Feco-Prevalence and Risk Factors of Helicobacter pylori Infection among Adults with Dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia: A Cross Sectional Study

Feco-Prevalence and Risk Factors of Helicobacter pylori Infection among Adults with Dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia: A Cross Sectional Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Feco-Prevalence and Risk Factors of Helicobacter pylori Infection among Adults with Dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia: A Cross Sectional Study Mohamed Yusuf Abdi, Rowdo Mohamed Mohamud, Salma Yusuf Abdullahi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7681165/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 09 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Gut Pathogens → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Helicobacter pylori is one of the most prevalent bacterial infections in humans, affecting more than half of the global population. It is a major contributor to gastric disorders among patients attending gastroenterology clinics. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the fecal prevalence and associated factors of Helicobacter pylori infection in adult patients with dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia. Methods: A cross-sectional investigation was conducted at Shaafi Hospital between February and June 2025, encompassing 385 adult patients with dyspepsia. Researchers employed structured questionnaires to collect sociodemographic data and Helicobacter pylori infection-associated factors. H. pylori fecal antigen was detected in stool samples using lateral flow immunochromatographic assay. Binary and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the factors involved. A statistical association between variables was recognized when the p-value was below 0.05, ensuring a 95% confidence level. Results: Out of 385 adult patients with dyspepsia examined, 40% (n = 154) tested positive for H. pylori infection. Bivariate analysis revealed several factors linked to the infection: residing with children or elderly individuals (OR = 0.447, p = 0.014), consuming unwashed fruits or vegetables (OR = 1.658, p = 0.017), and eating white meat (OR = 1.986, p = 0.001). However, in the multivariate analysis, only two factors remained significant: living with children or elderly people was associated with a reduced likelihood of infection (AOR = 0.471, p = 0.015), whereas consumption of white meat was associated with a higher risk of infection (AOR = 1.699, p = 0.019). Other factors, such as hygiene habits, income, education, and smoking, did not show statistically significant associations. Conclusion: This study found a notable prevalence of H. pylori infection among adults with dyspepsia. Consumption of white meat was associated with an increased risk of infection, whereas living with children or elderly individuals appeared to provide some protection. These findings highlight the need for targeted public health strategies and suggest the need for further investigation into dietary and household factors that may influence H. pylori transmission. Helicobacter pylori Dyspepsia Prevalence Risk Factors Somalia Background Dyspepsia, often referred to as indigestion, is characterized by persistent or repeated discomfort in the upper abdomen, including symptoms such as pain, a sense of fullness, bloating, nausea, and feeling full quickly. It is generally divided into two primary types: organic dyspepsia, where a structural or biochemical issue, such as peptic ulcer disease (PUD), cancer, or gastrointestinal reflux; and functional dyspepsia (FD), formerly known as non-ulcer dyspepsia, where no organic cause is found even after comprehensive evaluation, including endoscopy. Functional dyspepsia is the most common subtype, with research indicating that more than 70% of people experiencing dyspeptic symptoms do not show abnormalities on endoscopy, thereby qualifying for FD diagnosis (1). In a 2024 meta-analysis that utilized the Rome criteria across various adult populations globally, the estimated worldwide prevalence of functional dyspepsia was 8.4% (95% CI: 7.4–9.5%) (2). Its prevalence was significantly higher in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). A study conducted across multiple countries found an average rate of 37.9%, with figures ranging from approximately 26% to 44%. These rates are particularly high among Afro-Caribbean populations such as Sudan (44.3%) and Egypt (41.4%) (3). In sub-Saharan Africa, data collected from communities in Rwanda indicated a dyspepsia prevalence rate of 14.2% when strict criteria were used. However, previous research focusing on specific populations, such as patients with diabetes in Kenya, found significantly higher rates, up to 53% (4). When dyspepsia is not treated, it can lead to diminished quality of life for patients, manifesting in issues such as anxiety, depression, and somatization (5). A recent review from Africa reported a H. pylori prevalence of approximately 79.1%, highlighting its widespread presence and its contribution to dyspepsia and peptic ulcer disease in the area (6). In people with functional dyspepsia (FD), untreated Helicobacter pylori infection can lead to significant long-term complications, even in the absence of visible structural issues. The main risks involve the onset of peptic ulcer disease, chronic atrophic gastritis, and potentially gastric cancer, such as gastric adenocarcinoma and MALT lymphoma (7). Additionally, the infection might cause hypochlorhydria, which impairs digestion and nutrient absorption, and could also lead to gastric motility disorders (8). While not all FD patients face complications, the presence of H. pylori increases healthcare usage due to recurring symptoms and the necessity for diagnostic evaluations, underscoring the importance of early detection and treatment. Moreover, no study has been conducted on the feco-prevalence and related risk factors of H. pylori infection among adults with dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia. Hence, the current study aimed to determine the prevalence of H. pylori infection in dyspeptic patients by using a stool antigen test, which is effective in detecting acute infections and evaluating potential risk factors. Methodology Study Design, Study Area and Study Population This cross-sectional study was conducted at the outpatient department of Shaafi Hospital, a private, multi-specialty healthcare facility situated in the Hodan district of Mogadishu, Banaadir region, from February 1st to April 30, 2025. The study included patients aged 18 years and older who were experiencing dyspepsia. Individuals who had been previously diagnosed with an active peptic ulcer or stomach cancer, as well as those who had undergone H. pylori eradication treatment in the past three months, were not included in the study. Sample Size Determination and Sampling Techniques The formula for a single-population proportion was used to calculate the required sample size for estimating prevalence, based on a 50% prevalence rate, a 5% margin of error, and a 95% confidence interval. Consequently, the sample size was rounded up to include 385 participants. Study participants were selected using a simple random sampling technique. Data collection and variables Data on the sociodemographic, environmental, and behavioral characteristics of the study participants were collected using a structured, pretested questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews conducted in Somali. The principal investigator trained the data collectors on the data collection process. The participants were asked to provide a fecal sample weighing approximately 50 mg. This study primarily focused on the prevalence of H. pylori infection in adult dyspepsia patients. The independent variables included some of potential risk factors associated with H. pylori infection which could have influenced its prevalence in the study group. These factors encompassed a wide range of sociodemographic, behavioral, environmental, and lifestyle characteristics of the participants. The sociodemographic variables considered were gender, age group, education level, occupation, monthly income in USD, marital status, and family size. The behavioral factors examined included habits such as smoking or khat chewing, consumption of spicy or fatty foods, intake of caffeinated beverages (such as coffee, tea, and energy drinks), and the frequency of consumption of red meat, white meat, and fast food. Additionally, environmental and lifestyle-related risk factors were evaluated, including whether participants drank untreated or unfiltered water, kept domestic animals in their households, practiced handwashing before meals and after using the toilet, and emptied trash bags daily. These variables were analyzed to explore their potential impact on the prevalence of H. pylori infection in the target population. Specimen Collection and Laboratory Analysis Each dyspeptic patient was provided a clean, dry, wide-mouthed, screw-capped plastic container without disinfectants or preservatives. The participants were clearly instructed, in Somali language, on how to collect a fresh stool sample. Approximately 5 grams of stool sample was collected from each patient. The samples were labeled with unique codes, time-stamped, and immediately placed in a cool box (2–8°C) for transport to the Microbiology Lab, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, SIMAD University. All the samples were immediately processed to ensure antigen stability. The samples were analyzed in the H. pylori Stool Antigen Rapid Test Kit (One-Step H. pylori Feces Test, Guangzhou Wondfo Biotech, China). The diagnostic test employs a lateral flow immunochromatographic assay, which achieves a sensitivity of 99.20% and specificity of 99.26% for the detection of H. pylori antigens in stool specimens (9). Data Analysis The data collection and analysis were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. Descriptive statistics were obtained for the demographic information. Categorical variables were presented as frequencies and proportions. Frequency analyses were performed to evaluate the occurrence of H. pylori infections. To identify the factors linked to H. pylori infection, both bivariate and multivariate analyses were utilized. Bivariate analysis involved calculating crude odds ratios and p-values through chi-square tests, with results shown in a table and statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Variables with a p-value < 0.20 were subsequently included in the multivariate logistic regression to determine adjusted associations. The outcomes of the multivariate analysis, which included adjusted odds ratios and p-values, are also displayed in the tables, maintaining a significance level of p < 0.05. Results Sociodemographic characteristics of the Study Participants The demographic characteristics of dyspepsia patients revealed that the majority were male, accounting for 60.0%, and 80.8% were aged 45 years or younger. Most of these patients were married (62.9%), while 27.5% were single, and 9.6% were either widowed or divorced. In terms of educational background, 72.7% had received formal education, whereas 27.3% had informal education. Regarding employment, 56.1% were employed, and 43.9% were unemployed. When it came to monthly income, 53.0% earned over 300 USD, while 47.0% had an income of 300 USD or less. Furthermore, 66.5% of the patients belonged to families with more than five members, while 33.5% were from families with five or fewer members (Table 1 ). Table 1 Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Study Participants. Variable F (%) Gender Male 231 (60.0%) Female 154 (40.0%) Age ≤ 45 years 321 (80.8%) ˃ 46 years 74 (19.2%) Marital status Single 106 (27.5%) Married 242 (62.9%) Widowed /divorced 37 (9.6%) Income (USD/month) ≤ 300 181 (47.0%) ˃ 300 204 (53.0%) Education status Informal education 105 (27.3%) Formal education 280 (72.7%) Occupational status Employed 216 (56.1%) Un-employed 169 (43.9%) Family size ≤ 5 129 (33.5%) ˃ 5 265 (66.5%) Environmental and Behavioral Characteristics of the Study Participants' Households The data highlight significant trends in household hygiene habits and living conditions. A large majority of respondents (96.9%) frequently reported eating meals prepared outside their homes. Furthermore, 91.7% of participants reported drinking untreated water. The results for hygiene practices were generally positive. A significant number of individuals consistently practiced hand hygiene, with 95.1% and 99.7% washing their hand meals and after using the toilet, respectively. Regarding household demographics, 86.5% of participants reported living with children or older adults. Additionally, 34.0% of respondents stated that they kept domesticated animals. Regarding housing conditions, 57.4% of respondents reported having more than four rooms. Finally, an overwhelming majority (98.4%) confirmed that household waste was disposed of daily (Table 2 ). Table 2 Environmental and Behavioral Characteristics of the Study Participants' Households Variable F (%) Do you regularly consume meals prepared outside your household? Yes 373 (96.9%) No 12 (3.1%) Do you consume water that has not undergone any form of purification or treatment? Yes 353 (91.7%) No 242 (62.9%) Do you consistently practice hand hygiene before eating meals? Yes 366 (95.1%) No 32 (8.3%) Do you consistently wash your hands after using the toilet ? Yes 384 (99.7%) No 1 (0.3%%) Do you live in a house with children or elderly individuals? Yes 333 (86.5%) No 52 (13.5%) Are there any domesticated animals (e.g., pets or livestock) living in your household? Yes 131 (34.0%) No 254 (66.0%) How many rooms are there in your household? ≤ 4 164 (42.6%) ˃ 4 221 (57.4%) Is household waste disposed of on a daily basis? Yes 379 (98.4%) No 6 (1.6%) Dietary and Lifestyle Habits of the Study Participants The data revealed distinct patterns of dietary behavior and substance use among the surveyed population. Most respondents (70.1%) did not consume spicy or heavily seasoned foods, suggesting a general preference for milder dietary options. Similarly, only 15.8% of the participants reported frequent consumption of high-fat foods. However, caffeine consumption was reported by more than half of the respondents (56.4%), indicating a moderate to high intake of caffeinated beverages such as coffee, tea, or energy drinks. A relatively high percentage (55.6%) of the individuals reported consuming fruits or vegetables without washing them first. In terms of protein sources, the data showed a balanced intake: 52.2% of respondents consumed white meat (e.g., poultry and fish), whereas 56.9% consumed red meat (e.g., beef and lamb). Only 1.6% of the participants reported smoking tobacco products, and an even smaller proportion (1.3%) reported chewing khat (Table 3 ). Table 3 Dietary and Lifestyle Habits of the Study Participants Variable F (%) Do you regularly consume foods that are spicy or heavily seasoned? Yes 115 (29.9%) No 270 (70.1%) Do you frequently consume foods that are high in fat content? Yes 61 (15.8%) No 324 (84.2%) Do you regularly consume beverages that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea, energy drinks)? Yes 217 (56.4%) No 168 (43.6%) Do you consume fruits or vegetables without washing them first? Yes 214 (55.6%) No 171 (44.4%) Do you consume white meat such as poultry or fish as part of your diet? Yes 201 (52.2%) No 184 (47.8%) Do you include red meat (e.g., beef, lamb) in your diet? Yes 219 (56.9%) No 166 (43.1%) Do you currently smoke tobacco products such as cigarettes? Yes 6 (1.6%) No 389 (98.4%) Do you engage in the chewing of khat? Yes 5 (1.3%%) No 380 (98.7%) Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori Antigen Among Dyspeptic Patients Out of the 385 stool samples tested, 154 (40%) tested positive for H. pylori antigen, while 231 (60%) tested negative. Bivariate and Multivariate Analysis of Sociodemographic, Environmental, Dietary, and Behavioral Factors Associated with H. pylori Infection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients The bivariate analysis explored the relationships between a range of sociodemographic, environmental, and behavioral factors and the occurrence of H. pylori infection. This was done by calculating the crude odds ratios (ORs), 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and corresponding p-values. Although several variables exhibited differences in H. pylori positivity among the groups, only a few showed statistically significant links. Notably, residence in a household with children or elderly individuals was significantly associated with H. pylori positivity (OR: 0.447; 95% CI: 0.264–0.860; p = 0.014). Additionally, individuals who consumed unwashed fruits and vegetables (OR: 1.658; 95% CI: 1.093–2.515; P = 0.017) and white meat (OR: 1.986; 95% CI: 1.310–3.012; P = 0.001) had notably higher odds of infection. Conversely, factors such as gender, age, income, job status, and hygiene practices did not exhibit statistically significant associations (p > 0.05). Interestingly, smoking and khat chewing initially seemed to have strong links with H. pylori positivity; however, owing to zero counts in some contingency cells, continuity corrections were applied to calculate the odds ratios. The resulting ORs (e.g., smoking: OR = 0.112; 95% CI: 0.006–1.993) indicated a possible inverse relationship; however, the broad confidence intervals and small sample sizes limited the ability to draw conclusions (Table 4 ). Table 4 Bivariate Analysis of Sociodemographic, Environmental, Dietary, and Behavioral Factors Associated with H. pylori Infection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients Variables F (%) H. pylori screening OR (95%CI) P-value Positive n (%) Negative n (%) Gender Male 231 (60.0%) 96 (41.6%) 135 (58.4%) 1.177 (0.775–1.788) 0.445 Female 154 (40.0%) 58 (37.7%) 96 (62.3%) 1 Age group ≤ 45 years 87 (50.9%) 120 (38.6%) 191 (61.4%) 0.739 (0.443–1.232) 0.246 > 46 years 84 (49.1%) 34 (45.9%) 40 (54.1%) 1 Educational status Informal education 105 (27.3%) 34 (32.4%) 71 (67.6%) 0.638 (0.398–1.024) 0.063 Formal education 280 (72.7%) 120 (42.9%) 160 (57.1%) 1 Occupational Status Employed 216 (56.1%) 64 (37.9%) 105 (62.1%) 0.853 (0.565–1.288) 0.451 Un-employed 169 (43.9%) 90 (41.7%) 126 (58.3%) 1 Marital status Not Married 143 (37.1%) 58 (40.6%) 85 (59.4%) 1.038 (0.681–1.582) 0.863 Married 242 (62.9%) 96 (39.7%) 146 (60.3%) 1 Income (USD/month) ≤ 300 181 (47.0%) 72 (39.8%) 109 (60.2%) 0.983 (0.653–1.479) 0.934 ˃ 300 204 (53.0%) 82 (40.2%) 122 (59.8%) 1 Family size ≤ 5 129 (33.5%) 54 (41.9%) 75 (58.1%) 1.123 (0.730–1.728) 0.597 ˃ 5 265 (66.5%) 100 (39.1%) 156 (60.9%) 1 Do you regularly consume meals prepared outside your household? Yes 373 (96.9%) 149 (39.9%) 224 (60.1%) 0.931 (0.290–2.989) 0.905 No 12 (3.1%) 5 (41.7%) 7 (58.3%) 1 Do you consume water that has not undergone any form of purification or treatment? Yes 353 (91.7%) 144 (40.8%) 209 (59.2%) 1.516 (0.697–3.297) 0.294 No 242 (62.9%) 10 (31.3%) 22 (68.8%) 1 Do you consistently practice hand hygiene before eating meals? Yes 366 (95.1%) 145 (39.6%) 221 (60.4%) 0.729 (0.289–1.838) 0.503 No 32 (8.3%) 9 (39.6%) 10 (52.6%) 1 Do you consistently wash your hands after using the toilet? Yes 384 (99.7%) 153 (39.8%) 231 (60.2%) - 1.00 No 1 (0.3%%) 1 (100.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 Do you live in a house with children or elderly individuals? Yes 333 (86.5%) 125 (37.5%) 208 (62.5%) 0.477 (0.264–0.860) 0.014 No 52 (13.5%) 29 (55.8%) 23 (44.2%) 1 Are there any domesticated animals (e.g., pets or livestock) living in your household? Yes 131 (34.0%) 56 (42.7%) 75 (57.3%) 1.189 (0.774–1.824) 0.429 No 254 (66.0%) 98 (38.6%) 156 (61.4%) 1 How many rooms are there in your household? ≤ 4 164 (42.6%) 57 (34.8%) 107 (65.2%) 0.681 (0.449–1.033) 0.071 ˃ 4 221 (57.4%) 97 (43.9%) 124 (56.1%) 1 Is household waste disposed of on a daily basis? Yes 379 (98.4%) 152 (40.1%) 227 (59.9%) 1.339 (0.242–7.403) 0.738 No 6 (1.6%) 2 (33.3%) 4 (66.7%) 1 Do you regularly consume foods that are spicy or heavily seasoned? Yes 115 (29.9%) 42 (36.5%) 73 (63.5%) 0.812 (0.517–1.273) 0.364 No 270 (70.1%) 112 (41.5%) 158 (58.5%) 1 Do you frequently consume foods that are high in fat content? Yes 61 (15.8%) 27 (44.3%) 34 (55.7%) 1.232 (0.709–2.140) 0.459 No 324 (84.2%) 127 (39.2%) 197 (60.8%) 1 Do you regularly consume beverages that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea, energy drinks)? Yes 217 (56.4%) 79 (36.4%) 138 (63.6%) 0.710 (0.471–1.071) 0.102 No 168 (43.6%) 75 (44.6%) 93 (55.4%) 1 Do you consume fruits or vegetables without washing them first? Yes 214 (55.6%) 97 (45.3%) 117 (54.7%) 1.658 (1.093–2.515) 0.017 No 171 (44.4%) 57 (33.3%) 114 (66.7%) 1 Do you consume white meat such as poultry or fish as part of your diet? Yes 201 (52.2%) 96 (47.8%) 105 (52.2%) 1.986 (1.310–3.012) 0.001 No 184 (47.8%) 58 (31.5%) 126 (68.5%) 1 Do you include red meat (e.g., beef, lamb) in your diet? Yes 219 (56.9%) 91 (41.6%) 128 (58.4%) 1.162 (0.769–1.757) 0.475 No 166 (43.1%) 63 (38.0%) 103 (62.0%) 1 Do you currently smoke tobacco products such as cigarettes? Yes 6 (1.6%) 0.5 (0.0%) 6.5 (100.0%) 0.112 (0.006–2.010) * 0.117 No 389 (98.4%) 154.5 (40.6%) 225.5 (59.4%) 1 Do you engage in the chewing of khat? Yes 5 (1.3%%) 0.5 (0.0%) 5.5 (100.0%) 0.133 (0.007–2.43) * 0.148 No 380 (98.7%) 154.5 (40.5%) 226.5 (59.5%) 1 *Because there were zero counts in the 'Yes' category for both smoking and khat chewing, it was not possible to reliably calculate the crude odds ratios. To facilitate computation, a continuity correction of 0.5 was used and Fisher’s exact test were employed for statistical analysis. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, two factors remained significantly linked to H. pylori positivity. Individuals living with children or elderly people had notably lower chances of infection (AOR = 0.471, 95% CI: 0.257 – 0.863, p = 0.015). Conversely, those who regularly consumed white meat had a higher odd of infection (AOR = 1.699, 95% CI: 1.090–2.647, p = 0.019). Other factors, including educational status, number of rooms, and fruit washing practices, were not statistically significant. Smoking and khat chewing presented estimation challenges owing to limited data, rendering them uninterpretable in the model (Table 5 ). Table 5 Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis of Factors Independently Associated with H. pylori Infection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients Variables H. pylori screening AOR (95%CI) P-value Positive n (%) Negative n (%) Educational status Informal education 34 (32.4%) 71 (67.6%) 0.728 (0.423–1.254) 0.253 Formal education 120 (42.9%) 160 (57.1%) 1 How many rooms are there in your household? ≤ 4 57 (34.8%) 107 (65.2%) 0.721 (0.467–1.111) 0.138 ˃4 97 (43.9%) 124 (56.1%) 1 Do you live in a house with children or elderly individuals? Yes 125 (37.5%) 208 (62.5%) 0.471 (0.257–0.863) 0.015 No 29 (55.8%) 23 (44.2%) 1 Do you consume fruits or vegetables without washing them first? Yes 97 (45.3%) 117 (54.7%) 1.195 (0.731–1.954) 0.477 N o 57 (33.3%) 114 (66.7%) 1 Do you consume white meat such as poultry or fish as part of your diet? Yes 96 (47.8%) 105 (52.2%) 1.699 (1.090–2.647) 0.019 No 58 (31.5%) 126 (68.5%) 1 Do you regularly consume beverages that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea, energy drinks)? Yes 79 (36.4%) 138 (63.6%) 0.842 (0.537–1.322) 0.456 No 75 (44.6%) 93 (55.4%) 1 Do you currently smoke tobacco products such as cigarettes? Yes 0.5 (0.0%) 6.5 (100.0%) - 1.00 No 154.5 (40.6%) 225.5 (59.4%) 1 Do you engage in the chewin g of khat? Y es 0.5 (0.0%) 5.5 (100.0%) 1.386 1.00 No 154.5 (40.5%) 226.5 (59.5%) 1 Discussion This study aimed to assess the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori among dyspeptic patients visiting Shaafi Hospital in Mogadishu, Somalia and to identify related sociodemographic, behavioral, and environmental risk factors. This study revealed an overall prevalence of 40%, highlighting a considerable infection burden among adults with dyspepsia. This result is in agreement with the findings of another study conducted in Mizan Aman Town, Southwest Ethiopia (42.8%) (10) and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (43.77%) (11). Nevertheless, this figure is lower than the findings from other studies conducted in Eastern Uganda (48%) (12), Hawassa City, Ethiopia (48.5%) (13), Hossana City, Southwest Ethiopia (49.2%) (14), Yilmana Densa District, Northwest Ethiopia (51.1%) (15), Hosanna town, Southeast Ethiopia (51.4%) Bekoji town, Southeast Ethiopia (47.7%) (17), Egypt (53.1%) (18), Baghdad, Iraq (63.8%) (19), and Douala metropolis City, Cameroon (64.39%) (20). The incidence in our study was higher than that reported in studies conducted in Oromia, Ethiopia (23.0%) (21); Arba Minch city, Southern Ethiopia (32.2%) (22); Kathmandu, Nepal (32.9%) (23); Debre Tabor, Ethiopia (34%) (24); Mymensingh, North-Central Bangladesh (36%) (25); and Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia (37.6%) (26). The differences in H. pylori prevalence observed in various studies might be shaped by a complex combination of environmental factors, socioeconomic conditions, diagnostic methods, population health behaviors, variations in host immunity, dietary habits, or study-specific elements such as sample size. This study explored the sociodemographic and behavioral factors influencing Helicobacter pylori infection and identified several important elements through both bivariate and multivariate analyses. Although some relationships changed after adjusting for confounding variables, two factors, household composition (living with children or elderly people) and the consumption of white meat, remained significant predictors of H. pylori infection. These results were examined in relation to similar studies conducted in Ethiopia and other nations. In the multivariate analysis, people residing with children or elderly individuals had a significantly decreased likelihood of H. pylori infection (AOR = 0.471; 95% CI: 0.257–0.863; p = 0.015). This finding was consistent with the bivariate analysis, where the same factor was associated with a decreased likelihood of infection (OR = 0.447; 95% CI: 0.264–0.860; p = 0.013), suggesting a potentially protective role of household composition. However, contrasting observations have been reported in other Ethiopian regions. For example, research conducted at the Debre Tabor Comprehensive Specialized Hospital revealed that individuals from households with four or more children had a significantly higher chance of infection (AOR = 7.5; 95% CI: 1.7–33.6; p = 0.008), supporting the idea that crowded living conditions may promote oral or fecal-oral transmission of H. pylori through shared environments and objects (24). Our study indicated that individuals who frequently consume white meat, such as poultry and fish, exhibit a significantly higher likelihood of H. pylori infection. (AOR = 1.699; 95% CI: 1.090–2.647; p = 0.019). This correlation is consistent with the results of a study in Pune, India, which also found that fish consumption was significantly associated with a higher chance of H. pylori infection (OR = 2.35; p < 0.05) (27). This suggests a recurring pattern in certain environments where dietary practices may play a role in the spread of infection. Additionally, the link between these factors might be partly attributed to contamination of raw white meat, especially poultry. Numerous studies have supported the notion of H. pylori contamination of white meat. For example, a surveillance study in Egypt detected H. pylori in chicken meat samples sold in retail shops (28). Similarly, a study in Iran reported contamination of raw poultry meat samples, including chickens (29). Conversely, a recent Brazilian study found no significant association between the consumption of white meat or fish and H. pylori infection (30). These diverse results highlight the significance of context interpretation. In environments with limited resources or high population density, poor food handling, insufficient cooking methods, and restricted refrigeration can increase the likelihood of H. pylori spreading through contaminated food such as white meat. Our bivariate analysis showed a significant association between the consumption of unwashed fruits and vegetables and H. pylori infection (OR = 1.658; 95% CI: 1.093–2.515; p = 0.017), supporting the fecal–oral transmission route. These results are consistent with those of previous studies. For example, studies conducted in Iran, Ethiopia and Egypt found that unwashed vegetables were significantly associated with H. pylori contamination and infection, respectively (p < 0.05) (31–33). However, in our multivariate analysis, this association was not significant, possibly due to confounding factors such as access to clean water or general hygiene practices. This is consistent with the results of a study conducted in Ethiopia, which found no significant association between the intake of fruits and vegetables and the detection of H. pylori stool antigen (p > 0.05) (34). The variation in research findings may stem from differences in diagnostic techniques, population traits, environmental cleanliness, and sample sizes. Furthermore, differences in food hygiene practices, local contamination levels, and reliance on self-reported information may have influenced the results. In the current study, dietary habits, such as consumption of spicy or fatty foods, intake of caffeinated drinks, and the frequency of consuming red meat and fast food, were not significantly associated with H. pylori infection in either bivariate or multivariate analyses. These findings are consistent with several Ethiopian studies conducted in Assosa, Bokoji, Dessie, Adama, Arba Minch, Yilmana Densa, and Southwest Ethiopia, all of which found no significant association between the consumption of coffee or spicy foods and H. pylori infection (15–17, 21, 22, 34, 35). Similar conclusions have been drawn from research in Iraq and Bahrain, indicating that these dietary practices are unlikely to be significant risk factors for H. pylori infection (19, 36). In this study, there was no significant link between hand hygiene habits, drinking water sources and H. pylori infection. This finding differs from those of several Ethiopian studies that identified poor hand hygiene and the use of unprotected water sources as notable risk factors. For instance, research conducted in Assosa (35), Bokoji (17), and Arba Minch (22) demonstrated that washing hands after using the toilet significantly reduced the risk of infection. Similarly, water sources were significantly associated with increased infection risk in Yilmana Densa and Adama Woreda (15, 21). Conversely, research conducted in Gondar (26) and Arba Minch (22) found no notable correlations, which is consistent with our results. These varied outcomes imply that local elements such as sanitation systems, water quality, and behavioral habits probably affect how hygiene and water sources contribute to the transmission of H. pylori . The present study did not find a significant association between domestic animals and H. pylori infection. This finding differs from the results in Mizan Aman Town, Southwest Ethiopia, where domestic animals were found to significantly increase the likelihood of infection (AOR = 13.33; 95% CI: 2.203–80.692; p < 0.05) (10). This discrepancy might be attributed to differences in environmental factors, the nature of human-animal interactions, or the methodologies used in the studies. Despite evaluating household factors such as the number of rooms and the habit of daily waste disposal, no statistically significant association with H. pylori infection was found in either bivariate or multivariate analyses. This suggests that these environmental elements may have a limited influence on the transmission of infection within this population. These findings align with those of a study conducted in Bahrain, which also found no significant association between the number of rooms in a household and H. pylori infection (36). In this study, no significant association were found between H. pylori infection and any sociodemographic factors such as gender, age, education, occupation, marital status, income, or family size. This is consistent with results from the University of Gondar Hospital, Ethiopia (26), Debre Tabor Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia (24), and Yilmana Densa District, North West Ethiopia (15), where most sociodemographic variables did not show significant associations. However, some studies have reported different outcomes. For instance, in Assosa General Hospital, West Ethiopia, being female, living in rural areas, and having a low income were significantly related to H. Pylori infection (35), whereas in the University of Gondar Hospital, Ethiopia, only sex (male) was significantly associated with H. pylori infection in this study (26). Studies from Dessie Referral Hospital, Ethiopia (34), and Mizan Aman Town, Southwest, Ethiopia (10), found that larger family size was associated with infection, while lower educational status was significant in Arba Minch General Hospital in Southern Ethiopia (22), Adama Woreda, Oromia, Ethiopia (21), and Bahrain (36). These variations underscore the context-dependent nature of the sociodemographic influences on H. pylori infection. Limitations of the study This study has several limitations. As it employed a cross-sectional design, it restricted the ability to determine causal relationships between risk factors and H. pylori infection. This study was conducted at a single private hospital in Mogadishu, which might not reflect the wider population, potentially affecting the generalizability of the results. Furthermore, certain variables, such as smoking and khat chewing, were infrequently observed, diminishing the power to identify significant associations. Conclusions This study found a 40% prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among dyspeptic patients in Mogadishu, which is consistent with regional data. Notable risk factors included household composition, where living with children or the elderly reduced the risk of infection, and white meat consumption, which increased the risk, possibly due to contamination. Other factors, such as fruit and vegetable hygiene, handwashing, water source, and sociodemographic variables, showed no significant associations after adjustment. These findings emphasize the multifactorial and context-specific nature of H. pylori transmission and highlight the need for targeted interventions and additional research. Abbreviations H. pylori : Helicobacter pylori PUD : Peptic ulcer disease FD: Functional dyspepsia LMICs : Low- and middle-income countries MALT : Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue USD : United states dollar SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the SIMAD University Institutional Review Board (Ref: 2025/SU-IRB/FMHS/P0029). Prior to commencement of data collection, the necessary permissions were secured from the designated healthcare institution. The participants were comprehensively informed about the study objectives, procedures, and potential benefits, and they provided written informed consent. The study-maintained confidentiality and anonymity of the participants' information at all times. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The data supporting the findings of this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding Not applicable. Author Contributions All authors significantly contributed to the work described, including aspects such as planning, design, execution, data gathering, analysis, interpretation, or a combination of these elements. They participated in drafting, revising, or critically assessing the manuscript, provided final approval for the version to be published, agreed on the journal for submission, and accepted responsibility for every part of the work. Acknowledgments We extend our profound gratitude to the staff of the collaborating healthcare institution for their indispensable support, which was instrumental in the successful completion of this study. Collaboration and assistance are vital to the research process. Furthermore, we express our sincere appreciation to the research participants for their voluntary involvement and dedication to this academic project, as their contributions were essential to the study. We also acknowledge the supporting staff and colleagues who provided their expertise and resources, thereby upholding the quality and integrity of this study. Authors information Authors and affiliations Department of Microbiology and Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, SIMAD University, Mogadishu, Somalia. Mohamed Y. Abdi, Salma Y. Abdullahi & Rowdo M. Mohamud References Wauters L, Dickman R, Drug V, Mulak A, Serra J, Enck P, et al. United European Gastroenterology (UEG) and European Society for Neurogastroenterology and Motility (ESNM) consensus on functional dyspepsia. 2021;33(9):e14238. https://doi.org/10.1111/nmo.14238 Lee K, Kwon C-i, Yeniova AÖ, Koyanagi A, Jacob L, Smith L, et al. Global prevalence of functional dyspepsia according to Rome criteria, 1990–2020: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024;14(1):4172. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-54716-3 Arnaout AY, Alhejazi TJ, Nerabani Y, Hamdan O, Arnaout K, Arnaout I, et al. 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The magnitude and associated factors of Helicobacter pylori infection among adult dyspeptic patients attending Bokoji Hospital, Southeast Ethiopia. 2020. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-25765/v1 Diab M, El-Shenawy A, Shemis M, Ghannam M, Said M, Abdelnasser M, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection in egyptian patients with dyspepsia: diagnostic, demographic, endoscopic and clinical characteristics. 2018;6(6):226-34. https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/7205 Ibrahim BM, Salman HS, Mohammed MM, Mjeed HMJIJoM. Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among dyspeptic patients attending Baghdad medical city complex. 2025;17(3):397. https://doi.org/ 10.18502/ijm.v17i3.18822 Kouitcheu Mabeku LB, Noundjeu Ngamga ML, Leundji HJBid. Potential risk factors and prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among adult patients with dyspepsia symptoms in Cameroon. 2018;18:1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3146-1 Zeme LL, Beneberu Y, Mulisa GJFiEM. Feco-Prevalence and Associated Factors of H. pylori Infection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients Attending Public Health Centers at Adama Woreda, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022;8(3):46-54. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.fem.20220803.11 Alelign D, Furo G, Degu M, Tadesse D, Kayta G, Kidanewold AJTOMJ. The Magnitude and associated factors of Helicobacter pylori Infection among Dyspeptic Patients at the Arba Minch General Hospital in Southern Ethiopia. 2023;17(1). https://doi.org/ 10.2174/18742858-v17-e230711-2022-35 Subedi RC, Regmi BU, Pathak BD, Dhakal B, Sitaula D, Paudel U, et al. Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection in dyspeptic patients presenting to a tertiary care center of a developing country: a cross-sectional study. 2023;12:1195. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.137429.1 Jemere T, Tilahun M, Walle G, Yideg G, Agegnehu A, Tilahun A, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection and its associated factors among dyspepsia patients attending Debre Tabor Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, 2020. 2023;18(3):e0279396. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279396 Ferdaus SJ, Paul SK, Nasreen SA, Haque N, Sadekuzzaman M, Karim MR, et al. The Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants of Helicobacter pylori Detected in Dyspeptic Patients in North–Central Bangladesh. 2024;16(2):181-8. https://doi.org/10.3390/idr16020014 Kasew D, Abebe A, Munea U, Deressa T, Tegegne Y, Alemayehu M, et al. Magnitude of Helicobacter pylori among dyspeptic patients attending at University of Gondar Hospital, Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia. 2017;27(6):571-80. https://doi.org/ 10.4314/ejhs.v27i6.2 Mhaskar RS, Ricardo I, Azliyati A, Laxminarayan R, Amol B, Santosh W, et al. Assessment of risk factors of Helicobacter pylori infection and peptic ulcer disease. 2013;5(2):60-7. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-777X.112288 Elrais AM, Arab WS, Sallam KI, Elmegid WA, Elgendy F, Elmonir W, et al. Prevalence, virulence genes, phylogenetic analysis, and antimicrobial resistance profile of Helicobacter species in chicken meat and their associated environment at retail shops in Egypt. 2022;11(13):1890. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11131890 Asadi S, Rahimi E, Shakerian AJG. Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from raw poultry meat in the Shahrekord region, Iran: frequency and molecular characteristics. 2023;14(5):1006. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14051006 Soares GAS, Moraes FAdS, Ramos AFPL, Santiago SB, Germano JN, Fernandes GA, et al. Dietary habits and Helicobacter pylori infection: is there an association? 2023;16:17562848231160620. https://doi.org/10.1177/17562848231160620 Atapoor S, Dehkordi FS, Rahimi EJJJoM. Detection of Helicobacter pylori in various types of vegetables and salads. 2014;7(5):e10013. https://doi.org/ 10.5812/jjm.10013 Yisak H, Belete D, Mahtsentu YJWsH. Helicobacter pylori infection and related factors among pregnant women at Debre Tabor General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia, 2021: Anemia highly related with H. pylori . 2022;18:17455057221092266. https://doi.org/10.1177/17455057221092266 Salem E, Sakr A, Younis F, Mohamed A. Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among farmers and non‑farmers with dyspepsia. Egypt J Occup Med. 2019 May;43(2):229–44. doi: 10.21608/ejom.2019.31419. https://doi.org/ 10.21608/ejom.2019.31419 Seid A, Demsiss WJBID. Feco-prevalence and risk factors of Helicobacter pylori infection among symptomatic patients at Dessie Referral Hospital, Ethiopia. 2018;18:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3179-5 Dilnessa T, Amentie MJEJoHD. Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori and risk factors among dyspepsia and non-dyspepsia adults at Assosa General Hospital, West Ethiopia: a comparative study. 2017;31(1):4-12. Habbash F, Alalwan TA, Perna S, Ahmed N, Sharif O, Al Sayyad A, et al. Association between dietary habits and Helicobacter pylori infection among Bahraini adults. 2022;14(19):4215. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194215 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 09 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Gut Pathogens → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 01 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 25 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 09 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 08 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 26 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 22 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7681165","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":531737331,"identity":"d592e141-732f-4bdf-8d02-405339193c35","order_by":0,"name":"Mohamed Yusuf 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Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eDyspepsia, often referred to as indigestion, is characterized by persistent or repeated discomfort in the upper abdomen, including symptoms such as pain, a sense of fullness, bloating, nausea, and feeling full quickly. It is generally divided into two primary types: organic dyspepsia, where a structural or biochemical issue, such as peptic ulcer disease (PUD), cancer, or gastrointestinal reflux; and functional dyspepsia (FD), formerly known as non-ulcer dyspepsia, where no organic cause is found even after comprehensive evaluation, including endoscopy. Functional dyspepsia is the most common subtype, with research indicating that more than 70% of people experiencing dyspeptic symptoms do not show abnormalities on endoscopy, thereby qualifying for FD diagnosis (1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a 2024 meta-analysis that utilized the Rome criteria across various adult populations globally, the estimated worldwide prevalence of functional dyspepsia was 8.4% (95% CI: 7.4\u0026ndash;9.5%) (2). Its prevalence was significantly higher in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). A study conducted across multiple countries found an average rate of 37.9%, with figures ranging from approximately 26% to 44%. These rates are particularly high among Afro-Caribbean populations such as Sudan (44.3%) and Egypt (41.4%) (3). In sub-Saharan Africa, data collected from communities in Rwanda indicated a dyspepsia prevalence rate of 14.2% when strict criteria were used. However, previous research focusing on specific populations, such as patients with diabetes in Kenya, found significantly higher rates, up to 53% (4). When dyspepsia is not treated, it can lead to diminished quality of life for patients, manifesting in issues such as anxiety, depression, and somatization (5).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA recent review from Africa reported a \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e prevalence of approximately 79.1%, highlighting its widespread presence and its contribution to dyspepsia and peptic ulcer disease in the area (6). In people with functional dyspepsia (FD), untreated \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection can lead to significant long-term complications, even in the absence of visible structural issues. The main risks involve the onset of peptic ulcer disease, chronic atrophic gastritis, and potentially gastric cancer, such as gastric adenocarcinoma and MALT lymphoma (7). Additionally, the infection might cause hypochlorhydria, which impairs digestion and nutrient absorption, and could also lead to gastric motility disorders (8). While not all FD patients face complications, the presence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e increases healthcare usage due to recurring symptoms and the necessity for diagnostic evaluations, underscoring the importance of early detection and treatment. Moreover, no study has been conducted on the feco-prevalence and related risk factors of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection among adults with dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia. Hence, the current study aimed to determine the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in dyspeptic patients by using a stool antigen test, which is effective in detecting acute infections and evaluating potential risk factors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy Design, Study Area and Study Population\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional study was conducted at the outpatient department of Shaafi Hospital, a private, multi-specialty healthcare facility situated in the Hodan district of Mogadishu, Banaadir region, from February 1st to April 30, 2025. The study included patients aged 18 years and older who were experiencing dyspepsia. Individuals who had been previously diagnosed with an active peptic ulcer or stomach cancer, as well as those who had undergone \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e eradication treatment in the past three months, were not included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Size Determination and Sampling Techniques\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe formula for a single-population proportion was used to calculate the required sample size for estimating prevalence, based on a 50% prevalence rate, a 5% margin of error, and a 95% confidence interval. Consequently, the sample size was rounded up to include 385 participants. Study participants were selected using a simple random sampling technique.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection and variables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData on the sociodemographic, environmental, and behavioral characteristics of the study participants were collected using a structured, pretested questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews conducted in Somali. The principal investigator trained the data collectors on the data collection process. The participants were asked to provide a fecal sample weighing approximately 50 mg. This study primarily focused on the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in adult dyspepsia patients. The independent variables included some of potential risk factors associated with H. pylori infection which could have influenced its prevalence in the study group. These factors encompassed a wide range of sociodemographic, behavioral, environmental, and lifestyle characteristics of the participants. The sociodemographic variables considered were gender, age group, education level, occupation, monthly income in USD, marital status, and family size. The behavioral factors examined included habits such as smoking or khat chewing, consumption of spicy or fatty foods, intake of caffeinated beverages (such as coffee, tea, and energy drinks), and the frequency of consumption of red meat, white meat, and fast food. Additionally, environmental and lifestyle-related risk factors were evaluated, including whether participants drank untreated or unfiltered water, kept domestic animals in their households, practiced handwashing before meals and after using the toilet, and emptied trash bags daily. These variables were analyzed to explore their potential impact on the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in the target population.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSpecimen Collection and Laboratory Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach dyspeptic patient was provided a clean, dry, wide-mouthed, screw-capped plastic container without disinfectants or preservatives. The participants were clearly instructed, in Somali language, on how to collect a fresh stool sample. Approximately 5 grams of stool sample was collected from each patient. The samples were labeled with unique codes, time-stamped, and immediately placed in a cool box (2\u0026ndash;8\u0026deg;C) for transport to the Microbiology Lab, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, SIMAD University. All the samples were immediately processed to ensure antigen stability. The samples were analyzed in the \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e Stool Antigen Rapid Test Kit (One-Step H. pylori Feces Test, Guangzhou Wondfo Biotech, China). The diagnostic test employs a lateral flow immunochromatographic assay, which achieves a sensitivity of 99.20% and specificity of 99.26% for the detection of H. pylori antigens in stool specimens (9).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data collection and analysis were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. Descriptive statistics were obtained for the demographic information. Categorical variables were presented as frequencies and proportions. Frequency analyses were performed to evaluate the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infections. To identify the factors linked to \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection, both bivariate and multivariate analyses were utilized. Bivariate analysis involved calculating crude odds ratios and p-values through chi-square tests, with results shown in a table and statistical significance set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Variables with a p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.20 were subsequently included in the multivariate logistic regression to determine adjusted associations. The outcomes of the multivariate analysis, which included adjusted odds ratios and p-values, are also displayed in the tables, maintaining a significance level of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the Study Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe demographic characteristics of dyspepsia patients revealed that the majority were male, accounting for 60.0%, and 80.8% were aged 45 years or younger. Most of these patients were married (62.9%), while 27.5% were single, and 9.6% were either widowed or divorced. In terms of educational background, 72.7% had received formal education, whereas 27.3% had informal education. Regarding employment, 56.1% were employed, and 43.9% were unemployed. When it came to monthly income, 53.0% earned over 300 USD, while 47.0% had an income of 300 USD or less. Furthermore, 66.5% of the patients belonged to families with more than five members, while 33.5% were from families with five or fewer members (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSociodemographic Characteristics of the Study Participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e231 (60.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154 (40.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;45 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e321 (80.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 46 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74 (19.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106 (27.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242 (62.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWidowed /divorced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37 (9.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncome (USD/month)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e181 (47.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e204 (53.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105 (27.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e280 (72.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOccupational status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e216 (56.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUn-employed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e169 (43.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129 (33.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e265 (66.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEnvironmental and Behavioral Characteristics of the Study Participants' Households\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data highlight significant trends in household hygiene habits and living conditions. A large majority of respondents (96.9%) frequently reported eating meals prepared outside their homes. Furthermore, 91.7% of participants reported drinking untreated water. The results for hygiene practices were generally positive. A significant number of individuals consistently practiced hand hygiene, with 95.1% and 99.7% washing their hand meals and after using the toilet, respectively. Regarding household demographics, 86.5% of participants reported living with children or older adults. Additionally, 34.0% of respondents stated that they kept domesticated animals. Regarding housing conditions, 57.4% of respondents reported having more than four rooms. Finally, an overwhelming majority (98.4%) confirmed that household waste was disposed of daily (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental and Behavioral Characteristics of the Study Participants' Households\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you regularly consume meals prepared outside your household?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e373 (96.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (3.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you consume water that has not undergone any form of purification or treatment?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e353 (91.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242 (62.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you consistently practice hand hygiene before eating meals?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e366 (95.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (8.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you consistently wash your hands after using the toilet\u003cem\u003e?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e384 (99.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (0.3%%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you live in a house with children or elderly individuals?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e333 (86.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (13.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAre there any domesticated animals (e.g., pets or livestock) living in your household?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131 (34.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e254 (66.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow many rooms are there in your household?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e164 (42.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e221 (57.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIs household waste disposed of on a daily basis?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e379 (98.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (1.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDietary and Lifestyle Habits of the Study Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data revealed distinct patterns of dietary behavior and substance use among the surveyed population. Most respondents (70.1%) did not consume spicy or heavily seasoned foods, suggesting a general preference for milder dietary options. Similarly, only 15.8% of the participants reported frequent consumption of high-fat foods. However, caffeine consumption was reported by more than half of the respondents (56.4%), indicating a moderate to high intake of caffeinated beverages such as coffee, tea, or energy drinks. A relatively high percentage (55.6%) of the individuals reported consuming fruits or vegetables without washing them first. In terms of protein sources, the data showed a balanced intake: 52.2% of respondents consumed white meat (e.g., poultry and fish), whereas 56.9% consumed red meat (e.g., beef and lamb). Only 1.6% of the participants reported smoking tobacco products, and an even smaller proportion (1.3%) reported chewing khat (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDietary and Lifestyle Habits of the Study Participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you regularly consume foods that are spicy or heavily seasoned?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115 (29.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e270 (70.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you frequently consume foods that are high in fat content?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61 (15.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e324 (84.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you regularly consume beverages that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea, energy drinks)?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e217 (56.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168 (43.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you consume fruits or vegetables without washing them first?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214 (55.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e171 (44.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you consume white meat such as poultry or fish as part of your diet?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e201 (52.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e184 (47.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you include red meat (e.g., beef, lamb) in your diet?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219 (56.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166 (43.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you currently smoke tobacco products such as cigarettes?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (1.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e389 (98.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you engage in the chewing of khat?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (1.3%%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e380 (98.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePrevalence of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAntigen Among Dyspeptic Patients\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOut of the 385 stool samples tested, 154 (40%) tested positive for \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e antigen, while 231 (60%) tested negative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBivariate and Multivariate Analysis of Sociodemographic, Environmental, Dietary, and Behavioral Factors Associated with\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eH. pylori\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eInfection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe bivariate analysis explored the relationships between a range of sociodemographic, environmental, and behavioral factors and the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. This was done by calculating the crude odds ratios (ORs), 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and corresponding p-values. Although several variables exhibited differences in \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e positivity among the groups, only a few showed statistically significant links. Notably, residence in a household with children or elderly individuals was significantly associated with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e positivity (OR: 0.447; 95% CI: 0.264\u0026ndash;0.860; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014). Additionally, individuals who consumed unwashed fruits and vegetables (OR: 1.658; 95% CI: 1.093\u0026ndash;2.515; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017) and white meat (OR: 1.986; 95% CI: 1.310\u0026ndash;3.012; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) had notably higher odds of infection. Conversely, factors such as gender, age, income, job status, and hygiene practices did not exhibit statistically significant associations (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Interestingly, smoking and khat chewing initially seemed to have strong links with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e positivity; however, owing to zero counts in some contingency cells, continuity corrections were applied to calculate the odds ratios. The resulting ORs (e.g., smoking: OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.112; 95% CI: 0.006\u0026ndash;1.993) indicated a possible inverse relationship; however, the broad confidence intervals and small sample sizes limited the ability to draw conclusions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBivariate Analysis of Sociodemographic, Environmental, Dietary, and Behavioral Factors Associated with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e Infection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e screening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOR (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegative n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e231 (60.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96 (41.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135 (58.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.177 (0.775\u0026ndash;1.788)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.445\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154 (40.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (37.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96 (62.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge group\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;45 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87 (50.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120 (38.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e191 (61.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.739 (0.443\u0026ndash;1.232)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.246\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;46 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84 (49.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34 (45.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40 (54.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105 (27.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34 (32.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71 (67.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.638 (0.398\u0026ndash;1.024)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e280 (72.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120 (42.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160 (57.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOccupational Status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e216 (56.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64 (37.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105 (62.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.853 (0.565\u0026ndash;1.288)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.451\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUn-employed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e169 (43.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90 (41.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126 (58.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e143 (37.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (40.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85 (59.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.038 (0.681\u0026ndash;1.582)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242 (62.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96 (39.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e146 (60.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIncome (USD/month)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e181 (47.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72 (39.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109 (60.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.983 (0.653\u0026ndash;1.479)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.934\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e204 (53.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82 (40.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122 (59.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily size\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129 (33.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54 (41.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75 (58.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.123 (0.730\u0026ndash;1.728)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.597\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e265 (66.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 (39.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156 (60.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you regularly consume meals prepared outside your household?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e373 (96.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e149 (39.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e224 (60.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.931 (0.290\u0026ndash;2.989)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.905\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (3.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (41.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (58.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consume water that has not undergone any form of purification or treatment?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e353 (91.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144 (40.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e209 (59.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.516 (0.697\u0026ndash;3.297)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242 (62.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (31.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (68.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consistently practice hand hygiene before eating meals?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e366 (95.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145 (39.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e221 (60.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.729 (0.289\u0026ndash;1.838)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.503\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (8.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (39.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (52.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consistently wash your hands after using the toilet?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e384 (99.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e153 (39.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e231 (60.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (0.3%%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you live in a house with children or elderly individuals?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e333 (86.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e208 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.477 (0.264\u0026ndash;0.860)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.014\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (13.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29 (55.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23 (44.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAre there any domesticated animals (e.g., pets or livestock) living in your household?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131 (34.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56 (42.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75 (57.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.189 (0.774\u0026ndash;1.824)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.429\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e254 (66.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98 (38.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156 (61.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHow many rooms are there in your household?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e164 (42.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (34.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107 (65.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.681 (0.449\u0026ndash;1.033)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃ 4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e221 (57.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97 (43.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124 (56.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIs household waste disposed of on a daily basis?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e379 (98.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152 (40.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227 (59.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.339 (0.242\u0026ndash;7.403)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.738\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (1.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you regularly consume foods that are spicy or heavily seasoned?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115 (29.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42 (36.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73 (63.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.812 (0.517\u0026ndash;1.273)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.364\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e270 (70.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112 (41.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158 (58.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you frequently consume foods that are high in fat content?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61 (15.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27 (44.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34 (55.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.232 (0.709\u0026ndash;2.140)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.459\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e324 (84.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e127 (39.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e197 (60.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you regularly consume beverages that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea, energy drinks)?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e217 (56.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79 (36.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138 (63.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.710 (0.471\u0026ndash;1.071)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.102\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168 (43.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75 (44.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93 (55.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consume fruits or vegetables without washing them first?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214 (55.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97 (45.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117 (54.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.658 (1.093\u0026ndash;2.515)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e171 (44.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consume white meat such as poultry or fish as part of your diet?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e201 (52.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96 (47.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105 (52.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.986 (1.310\u0026ndash;3.012)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e184 (47.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (31.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126 (68.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you include red meat (e.g., beef, lamb) in your diet?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219 (56.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91 (41.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e128 (58.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.162 (0.769\u0026ndash;1.757)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.475\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166 (43.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63 (38.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103 (62.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you currently smoke tobacco products such as cigarettes?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (1.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.112 (0.006\u0026ndash;2.010) *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e389 (98.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154.5 (40.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e225.5 (59.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you engage in the chewing of khat?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (1.3%%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.133 (0.007\u0026ndash;2.43) *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e380 (98.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154.5 (40.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e226.5 (59.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*Because there were zero counts in the 'Yes' category for both smoking and khat chewing, it was not possible to reliably calculate the crude odds ratios. To facilitate computation, a continuity correction of 0.5 was used and Fisher\u0026rsquo;s exact test were employed for statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the multivariate logistic regression analysis, two factors remained significantly linked to \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e positivity. Individuals living with children or elderly people had notably lower chances of infection (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.471, 95% CI: 0.257\u003cb\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/b\u003e0.863, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015). Conversely, those who regularly consumed white meat had a higher odd of infection (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.699, 95% CI: 1.090\u0026ndash;2.647, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.019). Other factors, including educational status, number of rooms, and fruit washing practices, were not statistically significant. Smoking and khat chewing presented estimation challenges owing to limited data, rendering them uninterpretable in the model (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMultivariate Logistic Regression Analysis of Factors Independently Associated with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e Infection Among Adult Dyspeptic Patients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e screening\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAOR (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegative n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34 (32.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71 (67.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.728 (0.423\u0026ndash;1.254)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.253\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120 (42.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160 (57.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHow many rooms are there in your household?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (34.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107 (65.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.721 (0.467\u0026ndash;1.111)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.138\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e˃4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97 (43.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124 (56.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you live in a house with children or elderly individuals?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e208 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.471 (0.257\u0026ndash;0.863)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29 (55.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23 (44.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consume fruits or vegetables without washing them first?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97 (45.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117 (54.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.195 (0.731\u0026ndash;1.954)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003cem\u003eo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you consume white meat such as poultry or fish as part of your diet?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96 (47.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105 (52.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.699 (1.090\u0026ndash;2.647)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.019\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (31.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126 (68.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you regularly consume beverages that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea, energy drinks)?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79 (36.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138 (63.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.842 (0.537\u0026ndash;1.322)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.456\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75 (44.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93 (55.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you currently smoke tobacco products such as cigarettes?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154.5 (40.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e225.5 (59.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDo you engage in the chewin\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eg\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eof khat?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eY\u003cem\u003ees\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.386\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154.5 (40.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e226.5 (59.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to assess the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e among dyspeptic patients visiting Shaafi Hospital in Mogadishu, Somalia and to identify related sociodemographic, behavioral, and environmental risk factors. This study revealed an overall prevalence of 40%, highlighting a considerable infection burden among adults with dyspepsia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis result is in agreement with the findings of another study conducted in Mizan Aman\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTown, Southwest Ethiopia (42.8%) (10) and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (43.77%) (11). Nevertheless, this figure is lower than the findings from other studies conducted in Eastern Uganda (48%) (12), Hawassa City, Ethiopia (48.5%) (13), Hossana City, Southwest Ethiopia (49.2%) (14), Yilmana Densa District, Northwest Ethiopia (51.1%) (15), Hosanna town, Southeast Ethiopia (51.4%) Bekoji town, Southeast Ethiopia (47.7%) (17), Egypt (53.1%) (18), Baghdad, Iraq (63.8%) (19), and Douala metropolis City, Cameroon (64.39%) (20). The incidence in our study was higher than that reported in studies conducted in Oromia, Ethiopia (23.0%) (21); Arba Minch city, Southern Ethiopia (32.2%) (22); Kathmandu, Nepal (32.9%) (23); Debre Tabor, Ethiopia (34%) (24); Mymensingh, North-Central Bangladesh (36%) (25); and Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia (37.6%) (26). The differences in \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e prevalence observed in various studies might be shaped by a complex combination of environmental factors, socioeconomic conditions, diagnostic methods, population health behaviors, variations in host immunity, dietary habits, or study-specific elements such as sample size.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study explored the sociodemographic and behavioral factors influencing \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection and identified several important elements through both bivariate and multivariate analyses. Although some relationships changed after adjusting for confounding variables, two factors, household composition (living with children or elderly people) and the consumption of white meat, remained significant predictors of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. These results were examined in relation to similar studies conducted in Ethiopia and other nations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the multivariate analysis, people residing with children or elderly individuals had a significantly decreased likelihood of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.471; 95% CI: 0.257\u0026ndash;0.863; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015). This finding was consistent with the bivariate analysis, where the same factor was associated with a decreased likelihood of infection (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.447; 95% CI: 0.264\u0026ndash;0.860; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013), suggesting a potentially protective role of household composition. However, contrasting observations have been reported in other Ethiopian regions. For example, research conducted at the Debre Tabor Comprehensive Specialized Hospital revealed that individuals from households with four or more children had a significantly higher chance of infection (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.5; 95% CI: 1.7\u0026ndash;33.6; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008), supporting the idea that crowded living conditions may promote oral or fecal-oral transmission of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e through shared environments and objects (24).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur study indicated that individuals who frequently consume white meat, such as poultry and fish, exhibit a significantly higher likelihood of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.699; 95% CI: 1.090\u0026ndash;2.647; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.019). This correlation is consistent with the results of a study in Pune, India, which also found that fish consumption was significantly associated with a higher chance of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.35; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (27). This suggests a recurring pattern in certain environments where dietary practices may play a role in the spread of infection. Additionally, the link between these factors might be partly attributed to contamination of raw white meat, especially poultry. Numerous studies have supported the notion of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e contamination of white meat. For example, a surveillance study in Egypt detected \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e in chicken meat samples sold in retail shops (28). Similarly, a study in Iran reported contamination of raw poultry meat samples, including chickens (29). Conversely, a recent Brazilian study found no significant association between the consumption of white meat or fish and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (30). These diverse results highlight the significance of context interpretation. In environments with limited resources or high population density, poor food handling, insufficient cooking methods, and restricted refrigeration can increase the likelihood of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e spreading through contaminated food such as white meat.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur bivariate analysis showed a significant association between the consumption of unwashed fruits and vegetables and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.658; 95% CI: 1.093\u0026ndash;2.515; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017), supporting the fecal\u0026ndash;oral transmission route. These results are consistent with those of previous studies. For example, studies conducted in Iran, Ethiopia and Egypt found that unwashed vegetables were significantly associated with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e contamination and infection, respectively (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (31\u0026ndash;33). However, in our multivariate analysis, this association was not significant, possibly due to confounding factors such as access to clean water or general hygiene practices. This is consistent with the results of a study conducted in Ethiopia, which found no significant association between the intake of fruits and vegetables and the detection of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e stool antigen (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (34). The variation in research findings may stem from differences in diagnostic techniques, population traits, environmental cleanliness, and sample sizes. Furthermore, differences in food hygiene practices, local contamination levels, and reliance on self-reported information may have influenced the results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the current study, dietary habits, such as consumption of spicy or fatty foods, intake of caffeinated drinks, and the frequency of consuming red meat and fast food, were not significantly associated with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in either bivariate or multivariate analyses. These findings are consistent with several Ethiopian studies conducted in Assosa, Bokoji, Dessie, Adama, Arba Minch, Yilmana Densa, and Southwest Ethiopia, all of which found no significant association between the consumption of coffee or spicy foods and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (15\u0026ndash;17, 21, 22, 34, 35). Similar conclusions have been drawn from research in Iraq and Bahrain, indicating that these dietary practices are unlikely to be significant risk factors for \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (19, 36).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, there was no significant link between hand hygiene habits, drinking water sources and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. This finding differs from those of several Ethiopian studies that identified poor hand hygiene and the use of unprotected water sources as notable risk factors. For instance, research conducted in Assosa (35), Bokoji (17), and Arba Minch (22) demonstrated that washing hands after using the toilet significantly reduced the risk of infection. Similarly, water sources were significantly associated with increased infection risk in Yilmana Densa and Adama Woreda (15, 21). Conversely, research conducted in Gondar (26) and Arba Minch (22) found no notable correlations, which is consistent with our results. These varied outcomes imply that local elements such as sanitation systems, water quality, and behavioral habits probably affect how hygiene and water sources contribute to the transmission of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study did not find a significant association between domestic animals and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. This finding differs from the results in Mizan Aman Town, Southwest Ethiopia, where domestic animals were found to significantly increase the likelihood of infection (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.33; 95% CI: 2.203\u0026ndash;80.692; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (10). This discrepancy might be attributed to differences in environmental factors, the nature of human-animal interactions, or the methodologies used in the studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite evaluating household factors such as the number of rooms and the habit of daily waste disposal, no statistically significant association with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection was found in either bivariate or multivariate analyses. This suggests that these environmental elements may have a limited influence on the transmission of infection within this population. These findings align with those of a study conducted in Bahrain, which also found no significant association between the number of rooms in a household and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (36).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, no significant association were found between \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection and any sociodemographic factors such as gender, age, education, occupation, marital status, income, or family size. This is consistent with results from the University of Gondar Hospital, Ethiopia (26), Debre Tabor Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia (24), and Yilmana Densa District, North West Ethiopia (15), where most sociodemographic variables did not show significant associations. However, some studies have reported different outcomes. For instance, in Assosa General Hospital, West Ethiopia, being female, living in rural areas, and having a low income were significantly related to \u003cem\u003eH. Pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection (35), whereas in the University of Gondar Hospital, Ethiopia, only sex (male) was significantly associated with \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in this study (26). Studies from Dessie Referral Hospital, Ethiopia (34), and Mizan Aman Town, Southwest, Ethiopia (10), found that larger family size was associated with infection, while lower educational status was significant in Arba Minch General Hospital in Southern Ethiopia (22), Adama Woreda, Oromia, Ethiopia (21), and Bahrain (36). These variations underscore the context-dependent nature of the sociodemographic influences on \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations of the study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations. As it employed a cross-sectional design, it restricted the ability to determine causal relationships between risk factors and \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. This study was conducted at a single private hospital in Mogadishu, which might not reflect the wider population, potentially affecting the generalizability of the results. Furthermore, certain variables, such as smoking and khat chewing, were infrequently observed, diminishing the power to identify significant associations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study found a 40% prevalence of \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection among dyspeptic patients in Mogadishu, which is consistent with regional data. Notable risk factors included household composition, where living with children or the elderly reduced the risk of infection, and white meat consumption, which increased the risk, possibly due to contamination. Other factors, such as fruit and vegetable hygiene, handwashing, water source, and sociodemographic variables, showed no significant associations after adjustment. These findings emphasize the multifactorial and context-specific nature of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e transmission and highlight the need for targeted interventions and additional research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePUD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeptic ulcer disease\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFD:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFunctional dyspepsia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eLMICs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow- and middle-income countries\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMALT\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMucosa-associated lymphoid tissue\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eUSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnited states dollar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSPSS\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 382px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatistical Package for Social Sciences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the SIMAD University Institutional Review Board (Ref: 2025/SU-IRB/FMHS/P0029). Prior to commencement of data collection, the necessary permissions were secured from the designated healthcare institution. The participants were comprehensively informed about the study objectives, procedures, and potential benefits, and they provided written informed consent. The study-maintained confidentiality and anonymity of the participants\u0026apos; information at all times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eContributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors significantly contributed to the work described, including aspects such as planning, design, execution, data gathering, analysis, interpretation, or a combination of these elements. They participated in drafting, revising, or critically assessing the manuscript, provided final approval for the version to be published, agreed on the journal for submission, and accepted responsibility for every part of the work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe extend our profound gratitude to the staff of the collaborating healthcare institution for their indispensable support, which was instrumental in the successful completion of this study. Collaboration and assistance are vital to the research process. Furthermore, we express our sincere appreciation to the research participants for their voluntary involvement and dedication to this academic project, as their contributions were essential to the study. We also acknowledge the supporting staff and colleagues who provided their expertise and resources, thereby upholding the quality and integrity of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors and affiliations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepartment of Microbiology and Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, SIMAD University, Mogadishu, Somalia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMohamed Y. Abdi, Salma Y. Abdullahi \u0026amp; Rowdo M. Mohamud\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWauters L, Dickman R, Drug V, Mulak A, Serra J, Enck P, et al. 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Prevalence of \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in dyspeptic patients presenting to a tertiary care center of a developing country: a cross-sectional study. 2023;12:1195. \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.137429.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJemere T, Tilahun M, Walle G, Yideg G, Agegnehu A, Tilahun A, et al. \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection and its associated factors among dyspepsia patients attending Debre Tabor Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, 2020. 2023;18(3):e0279396. \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279396\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFerdaus SJ, Paul SK, Nasreen SA, Haque N, Sadekuzzaman M, Karim MR, et al. 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Egypt J Occup Med. 2019 May;43(2):229\u0026ndash;44. doi: 10.21608/ejom.2019.31419. \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10.21608/ejom.2019.31419\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSeid A, Demsiss WJBID. Feco-prevalence and risk factors of \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection among symptomatic patients at Dessie Referral Hospital, Ethiopia. 2018;18:1-9. \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3179-5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDilnessa T, Amentie MJEJoHD. Prevalence of \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e and risk factors among dyspepsia and non-dyspepsia adults at Assosa General Hospital, West Ethiopia: a comparative study. 2017;31(1):4-12.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHabbash F, Alalwan TA, Perna S, Ahmed N, Sharif O, Al Sayyad A, et al. Association between dietary habits and \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection among Bahraini adults. 2022;14(19):4215. \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/nu14194215\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"gut-pathogens","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gutp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Gut Pathogens](http://gutpathogens.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13099","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13099/3","title":"Gut Pathogens","twitterHandle":"@GutPathogens","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Helicobacter pylori, Dyspepsia, Prevalence, Risk Factors, Somalia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7681165/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7681165/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e is one of the most prevalent bacterial infections in humans, affecting more than half of the global population. It is a major contributor to gastric disorders among patients attending gastroenterology clinics. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the fecal prevalence and associated factors of \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection in adult patients with dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eA cross-sectional investigation was conducted at Shaafi Hospital between February and June 2025, encompassing 385 adult patients with dyspepsia. Researchers employed structured questionnaires to collect sociodemographic data and \u003cem\u003eHelicobacter pylori\u003c/em\u003einfection-associated factors. \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003efecal antigen was detected in stool samples using lateral flow immunochromatographic assay. Binary and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the factors involved. A statistical association between variables was recognized when the p-value was below 0.05, ensuring a 95% confidence level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eOut of 385 adult patients with dyspepsia examined, 40% (n = 154) tested positive for \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection. Bivariate analysis revealed several factors linked to the infection: residing with children or elderly individuals (OR = 0.447, p = 0.014), consuming unwashed fruits or vegetables (OR = 1.658, p = 0.017), and eating white meat (OR = 1.986, p = 0.001). However, in the multivariate analysis, only two factors remained significant: living with children or elderly people was associated with a reduced likelihood of infection (AOR = 0.471, p = 0.015), whereas consumption of white meat was associated with a higher risk of infection (AOR = 1.699, p = 0.019). Other factors, such as hygiene habits, income, education, and smoking, did not show statistically significant associations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e This study found a notable prevalence of \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e infection among adults with dyspepsia. Consumption of white meat was associated with an increased risk of infection, whereas living with children or elderly individuals appeared to provide some protection. These findings highlight the need for targeted public health strategies and suggest the need for further investigation into dietary and household factors that may influence \u003cem\u003eH. pylori\u003c/em\u003e transmission.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Feco-Prevalence and Risk Factors of Helicobacter pylori Infection among Adults with Dyspepsia in Mogadishu, Somalia: A Cross Sectional Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-21 17:45:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7681165/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-01T12:10:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T05:20:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"36266644169739335460839151976423819097","date":"2025-11-23T02:56:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-09T16:47:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"98965099830854433307669974925475357067","date":"2025-10-24T02:59:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-08T23:49:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-26T06:39:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-26T06:37:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Gut Pathogens","date":"2025-09-22T11:11:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"gut-pathogens","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gutp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Gut Pathogens](http://gutpathogens.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13099","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13099/3","title":"Gut Pathogens","twitterHandle":"@GutPathogens","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b423f4da-c4b8-42d3-b306-ae383be89433","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T16:00:54+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7681165","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13099-026-00807-7","journal":{"identity":"gut-pathogens","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Gut Pathogens"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-09 15:57:27","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 9th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-21 17:45:03","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s13099-026-00807-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13099-026-00807-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7681165","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7681165","identity":"rs-7681165","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}