knowledge support action—while cognitive load constrains exploitation—universities seeking to strengthen entrepreneurial outcomes should: prioritize experiential, mentored learning that cultivates positive attitudes ( Lackéus, 2020 ). Design efficacy-building sequences with progressive mastery and feedback ( Bandura, 1991 ); embed practical financial content and project-execution training to facilitate exploitation ( Shane & Venkataraman, 2000 ); and actively manage academic load and teach self-regulation to protect students’ cognitive resources during project implementation. Limitations and avenues for future research Although the results are robust across multiple techniques, the gender–risk pattern was not statistically significant and should be tested with larger, possibly longitudinal samples ( Croson & Gneezy, 2009 ). More broadly, future research should adopt longitudinal designs to observe how attitudes, efficacy, and competencies evolve over time and how cognitive load fluctuates around key educational milestones ( Kautonen et al., 2015 ). Future cross-national studies could further explore the role of institutional and cultural contexts in shaping the relationships between psychological, cognitive, and behavioral components of the entrepreneurial process described here. Ethical approval This study was reviewed and approved by the Comité Institucional de Bioética of the Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz (Bogotá, Colombia) during Session No. 34 held on August 15, 2024, under the project title “Impact of Cognitive Load and Emotional Well-being on the Entrepreneurial Intention of Business School Students Belonging to the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs”. Approval status: Approved. All participants gave written informed consent before participation. Institutional protocols and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki conducted the study. AI use disclosure We have read and agree to comply with the F1000 AI Policy. We confirm that during the preparation of this manuscript, I used ChatGPT (OpenAI, GPT-4, version August 2025) exclusively to assist with the translation of the original Spanish text into English. The content was subsequently reviewed and edited by the authors to ensure accuracy and clarity. Data availability statement Underlying data Zenodo: Entrepreneurial Intention and Action in ACBSP-accredited Latin American Universities (2024–2025). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17702439 ( Alba et al., 2025 ). This project contains the following underlying data: • Data.xlsx (anonymized Excel dataset containing responses from undergraduate students in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Colombia on psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables related to entrepreneurial intention and action) Extended data Zenodo: Entrepreneurial Intention and Action in ACBSP-accredited Latin American Universities (2024–2025). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17702439 ( Alba et al., 2025 ). This project contains the following extended data: • Spanish Questionnaire.pdf (final version of the survey instrument applied in the study) • English Questionnaire.pdf (final version of the survey instrument applied in the study) • Appendix A: descriptive statistics by country.pdf Reporting guidelines No reporting guidelines are associated with this article. Data is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0). 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Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 3 VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 18 Sep 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Fundacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 2 Universidad El Bosque, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 3 Fundacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 4 Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia 5 Fundacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Bogota, Colombia Marisleidy Alba Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Boris Cendales Roles: Data Curation, Methodology, Validation Angélica Garzón Umerenkova Roles: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology Juan Carlos Espinosa Roles: Methodology, Supervision, Validation Janitza Ariza Salazar Roles: Resources, Supervision, Validation Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information This research was carried out with the support of the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP). The Article Processing Charge (APC) for this publication was fully funded by ACBSP. The authors gratefully acknowledge this support. ACBSP had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (3) version 3 Revised Published: 14 Feb 2026, 14:935 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.3 version 2 Revised Published: 27 Nov 2025, 14:935 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.2 version 1 Published: 18 Sep 2025, 14:935 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.168958.1 Copyright © 2026 Alba M et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 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Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 12 Mar 2026 Ahmet Maslakçı , World Peace University, Mersin, Nicosia, Turkey Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.196266.r458599 Thank you for the revisions to the study.The authors ... Continue reading READ ALL Thank you for the revisions to the study.The authors had implemented the corrections I had suggested for their work. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Entrepreneurship-Multiculturalism-Organisational Behaviour I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Maslakçı A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . 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Competing Interests: We declare that I have no competing interests Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 14 Mar 2026 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 14 Mar 2026 Author Response Dear Reviewer, thank you very much for your time in reading and reviewing our manuscript. Competing Interests: We declare that I have no competing interests Dear Reviewer, thank you very much for your time in reading and reviewing our manuscript. Dear Reviewer, thank you very much for your time in reading and reviewing our manuscript. Competing Interests: We declare that I have no competing interests Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Valencia-Arias A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.196266.r458600 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v3#referee-response-458600 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 05 Mar 2026 Alejandro Valencia-Arias , Universidad Señor de Sipán, Chiclayo, Peru Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.196266.r458600 I confirm that the authors have adequately addressed the comments and suggestions raised during the review process. The revisions have improved the clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence of the manuscript. Therefore, I consider that the authors have satisfactorily complied ... Continue reading READ ALL I confirm that the authors have adequately addressed the comments and suggestions raised during the review process. The revisions have improved the clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence of the manuscript. Therefore, I consider that the authors have satisfactorily complied with the requested modifications and the manuscript can be indexed. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Entrepreneurship I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Valencia-Arias A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.196266.r458600 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v3#referee-response-458600 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 09 Mar 2026 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 09 Mar 2026 Author Response Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which ... Continue reading Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which helped us to strengthen the work substantially. We are grateful for your confirmation that the revisions have improved the manuscript’s clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence, and that we have satisfactorily addressed the requested modifications. We also appreciate your indication that the manuscript can proceed to indexing. Thank you again for your valuable contribution. Kind regards, Marisleidy Alba (on behalf of all co-authors) Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which helped us to strengthen the work substantially. We are grateful for your confirmation that the revisions have improved the manuscript’s clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence, and that we have satisfactorily addressed the requested modifications. We also appreciate your indication that the manuscript can proceed to indexing. Thank you again for your valuable contribution. Kind regards, Marisleidy Alba (on behalf of all co-authors) Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 09 Mar 2026 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 09 Mar 2026 Author Response Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which ... Continue reading Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which helped us to strengthen the work substantially. We are grateful for your confirmation that the revisions have improved the manuscript’s clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence, and that we have satisfactorily addressed the requested modifications. We also appreciate your indication that the manuscript can proceed to indexing. Thank you again for your valuable contribution. Kind regards, Marisleidy Alba (on behalf of all co-authors) Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which helped us to strengthen the work substantially. We are grateful for your confirmation that the revisions have improved the manuscript’s clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence, and that we have satisfactorily addressed the requested modifications. We also appreciate your indication that the manuscript can proceed to indexing. Thank you again for your valuable contribution. Kind regards, Marisleidy Alba (on behalf of all co-authors) Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 27 Nov 2025 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Maslakçı A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.191969.r445561 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v2#referee-response-445561 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 15 Jan 2026 Ahmet Maslakçı , World Peace University, Mersin, Nicosia, Turkey Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.191969.r445561 The theoretical part of the study needs further development. The authors need to address the study's importance, its purpose, and its contribution to the literature and to practical life in greater detail. Although the rain cloud graphics method used in ... Continue reading READ ALL The theoretical part of the study needs further development. The authors need to address the study's importance, its purpose, and its contribution to the literature and to practical life in greater detail. Although the rain cloud graphics method used in the study appears visually appealing, I would personally find it more satisfying if the study had been conducted using SPSS and Amos. The study's sample also requires a more detailed examination of how and why this sample was selected. Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? The abstract section of the study should provide information on the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. The introduction section of the study should mention why the variables were selected, the importance of the research question and how it differs from other studies. It should also mention the contributions the study will make to the literature and practical life. Studies conducted over the last 15 years are mentioned, but no references are provided or discussed. The theoretical background of the study should include the elements that should be in the introduction. The theoretical background should also describe the relationship among the variables, with references to relevant literature. Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Information must be provided about the universities in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Paraguay and Colombia included in the study and the universities from which participants were selected. It would also be useful to include the study's conceptual model. If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Although the use of rain cloud graphics is visually successful and innovative, using SPSS or Amos to present the explanatory graphics of this study and examine the effects of mediation and moderation would have made the model more understandable, given the selected variables and sample. Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Separating the Results and Discussion sections will enhance the study. This will ensure that the findings, evaluations, and analyses in the Discussion section are clearer and easier to understand. Additionally, the findings should be considered in terms of their contributions to the literature and their practical contributions. This will enable recommendations to be made to policymakers and university management. Future recommendations can also include cultural differences in the study. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Entrepreneurship-Multiculturalism-Organisational Behaviour I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Maslakçı A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.191969.r445561 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v2#referee-response-445561 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 06 Feb 2026 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 06 Feb 2026 Author Response We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We ... Continue reading We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We outline the implemented changes below and address each of the reviewer’s comments. All revisions are highlighted in green in the revised manuscript. Reviewer comment: Further development of the theoretical framework is required, as well as greater clarity regarding the importance, purpose, and contributions of the study. Response: These aspects were explicitly strengthened by clearly stating the study’s purpose, identifying the gap in the Latin American transnational literature, and specifying the study’s theoretical and practical contributions. In addition, the Theoretical Background was revised to include an integrative opening statement, an explicit description of the relationships among the variables supported by relevant empirical literature from the last 15 years, and a final synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. Reviewer comment: The abstract should indicate the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. Response: The Abstract was revised to explicitly state the study’s purpose, methodological approach, key findings (distinguishing entrepreneurial intention, discovery, and exploitation phases), and its practical relevance for curriculum design and university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Reviewer comment: More detailed information is required regarding the sample and the participating universities. Response: The Methods/ Participants section was expanded to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the use of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, describe the sample distribution by country, explain the multinational recruitment process, and outline the ethical reasons for not disclosing the names of the participating institutions. Reviewer comment: The use of SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses is suggested. Response: We appreciate this suggestion. The study was intentionally designed as an exploratory and cross-national comparative analysis rather than a confirmatory model. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational analyses, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were employed. Mediation and moderation analyses are identified as a direction for future confirmatory research. Reviewer comment: Separating the Results and Discussion sections and strengthening theoretical, practical, and cultural contributions is recommended. Response: This recommendation was implemented. The manuscript now presents separate Results and Discussion sections, and the theoretical, practical, and cultural implications were strengthened, including recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We outline the implemented changes below and address each of the reviewer’s comments. All revisions are highlighted in green in the revised manuscript. Reviewer comment: Further development of the theoretical framework is required, as well as greater clarity regarding the importance, purpose, and contributions of the study. Response: These aspects were explicitly strengthened by clearly stating the study’s purpose, identifying the gap in the Latin American transnational literature, and specifying the study’s theoretical and practical contributions. In addition, the Theoretical Background was revised to include an integrative opening statement, an explicit description of the relationships among the variables supported by relevant empirical literature from the last 15 years, and a final synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. Reviewer comment: The abstract should indicate the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. Response: The Abstract was revised to explicitly state the study’s purpose, methodological approach, key findings (distinguishing entrepreneurial intention, discovery, and exploitation phases), and its practical relevance for curriculum design and university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Reviewer comment: More detailed information is required regarding the sample and the participating universities. Response: The Methods/ Participants section was expanded to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the use of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, describe the sample distribution by country, explain the multinational recruitment process, and outline the ethical reasons for not disclosing the names of the participating institutions. Reviewer comment: The use of SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses is suggested. Response: We appreciate this suggestion. The study was intentionally designed as an exploratory and cross-national comparative analysis rather than a confirmatory model. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational analyses, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were employed. Mediation and moderation analyses are identified as a direction for future confirmatory research. Reviewer comment: Separating the Results and Discussion sections and strengthening theoretical, practical, and cultural contributions is recommended. Response: This recommendation was implemented. The manuscript now presents separate Results and Discussion sections, and the theoretical, practical, and cultural implications were strengthened, including recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 06 Feb 2026 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 06 Feb 2026 Author Response We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We ... Continue reading We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We outline the implemented changes below and address each of the reviewer’s comments. All revisions are highlighted in green in the revised manuscript. Reviewer comment: Further development of the theoretical framework is required, as well as greater clarity regarding the importance, purpose, and contributions of the study. Response: These aspects were explicitly strengthened by clearly stating the study’s purpose, identifying the gap in the Latin American transnational literature, and specifying the study’s theoretical and practical contributions. In addition, the Theoretical Background was revised to include an integrative opening statement, an explicit description of the relationships among the variables supported by relevant empirical literature from the last 15 years, and a final synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. Reviewer comment: The abstract should indicate the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. Response: The Abstract was revised to explicitly state the study’s purpose, methodological approach, key findings (distinguishing entrepreneurial intention, discovery, and exploitation phases), and its practical relevance for curriculum design and university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Reviewer comment: More detailed information is required regarding the sample and the participating universities. Response: The Methods/ Participants section was expanded to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the use of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, describe the sample distribution by country, explain the multinational recruitment process, and outline the ethical reasons for not disclosing the names of the participating institutions. Reviewer comment: The use of SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses is suggested. Response: We appreciate this suggestion. The study was intentionally designed as an exploratory and cross-national comparative analysis rather than a confirmatory model. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational analyses, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were employed. Mediation and moderation analyses are identified as a direction for future confirmatory research. Reviewer comment: Separating the Results and Discussion sections and strengthening theoretical, practical, and cultural contributions is recommended. Response: This recommendation was implemented. The manuscript now presents separate Results and Discussion sections, and the theoretical, practical, and cultural implications were strengthened, including recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We outline the implemented changes below and address each of the reviewer’s comments. All revisions are highlighted in green in the revised manuscript. Reviewer comment: Further development of the theoretical framework is required, as well as greater clarity regarding the importance, purpose, and contributions of the study. Response: These aspects were explicitly strengthened by clearly stating the study’s purpose, identifying the gap in the Latin American transnational literature, and specifying the study’s theoretical and practical contributions. In addition, the Theoretical Background was revised to include an integrative opening statement, an explicit description of the relationships among the variables supported by relevant empirical literature from the last 15 years, and a final synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. Reviewer comment: The abstract should indicate the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. Response: The Abstract was revised to explicitly state the study’s purpose, methodological approach, key findings (distinguishing entrepreneurial intention, discovery, and exploitation phases), and its practical relevance for curriculum design and university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Reviewer comment: More detailed information is required regarding the sample and the participating universities. Response: The Methods/ Participants section was expanded to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the use of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, describe the sample distribution by country, explain the multinational recruitment process, and outline the ethical reasons for not disclosing the names of the participating institutions. Reviewer comment: The use of SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses is suggested. Response: We appreciate this suggestion. The study was intentionally designed as an exploratory and cross-national comparative analysis rather than a confirmatory model. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational analyses, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were employed. Mediation and moderation analyses are identified as a direction for future confirmatory research. Reviewer comment: Separating the Results and Discussion sections and strengthening theoretical, practical, and cultural contributions is recommended. Response: This recommendation was implemented. The manuscript now presents separate Results and Discussion sections, and the theoretical, practical, and cultural implications were strengthened, including recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 18 Sep 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Valencia-Arias A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.186207.r416191 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v1#referee-response-416191 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 31 Oct 2025 Alejandro Valencia-Arias , Universidad Señor de Sipán, Chiclayo, Peru Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.186207.r416191 It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. The sample ... Continue reading READ ALL It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity. It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: entrepreneurial intention I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Valencia-Arias A. Reviewer Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.186207.r416191 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v1#referee-response-416191 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 27 Nov 2025 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 27 Nov 2025 Author Response Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar ... Continue reading Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar of your expertise. We have carefully considered all your comments and suggestions, and below we detail the revisions made in response to each of them. Comment: It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. Response: Thank you very much for your comment. In response to the reviewer’s recommendation, an expanded section on theoretical background has been incorporated to contextualize the study within the Latin American literature on University Entrepreneurial Behavior (UEB). This section synthesizes the main theories and quantitative findings developed in the region over the past 15 years, highlighting the predominance of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) and the incorporation of competency-based approaches (Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019). It also analyzes cross-national comparative studies that integrate psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. Furthermore, it identifies existing gaps in the regional literature, such as the scarcity of longitudinal studies, the limited integration among psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors, the unequal geographical coverage, and the weak articulation between micro-level (individual cognition) and macro-level (institutional context) analyses. The section argues for the theoretical contribution of the study by proposing a model that integrates these factors within a causal and comparative framework for Latin America, thereby strengthening the understanding of university entrepreneurial behavior from a regional and updated perspective. Comment: The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity . Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s comment regarding the sample size and selection. The study employed a voluntary, purposive sampling strategy, coordinated with accredited universities in five Latin American countries, to ensure diversity among participants in terms of gender, academic level, and institutional background. The achieved sample sizes per country (Mexico = 168, Peru = 100, Ecuador = 147, Paraguay = 84, Colombia = 41; total N = 541) exceed the minimum thresholds recommended for cross-cultural comparative analyses (Field, 2013). To verify empirical adequacy, a post hoc power analysis was conducted for an omnibus comparison equivalent to the Kruskal–Wallis test (five groups, α = .05, medium effect f = 0.25 ≈ η² = 0.06; Cohen, 1988). The resulting statistical power was 0.97, indicating that the total sample was more than sufficient to detect effects of medium magnitude. Consistently, the descriptive results in Appendix A show low standard errors (SE ≤ 0.14) and small to moderate effect sizes (ω² and ε²), supporting the precision and stability of the estimates. Although voluntary sampling limits strict representativeness, diversity was maximized by recruiting from multiple ACBSP-accredited universities in each country. This approach aligns with methodological standards in cross-national research on entrepreneurial education (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; López et al., 2021). Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065 Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. López, F., Contreras, F., & Barbosa, D. (2021). Entrepreneurial intention in higher education: The role of personality traits and support mechanisms. International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100569 Comment: It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. Response: Thank you very much for the observation. The results have been separated from the discussion, which has now been developed into a dedicated Discussion section. Comment: The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. Response: Thank you very much. A Discussion section has been incorporated, where the results are compared with relevant international studies. In this discussion, we show that by empirically linking attitudinal, cognitive, and contextual dimensions, our study advances toward a unified model capable of explaining how education and ecosystem experiences jointly sustain entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. Comment: It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. Response: The Limitations and Future Research Directions sections have been incorporated. Comment: The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Response: Thank you very much for the recommendation. The following research questions have been included: (1) What psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors explain entrepreneurial intention and action among business students from ACBSP-accredited Latin American universities? (2) How do cross-country differences reflect the influence of institutional and cultural contexts on students’ entrepreneurial profiles? (3) What implications do these findings have for curricular design and for strengthening university entrepreneurship ecosystems in the region? Comment: Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s suggestion. In response, descriptive statistics (including means, standard deviations, standard errors, and effect sizes ω² and ε² for each variable and country) are presented in Appendix A. These tables complement the raincloud plots by providing numerical values that support precise interpretation and potential replication of the study. Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar of your expertise. We have carefully considered all your comments and suggestions, and below we detail the revisions made in response to each of them. Comment: It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. Response: Thank you very much for your comment. In response to the reviewer’s recommendation, an expanded section on theoretical background has been incorporated to contextualize the study within the Latin American literature on University Entrepreneurial Behavior (UEB). This section synthesizes the main theories and quantitative findings developed in the region over the past 15 years, highlighting the predominance of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) and the incorporation of competency-based approaches (Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019). It also analyzes cross-national comparative studies that integrate psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. Furthermore, it identifies existing gaps in the regional literature, such as the scarcity of longitudinal studies, the limited integration among psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors, the unequal geographical coverage, and the weak articulation between micro-level (individual cognition) and macro-level (institutional context) analyses. The section argues for the theoretical contribution of the study by proposing a model that integrates these factors within a causal and comparative framework for Latin America, thereby strengthening the understanding of university entrepreneurial behavior from a regional and updated perspective. Comment: The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity . Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s comment regarding the sample size and selection. The study employed a voluntary, purposive sampling strategy, coordinated with accredited universities in five Latin American countries, to ensure diversity among participants in terms of gender, academic level, and institutional background. The achieved sample sizes per country (Mexico = 168, Peru = 100, Ecuador = 147, Paraguay = 84, Colombia = 41; total N = 541) exceed the minimum thresholds recommended for cross-cultural comparative analyses (Field, 2013). To verify empirical adequacy, a post hoc power analysis was conducted for an omnibus comparison equivalent to the Kruskal–Wallis test (five groups, α = .05, medium effect f = 0.25 ≈ η² = 0.06; Cohen, 1988). The resulting statistical power was 0.97, indicating that the total sample was more than sufficient to detect effects of medium magnitude. Consistently, the descriptive results in Appendix A show low standard errors (SE ≤ 0.14) and small to moderate effect sizes (ω² and ε²), supporting the precision and stability of the estimates. Although voluntary sampling limits strict representativeness, diversity was maximized by recruiting from multiple ACBSP-accredited universities in each country. This approach aligns with methodological standards in cross-national research on entrepreneurial education (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; López et al., 2021). Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065 Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. López, F., Contreras, F., & Barbosa, D. (2021). Entrepreneurial intention in higher education: The role of personality traits and support mechanisms. International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100569 Comment: It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. Response: Thank you very much for the observation. The results have been separated from the discussion, which has now been developed into a dedicated Discussion section. Comment: The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. Response: Thank you very much. A Discussion section has been incorporated, where the results are compared with relevant international studies. In this discussion, we show that by empirically linking attitudinal, cognitive, and contextual dimensions, our study advances toward a unified model capable of explaining how education and ecosystem experiences jointly sustain entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. Comment: It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. Response: The Limitations and Future Research Directions sections have been incorporated. Comment: The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Response: Thank you very much for the recommendation. The following research questions have been included: (1) What psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors explain entrepreneurial intention and action among business students from ACBSP-accredited Latin American universities? (2) How do cross-country differences reflect the influence of institutional and cultural contexts on students’ entrepreneurial profiles? (3) What implications do these findings have for curricular design and for strengthening university entrepreneurship ecosystems in the region? Comment: Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s suggestion. In response, descriptive statistics (including means, standard deviations, standard errors, and effect sizes ω² and ε² for each variable and country) are presented in Appendix A. These tables complement the raincloud plots by providing numerical values that support precise interpretation and potential replication of the study. Competing Interests: There are no conflicts of interest. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 27 Nov 2025 Marisleidy Alba , $usrAffiliation 27 Nov 2025 Author Response Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar ... Continue reading Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar of your expertise. We have carefully considered all your comments and suggestions, and below we detail the revisions made in response to each of them. Comment: It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. Response: Thank you very much for your comment. In response to the reviewer’s recommendation, an expanded section on theoretical background has been incorporated to contextualize the study within the Latin American literature on University Entrepreneurial Behavior (UEB). This section synthesizes the main theories and quantitative findings developed in the region over the past 15 years, highlighting the predominance of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) and the incorporation of competency-based approaches (Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019). It also analyzes cross-national comparative studies that integrate psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. Furthermore, it identifies existing gaps in the regional literature, such as the scarcity of longitudinal studies, the limited integration among psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors, the unequal geographical coverage, and the weak articulation between micro-level (individual cognition) and macro-level (institutional context) analyses. The section argues for the theoretical contribution of the study by proposing a model that integrates these factors within a causal and comparative framework for Latin America, thereby strengthening the understanding of university entrepreneurial behavior from a regional and updated perspective. Comment: The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity . Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s comment regarding the sample size and selection. The study employed a voluntary, purposive sampling strategy, coordinated with accredited universities in five Latin American countries, to ensure diversity among participants in terms of gender, academic level, and institutional background. The achieved sample sizes per country (Mexico = 168, Peru = 100, Ecuador = 147, Paraguay = 84, Colombia = 41; total N = 541) exceed the minimum thresholds recommended for cross-cultural comparative analyses (Field, 2013). To verify empirical adequacy, a post hoc power analysis was conducted for an omnibus comparison equivalent to the Kruskal–Wallis test (five groups, α = .05, medium effect f = 0.25 ≈ η² = 0.06; Cohen, 1988). The resulting statistical power was 0.97, indicating that the total sample was more than sufficient to detect effects of medium magnitude. Consistently, the descriptive results in Appendix A show low standard errors (SE ≤ 0.14) and small to moderate effect sizes (ω² and ε²), supporting the precision and stability of the estimates. Although voluntary sampling limits strict representativeness, diversity was maximized by recruiting from multiple ACBSP-accredited universities in each country. This approach aligns with methodological standards in cross-national research on entrepreneurial education (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; López et al., 2021). Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065 Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. López, F., Contreras, F., & Barbosa, D. (2021). Entrepreneurial intention in higher education: The role of personality traits and support mechanisms. International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100569 Comment: It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. Response: Thank you very much for the observation. The results have been separated from the discussion, which has now been developed into a dedicated Discussion section. Comment: The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. Response: Thank you very much. A Discussion section has been incorporated, where the results are compared with relevant international studies. In this discussion, we show that by empirically linking attitudinal, cognitive, and contextual dimensions, our study advances toward a unified model capable of explaining how education and ecosystem experiences jointly sustain entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. Comment: It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. Response: The Limitations and Future Research Directions sections have been incorporated. Comment: The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Response: Thank you very much for the recommendation. The following research questions have been included: (1) What psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors explain entrepreneurial intention and action among business students from ACBSP-accredited Latin American universities? (2) How do cross-country differences reflect the influence of institutional and cultural contexts on students’ entrepreneurial profiles? (3) What implications do these findings have for curricular design and for strengthening university entrepreneurship ecosystems in the region? Comment: Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s suggestion. In response, descriptive statistics (including means, standard deviations, standard errors, and effect sizes ω² and ε² for each variable and country) are presented in Appendix A. These tables complement the raincloud plots by providing numerical values that support precise interpretation and potential replication of the study. Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar of your expertise. We have carefully considered all your comments and suggestions, and below we detail the revisions made in response to each of them. Comment: It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. Response: Thank you very much for your comment. In response to the reviewer’s recommendation, an expanded section on theoretical background has been incorporated to contextualize the study within the Latin American literature on University Entrepreneurial Behavior (UEB). This section synthesizes the main theories and quantitative findings developed in the region over the past 15 years, highlighting the predominance of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) and the incorporation of competency-based approaches (Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019). It also analyzes cross-national comparative studies that integrate psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. Furthermore, it identifies existing gaps in the regional literature, such as the scarcity of longitudinal studies, the limited integration among psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors, the unequal geographical coverage, and the weak articulation between micro-level (individual cognition) and macro-level (institutional context) analyses. The section argues for the theoretical contribution of the study by proposing a model that integrates these factors within a causal and comparative framework for Latin America, thereby strengthening the understanding of university entrepreneurial behavior from a regional and updated perspective. Comment: The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity . Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s comment regarding the sample size and selection. The study employed a voluntary, purposive sampling strategy, coordinated with accredited universities in five Latin American countries, to ensure diversity among participants in terms of gender, academic level, and institutional background. The achieved sample sizes per country (Mexico = 168, Peru = 100, Ecuador = 147, Paraguay = 84, Colombia = 41; total N = 541) exceed the minimum thresholds recommended for cross-cultural comparative analyses (Field, 2013). To verify empirical adequacy, a post hoc power analysis was conducted for an omnibus comparison equivalent to the Kruskal–Wallis test (five groups, α = .05, medium effect f = 0.25 ≈ η² = 0.06; Cohen, 1988). The resulting statistical power was 0.97, indicating that the total sample was more than sufficient to detect effects of medium magnitude. Consistently, the descriptive results in Appendix A show low standard errors (SE ≤ 0.14) and small to moderate effect sizes (ω² and ε²), supporting the precision and stability of the estimates. Although voluntary sampling limits strict representativeness, diversity was maximized by recruiting from multiple ACBSP-accredited universities in each country. This approach aligns with methodological standards in cross-national research on entrepreneurial education (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; López et al., 2021). Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065 Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. López, F., Contreras, F., & Barbosa, D. (2021). Entrepreneurial intention in higher education: The role of personality traits and support mechanisms. International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100569 Comment: It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. Response: Thank you very much for the observation. The results have been separated from the discussion, which has now been developed into a dedicated Discussion section. Comment: The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. Response: Thank you very much. A Discussion section has been incorporated, where the results are compared with relevant international studies. In this discussion, we show that by empirically linking attitudinal, cognitive, and contextual dimensions, our study advances toward a unified model capable of explaining how education and ecosystem experiences jointly sustain entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. Comment: It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. Response: The Limitations and Future Research Directions sections have been incorporated. Comment: The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Response: Thank you very much for the recommendation. The following research questions have been included: (1) What psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors explain entrepreneurial intention and action among business students from ACBSP-accredited Latin American universities? (2) How do cross-country differences reflect the influence of institutional and cultural contexts on students’ entrepreneurial profiles? (3) What implications do these findings have for curricular design and for strengthening university entrepreneurship ecosystems in the region? Comment: Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s suggestion. In response, descriptive statistics (including means, standard deviations, standard errors, and effect sizes ω² and ε² for each variable and country) are presented in Appendix A. These tables complement the raincloud plots by providing numerical values that support precise interpretation and potential replication of the study. Competing Interests: There are no conflicts of interest. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 3 VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 18 Sep 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 Version 3 (revision) 14 Feb 26 read read Version 2 (revision) 27 Nov 25 read Version 1 18 Sep 25 read Alejandro Valencia-Arias , Universidad Señor de Sipán, Chiclayo, Peru Ahmet Maslakçı , World Peace University, Mersin, Turkey Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Maslakçı A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 12 Mar 2026 | for Version 3 Ahmet Maslakçı , World Peace University, Mersin, Nicosia, Turkey 0 Views copyright © 2026 Maslakçı A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Thank you for the revisions to the study.The authors had implemented the corrections I had suggested for their work. Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Entrepreneurship-Multiculturalism-Organisational Behaviour I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 14 Mar 2026 Marisleidy Alba, Dear Reviewer, thank you very much for your time in reading and reviewing our manuscript. View more View less Competing Interests We declare that I have no competing interests reply Respond Report a concern Maslakçı A. Peer Review Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.196266.r458599) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v3#referee-response-458599 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Valencia-Arias A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 05 Mar 2026 | for Version 3 Alejandro Valencia-Arias , Universidad Señor de Sipán, Chiclayo, Peru 0 Views copyright © 2026 Valencia-Arias A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions I confirm that the authors have adequately addressed the comments and suggestions raised during the review process. The revisions have improved the clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence of the manuscript. Therefore, I consider that the authors have satisfactorily complied with the requested modifications and the manuscript can be indexed. Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Entrepreneurship I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 09 Mar 2026 Marisleidy Alba, Dear Reviewer, Thank you very much for the time and careful attention you devoted to our manuscript. We sincerely appreciate your constructive comments and suggestions throughout the review process, which helped us to strengthen the work substantially. We are grateful for your confirmation that the revisions have improved the manuscript’s clarity, methodological transparency, and overall coherence, and that we have satisfactorily addressed the requested modifications. We also appreciate your indication that the manuscript can proceed to indexing. Thank you again for your valuable contribution. Kind regards, Marisleidy Alba (on behalf of all co-authors) View more View less Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. reply Respond Report a concern Valencia-Arias A. Peer Review Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.196266.r458600) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v3#referee-response-458600 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Maslakçı A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 15 Jan 2026 | for Version 2 Ahmet Maslakçı , World Peace University, Mersin, Nicosia, Turkey 0 Views copyright © 2026 Maslakçı A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The theoretical part of the study needs further development. The authors need to address the study's importance, its purpose, and its contribution to the literature and to practical life in greater detail. Although the rain cloud graphics method used in the study appears visually appealing, I would personally find it more satisfying if the study had been conducted using SPSS and Amos. The study's sample also requires a more detailed examination of how and why this sample was selected. Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? The abstract section of the study should provide information on the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. The introduction section of the study should mention why the variables were selected, the importance of the research question and how it differs from other studies. It should also mention the contributions the study will make to the literature and practical life. Studies conducted over the last 15 years are mentioned, but no references are provided or discussed. The theoretical background of the study should include the elements that should be in the introduction. The theoretical background should also describe the relationship among the variables, with references to relevant literature. Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Information must be provided about the universities in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Paraguay and Colombia included in the study and the universities from which participants were selected. It would also be useful to include the study's conceptual model. If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Although the use of rain cloud graphics is visually successful and innovative, using SPSS or Amos to present the explanatory graphics of this study and examine the effects of mediation and moderation would have made the model more understandable, given the selected variables and sample. Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Separating the Results and Discussion sections will enhance the study. This will ensure that the findings, evaluations, and analyses in the Discussion section are clearer and easier to understand. Additionally, the findings should be considered in terms of their contributions to the literature and their practical contributions. This will enable recommendations to be made to policymakers and university management. Future recommendations can also include cultural differences in the study. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Entrepreneurship-Multiculturalism-Organisational Behaviour I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 06 Feb 2026 Marisleidy Alba, We sincerely appreciate the reviewer’s valuable and constructive feedback. In response, we have undertaken targeted revisions to enhance the theoretical clarity, methodological transparency, and practical relevance of the manuscript. We outline the implemented changes below and address each of the reviewer’s comments. All revisions are highlighted in green in the revised manuscript. Reviewer comment: Further development of the theoretical framework is required, as well as greater clarity regarding the importance, purpose, and contributions of the study. Response: These aspects were explicitly strengthened by clearly stating the study’s purpose, identifying the gap in the Latin American transnational literature, and specifying the study’s theoretical and practical contributions. In addition, the Theoretical Background was revised to include an integrative opening statement, an explicit description of the relationships among the variables supported by relevant empirical literature from the last 15 years, and a final synthesis linking the conceptual framework to the empirical analyses. Reviewer comment: The abstract should indicate the purpose, methods, findings, and significance of the study. Response: The Abstract was revised to explicitly state the study’s purpose, methodological approach, key findings (distinguishing entrepreneurial intention, discovery, and exploitation phases), and its practical relevance for curriculum design and university entrepreneurship ecosystems. Reviewer comment: More detailed information is required regarding the sample and the participating universities. Response: The Methods/ Participants section was expanded to clarify the sampling strategy, justify the use of ACBSP-accredited universities as a criterion for institutional comparability, describe the sample distribution by country, explain the multinational recruitment process, and outline the ethical reasons for not disclosing the names of the participating institutions. Reviewer comment: The use of SPSS/AMOS and mediation or moderation analyses is suggested. Response: We appreciate this suggestion. The study was intentionally designed as an exploratory and cross-national comparative analysis rather than a confirmatory model. In line with the ordinal nature of the data and the descriptive–explanatory objective, non-parametric analyses, correlational analyses, regression models, and visual analytics using raincloud plots were employed. Mediation and moderation analyses are identified as a direction for future confirmatory research. Reviewer comment: Separating the Results and Discussion sections and strengthening theoretical, practical, and cultural contributions is recommended. Response: This recommendation was implemented. The manuscript now presents separate Results and Discussion sections, and the theoretical, practical, and cultural implications were strengthened, including recommendations for university management and the design of context-sensitive institutional policies. View more View less Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. reply Respond Report a concern Maslakçı A. Peer Review Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.191969.r445561) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v2#referee-response-445561 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Valencia-Arias A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 31 Oct 2025 | for Version 1 Alejandro Valencia-Arias , Universidad Señor de Sipán, Chiclayo, Peru 0 Views copyright © 2025 Valencia-Arias A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity. It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise entrepreneurial intention I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 27 Nov 2025 Marisleidy Alba, Dear Reviewer, We sincerely thank you for the time and effort dedicated to reviewing our manuscript. It is an honor to have our work read and evaluated by a scholar of your expertise. We have carefully considered all your comments and suggestions, and below we detail the revisions made in response to each of them. Comment: It is recommended to include a broader theoretical background section that contextualizes the study within the Latin American literature on university entrepreneurial behavior. This would highlight the gaps addressed by the research and strengthen its theoretical contribution. Response: Thank you very much for your comment. In response to the reviewer’s recommendation, an expanded section on theoretical background has been incorporated to contextualize the study within the Latin American literature on University Entrepreneurial Behavior (UEB). This section synthesizes the main theories and quantitative findings developed in the region over the past 15 years, highlighting the predominance of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) and the incorporation of competency-based approaches (Fernández-Pérez et al., 2019). It also analyzes cross-national comparative studies that integrate psychological, cognitive, and contextual variables in countries such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. Furthermore, it identifies existing gaps in the regional literature, such as the scarcity of longitudinal studies, the limited integration among psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors, the unequal geographical coverage, and the weak articulation between micro-level (individual cognition) and macro-level (institutional context) analyses. The section argues for the theoretical contribution of the study by proposing a model that integrates these factors within a causal and comparative framework for Latin America, thereby strengthening the understanding of university entrepreneurial behavior from a regional and updated perspective. Comment: The sample size and selection should be explained in greater detail, including the justification for the number of participants per country, the voluntary sampling criterion, and potential limitations of representativeness. Including a statistical power analysis or a theoretical reference would strengthen methodological validity . Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s comment regarding the sample size and selection. The study employed a voluntary, purposive sampling strategy, coordinated with accredited universities in five Latin American countries, to ensure diversity among participants in terms of gender, academic level, and institutional background. The achieved sample sizes per country (Mexico = 168, Peru = 100, Ecuador = 147, Paraguay = 84, Colombia = 41; total N = 541) exceed the minimum thresholds recommended for cross-cultural comparative analyses (Field, 2013). To verify empirical adequacy, a post hoc power analysis was conducted for an omnibus comparison equivalent to the Kruskal–Wallis test (five groups, α = .05, medium effect f = 0.25 ≈ η² = 0.06; Cohen, 1988). The resulting statistical power was 0.97, indicating that the total sample was more than sufficient to detect effects of medium magnitude. Consistently, the descriptive results in Appendix A show low standard errors (SE ≤ 0.14) and small to moderate effect sizes (ω² and ε²), supporting the precision and stability of the estimates. Although voluntary sampling limits strict representativeness, diversity was maximized by recruiting from multiple ACBSP-accredited universities in each country. This approach aligns with methodological standards in cross-national research on entrepreneurial education (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; López et al., 2021). Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065 Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. López, F., Contreras, F., & Barbosa, D. (2021). Entrepreneurial intention in higher education: The role of personality traits and support mechanisms. International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100569 Comment: It is suggested to clearly separate the Results and Discussion sections, as empirical descriptions and theoretical interpretations are currently intertwined, making the analysis difficult to read and understand. A structural division would provide greater rigor and clarity of argument. Response: Thank you very much for the observation. The results have been separated from the discussion, which has now been developed into a dedicated Discussion section. Comment: The Discussion section should delve into the added value of the study, explaining its practical implications for universities in the region and comparing the results with relevant international research. This will highlight the unique contribution of the work. Response: Thank you very much. A Discussion section has been incorporated, where the results are compared with relevant international studies. In this discussion, we show that by empirically linking attitudinal, cognitive, and contextual dimensions, our study advances toward a unified model capable of explaining how education and ecosystem experiences jointly sustain entrepreneurial behavior in university contexts. Comment: It is recommended to add a section on limitations and future lines of research, addressing aspects such as the cross-sectional design, the use of self-reports, and cultural differences between countries. This section would enhance transparency and provide guidance for future studies. Response: The Limitations and Future Research Directions sections have been incorporated. Comment: The introduction could include explicit research questions or hypotheses, which better articulate the objectives with the methodology and results. This would increase the internal coherence of the manuscript and facilitate the assessment of theoretical validity. Response: Thank you very much for the recommendation. The following research questions have been included: (1) What psychological, cognitive, and contextual factors explain entrepreneurial intention and action among business students from ACBSP-accredited Latin American universities? (2) How do cross-country differences reflect the influence of institutional and cultural contexts on students’ entrepreneurial profiles? (3) What implications do these findings have for curricular design and for strengthening university entrepreneurship ecosystems in the region? Comment: Although the use of raincloud plots is a visual success, it would be advisable to complement them with descriptive tables (means, standard deviations, and effect sizes) to allow for more precise interpretation and possible replication of the study. Response: We appreciate the reviewer’s suggestion. In response, descriptive statistics (including means, standard deviations, standard errors, and effect sizes ω² and ε² for each variable and country) are presented in Appendix A. These tables complement the raincloud plots by providing numerical values that support precise interpretation and potential replication of the study. View more View less Competing Interests There are no conflicts of interest. reply Respond Report a concern Valencia-Arias A. Peer Review Report For: Cross-national Dataset on Psychological, Cognitive, and Contextual Factors of Entrepreneurial Behavior in Business Students [version 3; peer review: 2 approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :935 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.186207.r416191) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-935/v1#referee-response-416191 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. 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