Advances in Horizon Mapping and Fault Interpretation: Methodologies and Challenges in 3-D Seismic Data

Advances in Horizon Mapping and Fault Interpretation: Methodologies and Challenges in 3-D Seismic Data | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Advances in Horizon Mapping and Fault Interpretation: Methodologies and Challenges in 3-D Seismic Data Kingsley Chukwuebuka Chiadikobi, Olusoji Lawrence Taiwo, Ramy Saleem Abdallah This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7014114/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Seismic mapping plays a critical role in subsurface characterisation by enabling the visualisation of stratal reflectors and fault networks within 3-D seismic volumes. This study presents a systematic methodology that integrates structured interpretation workflows with quantitative fault analyses to improve accuracy and reduce uncertainties in complex basins. Objective uncertainties (resolution limits, velocity model inaccuracies) and subjective uncertainties (interpreter bias) were evaluated and addressed through, high-resolution mapping, and iterative validation using software tools. We integrate qualitative and quantitative seismic interpretation workflows to mitigate these uncertainties, ensuring precise subsurface characterisation from printed 2-D seismic profiles to 3-D seismic data into simulation software. A total of 364 structural faults were interpreted across four fault maps (FM-1 to FM-4). These faults exhibit diverse structural styles, including apparent planar and listric faults, block faulting (grabens, horsts, tilted blocks), and conjugate faults (V-, Y-, and X-shaped). Quantitative analyses reveal that fault lengths range from 52.34m to 19,238.10m, with maximum displacements reaching up to 13,314.70m in FM-4. Power-law relationships between fault length and max. throw/displacement were established, with strong correlations in FM-1 (R² = 0.62) and FM-2 (R² = 0.65), while FM-4 exhibited greater variability (R² = 0.30/0.40), suggesting structural heterogeneity. Centralised displacement gradients ranged from 0.04 to 9.80, with FM-4 showing the highest mean gradient value of 1.33, indicating segmentation and fault growth complexity. It highlights the importance of systematic seismic workflows in reducing interpretation biases and improving fault detection accuracy, which is essential for energy exploration, geomechanical modelling, and subsurface storage. 3-D seismic interpretation horizon mapping fault scaling structural styles displacement gradient power-law relationship Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Full Text Supplementary Files GraphicalAbstract.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7014114","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":488856159,"identity":"3f573359-64ae-48a3-8b6d-0f27ee16e19a","order_by":0,"name":"Kingsley Chukwuebuka Chiadikobi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAz0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCWYIxcDA3gCkDSxI0cJzAKRFgggtCFYCKh8nkGznPfzhY45FHr/k86sbfhRIMPC3dyfg1SLNzJcmOXObRLHk7Jyymz1Ah0mcObsBrxY5Zh4zZt5tEokbbuek3eABajGQyCWoxfgzWMvNM2k3/xCjRZqZx0AarOUG+7HbRNki2cxjBvJL4syeHLbbMgYSPAT9InH+jPGHj9vqEvvZjz+7+eaPjRx/ey9+LUiAxwBMEqscBNgfkKJ6FIyCUTAKRhAAACJVQOdzkxQfAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7068-153X","institution":"University of Aberdeen","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kingsley","middleName":"Chukwuebuka","lastName":"Chiadikobi","suffix":""},{"id":488856160,"identity":"354d5950-87a6-44ba-aaf3-ace93b908d17","order_by":1,"name":"Olusoji Lawrence Taiwo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Aberdeen","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Olusoji","middleName":"Lawrence","lastName":"Taiwo","suffix":""},{"id":488856161,"identity":"d7fdb5f7-27bf-45fb-b6aa-06d4a0ae79f6","order_by":2,"name":"Ramy Saleem Abdallah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Aberdeen","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ramy","middleName":"Saleem","lastName":"Abdallah","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-30 21:06:33","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7014114/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7014114/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87371472,"identity":"06015a18-863e-4e94-bd0c-6250549a0514","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:36","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":328053,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea) Schematic diagram showing the components of seismic trace; b) Seismic Section with a trace showing the various amplitude intensities and correlation of the wiggles to the reflectors.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/2ba52c39c372a0df4316fef6.png"},{"id":87371447,"identity":"a2599d85-fc42-4a57-9c27-5424aab6b709","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":388004,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTime-to-depth calibration and seismic section annotation using a regression-based velocity model. \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Depth conversion plot showing a linear regression fit (black line) between observed seismic two-way travel time (s) and corresponding depth (m), indicating a consistent velocity model with high correlation. Blue dots represent observed time-depth pairs derived from key reflectors. \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(b)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCalibrated seismic section annotated with corresponding time (left) and depth (right) axes. Horizons and reflectors are accurately correlated using the regression-derived depth values, facilitating structural and stratigraphic interpretation in both time and depth domains.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/ded8d1985ec5a6f15297cbd0.png"},{"id":87371446,"identity":"6e278684-83ca-44ee-847f-fec92d427cac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":931551,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelationship between Scale and Resolution on seismic section. a) 1:100,000/100m, b) 1:50,000/50m; c) 1:25,000/25m, d) 1:12,500/12.5m, e) 1:10,000/10m, and f) 1:5,000/5m.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eThe increasing resolution enhances the clarity internal reflector geometries, continuity, and deformation patterns. Red boxes indicate the focused area that highlight the same stratigraphic interval across scales, showing refined details of fault displacement, reflector terminations, and layer architecture critical for structural interpretation and reservoir characterisation.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/564a8854c86a933f311b86f7.png"},{"id":87371451,"identity":"1fd49158-6af3-4506-bd0c-47959c6e35e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":661975,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUninterpreted 2-D seismic profile illustrating the effects of vertical exaggeration (V.E) on the interpretation of subsurface structures. a) V.E. = 1x provides a regional overview of fault geometry, stratigraphic architecture, and basin configuration. b) V.E = 3x enhance the visibility of subtle fault displacements and reflector terminations within the slope and basin domains. and c) V.E = 5x improves resolution of steeply dipping features and rollover geometries within the growth fault system. Changes in V.E influence the apparent steepness of faults, folds, and stratigraphic layers, which can impact geological interpretation. Higher exaggeration (c) enhances vertical resolution, making subtle structures more visible, while lower exaggeration (a) presents a more natural representation of subsurface geometries. Black rectangles denote zoomed-in regions of interest, which emphasize changes in structural expression with increasing vertical exaggeration.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/006cde942cd3154899ced3f9.png"},{"id":87371453,"identity":"06394204-7687-45c7-8177-c8eb7ad8ff58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":621766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic interpretation workflows (a) Uninterpreted seismic section in its default colour mode, (b) uninterpreted seismic section\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ealtered to the “Yellow-red-white-blue turquoise (compressed)” colour mode, (c) Selecting, picking, and tracing of a key seismic reflector at x-line 22000, (d) arbitrary seismic lines superimposed on a seabed map, highlighting different regional reflector sections (R1-R8).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/4386f152d005e1b3f5a3d979.png"},{"id":87371501,"identity":"84edc4f7-0a42-4606-ba10-17b5d3026bb0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:38","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":626184,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic interpretation workflows contd. (a) presents a composite seismic section along the NW-SE direction, correlating key reflectors across multiple regions, (b) Example of reflector picking using amplitude wiggle and phase variations across the section, and (c) Visualisation of 8 horizons mapped on seismic section, highlighting continuous and discontinuous reflections, with structural features such as faults and amplitude variations annotated for detailed analysis.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/42d6f9cbd5384f7fdca33332.png"},{"id":87371655,"identity":"24b51215-36ce-4775-ac3c-7f9fa7ef7640","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:16:16","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":597859,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCriteria adopted in identifying faults in Seismic Sections. (a-i) to (a-iv) display different seismic characteristics, including stacked stratal reflection terminations and fault traces cutting through multiple stratigraphic layers, (b-i) and (b-ii) shows abrupt changes in dip and seismic patterns. It also highlights seismic facies variability, including discontinuous, sub-continuous, sigmoidal, and chaotic reflections, (c-i) and (c-ii) present a narrow monocline structure influenced by amplitude smearing and faulting, (d-i) and (d-ii) depict amplitude variations, including stacked narrow zones of strong and dimmed amplitude.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/acbbb38e02a711dbd35b2a06.png"},{"id":87371450,"identity":"0490806c-84c9-42dc-a66a-3dfa00bf2a50","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":663538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic horizon and fault interpretation workflow. (a) uninterpreted seismic section\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e(a) Initial interpretation highlighting discontinuous horizons, fault mapping, and possible channel features. (b) Refinement of horizon interpretation, including gap closures and rechecking of discontinuous horizons. Missing or unmapped horizons are identified for further analysis. (c) Extracted structural framework showing the interpreted faults and horizons in a simplified format. This workflow demonstrates the iterative process of seismic interpretation to improve accuracy and resolve structural and stratigraphic complexities.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/bd915762ff3a7900815ae575.png"},{"id":87371499,"identity":"38f86772-5fd3-447e-a06a-a83fe2620659","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:38","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":457182,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural Framework and modelling workflow from seismic data. (a) Initial depth structure map with key fault interpretations. (b) and (c) Display of depth structure with contour overlays to highlight faulted regions. (d) Blank framework for model initialization. (e) Modelled fault surfaces extracted from the seismic interpretation. (f) and (g) Identification of key structural elements, including hanging wall and footwall cut-offs, essential for structural restoration. (h) Final interpreted fault network with multiple fault traces extracted for further geomechanical analysis.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/a028b59eb4e586cabbc4a590.png"},{"id":87372464,"identity":"48354ec4-e8eb-44c9-b07f-6727deb75716","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:23:36","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":976218,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStratigraphic-Structural workflow of 2-D seismic profiles. (a) Uninterpreted seismic section, (b) Horizon interpretation with color-coded reflectors to highlight key stratigraphic units. (c) Fault interpretation with black lines delineating fault planes cutting through the stratigraphy. (d) Schematic structural model extracted from the seismic interpretation, showing fault networks and stratigraphic relationships in a simplified format. Vertical exaggeration (V.E) is set to 3× to enhance fault visibility.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/67a2136732da4d02f043ac63.png"},{"id":87371448,"identity":"f7920a7a-acef-44f8-a880-10957127081e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":945501,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic sections with interpreted stratigraphic and structural features. Sections (a), (c), (e), (g), (i), and (k) display uninterpreted seismic profiles of Xlines 21920, 21820, 21700, 21600, 21520 and 21400 respectively with V.E = 5×, oriented from basinward (W) to landward (E). Sections (b), (d), (f), (h), (j), and (l) show the interpreted regional profiles of Xlines 21920, 21820, 21700, 21600, 21520 and 21400 with color-coded stratigraphic units and mapped faults in black.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/52e5cf350fcf8eb26c1990e9.png"},{"id":87371454,"identity":"e23b42f2-af82-44d0-8e27-5423a6f131b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":660742,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic facies analysis across the western and eastern margins of the study area. (a) Seismic profiles showing seismic-stratigraphic units of 10 horizons, with boxes indicating the selections of detailed facies analysis in sections (i) to (iv). b) selected sections of Figure 6-2a); c) selected sections of different packages of seismic facies units (i) SP1 showing high- and low-amplitude reflections highlighting lithological variations. (ii) SP2 indicating Sub-continuous and thin, continuous reflections suggesting variations in sedimentary processes. (iii) SP3 showing low-amplitude reflections, indicative of homogeneous lithology. (iv) SP4 showing weak, discontinuous reflections corresponding to structural or stratigraphic discontinuities.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/a62d336629f612c9c0b48752.png"},{"id":87371449,"identity":"0c565efd-e23c-41cc-a816-8ced4cd6ca86","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:35","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":868239,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural interpretation and depth mapping of the study area. (a) Regional depth structure map with the area of interest outlined. (b) Magnified view of the selected area showing key x-lines (21520, 21600, 21700, 21800, and 21920) for seismic interpretation, (c) FM-1, (d) FM-2, (e) FM-3 (f) FM-4. The Structural maps (FM-1 to FM-4) with interpreted faults superimposed on the depth structure, illustrating the distribution of faulting across the study.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/7ebc205dd76e71dabf8e83d4.png"},{"id":87372541,"identity":"c4c7c2ba-b708-41b1-b2d3-b83500ffa759","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:23:38","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":878449,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic sections illustrating key structural styles. Section (a-i), (b-i), (c-i), (d-i), and (e-i) present uninterpreted seismic profiles with vertical exaggeration (V.E) = 5×. Geoseismic section showing the interpreted structural styles, (a-ii) Apparent Listric fault, (b-ii) Apparent planar fault, (c-ii) Graben-like structure, (d-ii) Horst structure, (e-ii) Tilted fault blocks.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/d882234881bd440dfbafd90e.png"},{"id":87373598,"identity":"1b4d607c-9458-431a-8bb3-60a85991bce4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:31:36","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":539509,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeismic sections and structural interpretations illustrating different conjugate fault geometries. a) (i), (ii), and (iii) show uninterpreted seismic profiles with vertical exaggeration (V.E), b) Geoseismic showing; (i) V-conjugate faults with steeply dipping fault planes converging downward, (ii) Y-conjugate faults, (iii) X-conjugate faults with transecting fault planes.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/b614fe4e832445cb1327c866.png"},{"id":87371471,"identity":"fdbaeb14-6ffe-4806-a5f5-6dfc50e178df","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:36","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparative analysis of the distribution of listric and planar faults in seismic profiles along x-lines 21920, 21820, 21700, 21600, 21520, and 21400. (a) Bar chart illustrating the relationship between listric and planar faults, highlighting variations in fault type distribution across the selected profiles. (b) Line chart showing the variation in the ratio of listric to planar faults along the specified seismic profiles.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/aa5862dca1ac60af23a43b01.png"},{"id":87371491,"identity":"d0ebfadb-21a7-43d6-8aa6-c48a544ab895","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:37","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":540740,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural styles on map view. (a). The fault map displays the interpreted fault network with key structural styles outlined in red dashes: (i) Planar faults, (ii) Listric faults, (iii) Graben and horst structures, and (iv) Convergent conjugate faults. (b) 3D visualisations of conjugate faults; (i) V-shaped conjugates; (ii) X-shaped conjugate and(iii) Y-shaped conjugate.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/5b066c3bf16e6f527cac46c6.png"},{"id":87371458,"identity":"b037ec71-7ccb-407d-b06f-cf1d144444e9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:36","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":529338,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFault attribute analysis using 3D visualizations. (a) Fault heave distribution map, illustrating variations in lateral fault displacement with values ranging from 0 to 800 m. (b) Dip azimuth map, showing the orientation of fault planes with azimuth angles varying from 0° to 360°, indicating dominant fault trends. (c) Dip angle map, representing fault plane inclinations with angles ranging from 0° to 90°, highlighting differences in fault steepness across the study area.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/5190ba07e88558674f1989bc.png"},{"id":87372462,"identity":"dfc723f0-985d-48f0-9d6b-f24620af05c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:23:36","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"Figure 19","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":800190,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFault displacement and length analysis across the study area. (a)–(d) Fault displacement profiles along distance for different fault sets, showing variations in displacement magnitudes and their distribution along fault traces of FM-1 to FM-4 respectively. Peaks in displacement correspond to fault segment centres, while displacement decreases towards fault tips.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image19.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/979aacbbe6e59be2bd6fa810.png"},{"id":87371468,"identity":"fc933030-1c70-4a00-bef8-5a88c12fc1b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:36","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"Figure 20","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4489549,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePower-law relationships between fault length and maximum throw (a-d) and fault length and maximum displacement (e-h) for four fault maps (FM-1 to FM-4). Each subplot shows a scatter distribution of fault attributes plotted on logarithmic axes with fitted regression lines and 95% confidence intervals. FM-1, FM-2, and FM-3 display strong to moderate positive correlations (R² = 0.67, 0.64, and 0.65, respectively), consistent with established fault scaling trends in extensional tectonic regimes. FM-4 shows relatively weak correlations (R² = 0.22 for throw and R² = 0.30 for displacement), suggesting a more complex fault growth history or lower data quality. The trend lines and shaded confidence intervals support the robustness of the scaling relationships, with diminishing certainty observed in the FM-4 dataset.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image20.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/ff87198598c4d67489d0f8a4.png"},{"id":87371509,"identity":"2ccd7511-0ab4-4b9f-bfa4-25a1a01b2c29","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:38","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"Figure 21","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":382741,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCumulative frequency plots of fault throw (a–d) and fault displacement (e–h) for four fault maps (FM-1 to FM-4), plotted on log–log scales. Panels (a–d) show the distribution of fault throw for FM-1 to FM-4, respectively, while panels (e–h) show the corresponding fault displacement distributions. FM-1 to FM-3 show relatively smooth and consistent trends, suggesting well-populated fault populations with self-similar scaling behaviour. In contrast, FM-4 exhibits increased curvature and step-like discontinuities in both throw and displacement plots, potentially reflecting limited sampling, segmentation effects, or structural immaturity within the mapped fault system.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image21.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/3dd4c1ce286eea3936ba78d2.png"},{"id":87371508,"identity":"16bacd83-a81a-4e2c-92b4-fbe3cde3be65","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:38","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"Figure 22","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2490224,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCentralised displacement gradient (Dmax/0.5L) analysis of fault populations across four mapped fault networks (FM-1 to FM-4). (a) Conceptual diagram illustrating the symmetric displacement profile of a fault (black curve), and the graphical representation of two commonly used gradient estimators: the standard displacement gradient (Dmax/L; blue dashed line) and the centralised displacement gradient (Dmax/0.5L; red dashed line). The latter provides a steeper and more representative measure of fault strain accommodation. (b) present log–log plots of centralised displacement gradient (Dmax/0.5L) versus fault length for FM-1 (b-i), FM-2 (b-ii), FM-3 (b-iii), and FM-4 (b-iv). All fault maps show a broad scatter in gradient values with weak-to-moderate inverse correlations, suggesting variability in fault growth efficiency and structural maturity. FM-1 to FM-3 exhibit relatively consistent gradient clustering, while FM-4 shows a higher dispersion, reflecting either immature fault development or greater data heterogeneity.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image22.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/37a2a06334d4728aa2c5f8bd.png"},{"id":90466622,"identity":"c4cd5a93-76bd-4bbc-9316-c12e6439dfd2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-03 05:34:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":19763663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"KingsleyManuscriptRevised2Textsonly.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1_covered_2e1db854-6f05-484d-b436-f5c2ef41f25b.pdf"},{"id":87371503,"identity":"69ea30ad-bb25-4836-9b25-a40a58d0a931","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 07:15:38","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":22950303,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstract.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7014114/v1/af49a645b718b04866542061.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Advances in Horizon Mapping and Fault Interpretation: Methodologies and Challenges in 3-D Seismic Data","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"3-D seismic interpretation, horizon mapping, fault scaling, structural styles, displacement gradient, power-law relationship","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7014114/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7014114/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSeismic mapping plays a critical role in subsurface characterisation by enabling the visualisation of stratal reflectors and fault networks within 3-D seismic volumes. This study presents a systematic methodology that integrates structured interpretation workflows with quantitative fault analyses to improve accuracy and reduce uncertainties in complex basins. Objective uncertainties (resolution limits, velocity model inaccuracies) and subjective uncertainties (interpreter bias) were evaluated and addressed through, high-resolution mapping, and iterative validation using software tools. We integrate qualitative and quantitative seismic interpretation workflows to mitigate these uncertainties, ensuring precise subsurface characterisation from printed 2-D seismic profiles to 3-D seismic data into simulation software. A total of 364 structural faults were interpreted across four fault maps (FM-1 to FM-4). These faults exhibit diverse structural styles, including apparent planar and listric faults, block faulting (grabens, horsts, tilted blocks), and conjugate faults (V-, Y-, and X-shaped). Quantitative analyses reveal that fault lengths range from 52.34m to 19,238.10m, with maximum displacements reaching up to 13,314.70m in FM-4. Power-law relationships between fault length and max. throw/displacement were established, with strong correlations in FM-1 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.62) and FM-2 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.65), while FM-4 exhibited greater variability (R\u0026sup2; = 0.30/0.40), suggesting structural heterogeneity. Centralised displacement gradients ranged from 0.04 to 9.80, with FM-4 showing the highest mean gradient value of 1.33, indicating segmentation and fault growth complexity. It highlights the importance of systematic seismic workflows in reducing interpretation biases and improving fault detection accuracy, which is essential for energy exploration, geomechanical modelling, and subsurface storage.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Advances in Horizon Mapping and Fault Interpretation: Methodologies and Challenges in 3-D Seismic Data","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-23 07:15:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7014114/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b41cc828-a370-41f1-8f33-574c05858f83","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-03T05:06:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-23 07:15:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7014114","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7014114","identity":"rs-7014114","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}