Health Risk Assessment of Nitrate and Fluoride in Groundwater Across 10 Nigerian States

Health Risk Assessment of Nitrate and Fluoride in Groundwater Across 10 Nigerian States | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Health Risk Assessment of Nitrate and Fluoride in Groundwater Across 10 Nigerian States Adewole Michael Gbadebo, Chukwudi Michael Duru, Oluwatoyin Oluwaseun Makanjuola, and 15 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7584799/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 08 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Environmental Geochemistry and Health → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Nitrate and Fluoride are both useful and deadly at varying concentrations, hence the need for continuous monitoring. This study assessed the human health risks associated with groundwater usage by adults, teenagers, children, and infants across Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti, Ondo, Imo, Ebonyi, Delta, and Abuja. A total of 623 groundwater samples (537 wells and 86 boreholes) were analyzed for nitrate and fluoride using standard procedures. Fluoride concentrations ranged from 1.25 ± 0.07 to 8.47 ± 3.19 mg/L, with most samples exceeding the WHO, SON, and NESREA guideline of 1.5 mg/L. Elevated levels were particularly evident in Abuja, Osun, Ondo, and Oyo, reflecting widespread geogenic enrichment. Nitrate levels were generally within safe limits (2.50–13.37 mg/L), except in Delta State communities (Kurutie, Kunukunuma, Okerenkoko), where values exceeded 50 mg/L, suggesting contamination from oil activities, industrial discharges, and poor sanitation practices. Risk assessment showed oral ingestion as the primary exposure pathway. The Hazard Quotient for fluoride via ingestion (HQ > 1) indicated significant non-cancer risks for all age groups, especially infants and teenagers. Dermal risk was negligible in all cases. The Hazard Quotient for nitrate via ingestion (HQ < 1) was also negligible in all communities except for Kurutie, Kunukunuma and Okerenkoko. The Mean Cancer Risk (MCR) values for nitrate exceeded the USEPA threshold (1 × 10⁻⁶) across all age groups, with Delta State hotspots reaching 10⁻³. Findings demonstrate that groundwater in the region poses both non-cancer and cancer risks, underscoring the urgent need for intervention strategies such as defluoridation, denitrification, and provision of safe alternatives. Cancer Risk of Nitrate Nitrate Carcinogenic Health Risk Fluoride Pollution Niger Delta Pollution Groundwater Contamination Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SIHRANO3andFin10States.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 08 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Environmental Geochemistry and Health → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 28 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 11 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 08 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 04 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 17 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 12 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 11 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 10 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7584799","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":519415781,"identity":"b4439706-4d15-4e9c-b28e-4c69d86c6276","order_by":0,"name":"Adewole Michael Gbadebo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Agriculture","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adewole","middleName":"Michael","lastName":"Gbadebo","suffix":""},{"id":519415782,"identity":"e361c24e-4256-496a-8c9c-08133f0ba36f","order_by":1,"name":"Chukwudi Michael Duru","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of 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States","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-geochemistry-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"egah","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Geochemistry and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/10653)","snPcode":"10653","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10653/3","title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Cancer Risk of Nitrate, Nitrate Carcinogenic Health Risk, Fluoride Pollution, Niger Delta Pollution, Groundwater Contamination","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7584799/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7584799/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNitrate and Fluoride are both useful and deadly at varying concentrations, hence the need for continuous monitoring. This study assessed the human health risks associated with groundwater usage by adults, teenagers, children, and infants across Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti, Ondo, Imo, Ebonyi, Delta, and Abuja. A total of 623 groundwater samples (537 wells and 86 boreholes) were analyzed for nitrate and fluoride using standard procedures. Fluoride concentrations ranged from 1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 to 8.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.19 mg/L, with most samples exceeding the WHO, SON, and NESREA guideline of 1.5 mg/L. Elevated levels were particularly evident in Abuja, Osun, Ondo, and Oyo, reflecting widespread geogenic enrichment. Nitrate levels were generally within safe limits (2.50\u0026ndash;13.37 mg/L), except in Delta State communities (Kurutie, Kunukunuma, Okerenkoko), where values exceeded 50 mg/L, suggesting contamination from oil activities, industrial discharges, and poor sanitation practices. Risk assessment showed oral ingestion as the primary exposure pathway. The Hazard Quotient for fluoride via ingestion (HQ\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1) indicated significant non-cancer risks for all age groups, especially infants and teenagers. Dermal risk was negligible in all cases. The Hazard Quotient for nitrate via ingestion (HQ\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1) was also negligible in all communities except for Kurutie, Kunukunuma and Okerenkoko. The Mean Cancer Risk (MCR) values for nitrate exceeded the USEPA threshold (1 \u0026times; 10⁻⁶) across all age groups, with Delta State hotspots reaching 10⁻\u0026sup3;. Findings demonstrate that groundwater in the region poses both non-cancer and cancer risks, underscoring the urgent need for intervention strategies such as defluoridation, denitrification, and provision of safe alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Health Risk Assessment of Nitrate and Fluoride in Groundwater Across 10 Nigerian States","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-25 15:35:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7584799/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-29T00:36:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-12T01:27:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-08T16:59:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-04T16:04:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"113678288185503063659764606790770468255","date":"2025-09-22T13:32:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"80835916724590551701224117463314620054","date":"2025-09-18T14:33:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"37444710181197577434416422656460044421","date":"2025-09-17T14:28:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"132892129828091802727813864960935009708","date":"2025-09-17T10:23:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-17T04:51:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-12T18:23:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-11T17:23:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health","date":"2025-09-10T16:07:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-geochemistry-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"egah","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Geochemistry and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/10653)","snPcode":"10653","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10653/3","title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"76141b79-b8cc-4d17-ad30-9fa509af1df7","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-09T16:07:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7584799","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-026-03064-4","journal":{"identity":"environmental-geochemistry-and-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-08 15:59:47","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 8th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-25 15:35:26","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10653-026-03064-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-026-03064-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7584799","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7584799","identity":"rs-7584799","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}