Synthesis and Characterization of Polyester Based Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Nanofiber Membrane for Water Treatment

Synthesis and Characterization of Polyester Based Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Nanofiber Membrane for Water Treatment | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Synthesis and Characterization of Polyester Based Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Nanofiber Membrane for Water Treatment Muniza Asif, Ayaz Ali Shah, Nabi Bakhsh Mallah, Muhammad Ilyas Khan, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7429597/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study focused on the development of nanofibrous composites for water filtration. The novel nanofiber composite membranes were developed using polyester with varying weight concentrations of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) at different blended ratios (10, 15, 20, and 30wt%) by electrospinning at an applied voltage of 15 KV, and a flow rate of 13 µl/min. The characterization of synthesized nanofiber composites was conducted using analytical techniques, including optical screening, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile testing with a universal testing machine (UTM), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The UTM result demonstrated that the nanofiber composite with concentrations of EVA of 10wt% and 15wt% showed the highest strengths of 43.2 and 43.1 N/mm2, respectively. However, the nanofiber with 30wt% efficiently removed 90% of the total dissolved solids (TDS) and bacterial contamination. Conclusively, the above findings have shown that increasing the percentage of polyester results in an increase in its mechanical strength. At the same time, a higher concentration of EVA is found to be more successful in eliminating total dissolved solids (TDS) and microbiological pollutants. Nanocomposite fiber Electrospinning Polyester EVA Water treatment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1. Introduction The availability of clean drinking water is a precursor for life within the ecosystem; therefore, it must be available in adequate, secure, and safe amounts. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "safe drinking water" is defined as water that poses no appreciable danger to health when consumed over time. [ 1 , 2 ]. A variety of technologies have been used to purify water, including Reverse Osmosis (RO) and equilibrium distillation technologies, physical techniques (purification, sedimentation, and centrifugation), chemical techniques (coagulation, agglomeration, and oxidation), and biological techniques (anaerobic and aerobic digestion) [ 3 ]. These techniques produce clean and drinkable water by reducing and removing contaminants. Membrane technology is one of the methods that has generated interest in academia and business because of its distinct benefits, which include non-phase change, minimal energy usage, excellent water supply, compact design, and straightforward process integration [ 4 ]. Nanofibers stand out from other types of nanomaterials for their high specific surface areas and porosities [ 5 ]. There are various methods used to create nanofibers, including drawing, self-assembly, melt-blowing, bicomponent extrusion, electrospinning, centrifugal spinning, and template synthesis. Electrospinning is the most promising method for producing nanofibers with varying sizes, shapes, and doping [ 6 ]. This is the most straightforward and economical method available [ 7 ]. In addition to the development of membranes that perform very well in water purification operations, symmetrical and homogeneous-structured nanofiber scaffolds were created [ 8 ]. Membranes that are primarily made using a single or combined electrospinning technique are referred to as ENMs. These membranes consist of overlapping layers of nanofibers, with sizes ranging from microns to nanometers. Because of these qualities, particularly water purification and desalination, ENMs are considered one of the most promising avenues for energy storage, electric power generation, healthcare, biotechnology, and environmental applications [ 9 ]. Polyesters have superior properties for water treatment technologies, namely their ability to endure chemical exposure and mechanical stress [ 10 ]. low cost, water permeability, chlorine resistance [ 11 ], and versatility [ 12 ]. This adaptability of polyesters favors the formation of numerous kinds of nanofibers depending upon their properties (porosity, surface area, and mechanical strength), and electrospinning parameters (solution concentration, flow velocity, and applied voltage) [ 13 ]. Polyester nanofibers employed in water treatment typically possess a negative surface charge, nano-diameter ranging from 200 to 400 nm, which enables them to maintain the balance between high surface area and mechanical strength [ 14 ]. The fibers are arranged randomly, forming porous and nonwoven structure patterns. This arrangement improves the filtration efficiency by adeptly capturing impurities [ 15 ]. The cost of wastewater treatment and desalination significantly decreased with the use of such membranes, which would also increase the operational viability and dependability of desalination membrane technology [ 16 ]. Recent research has revealed the growing potential of PET membranes through electrospinning for advanced water treatment applications. Amin et al. synthesized nanomembranes via blending recycled PET and chitosan through electrospinning, resulting in high adsorption for heavy metals and improved fiber morphology [ 17 ]. In another study, Kravets et al. developed a hybrid membrane for desalination by layering electrospun Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with PET. The developed membrane exhibited a higher porous structure with enhanced membrane distillation efficiency, showing an approximately 99.97 salt rejection coefficient and a nanofiber density between 20.7 and 27.6 g/m² [ 18 ]. Similarly, Shakayeva et al. created a membrane by modifying PET through grafting dodecafluoroheptyl acrylate (DFHA) via photoinitiated graft polymerization. Modified membranes with a contact angle of 97 were examined for desalination with a NaCl concentration of 7 to 30 g/L, and showed a desalination rate of 94% [ 19 ]. Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) is an economical and environmentally beneficial material that has been used in Water filtration and has demonstrated positive results in improving the water quality, ref. EVA is known for its high mechanical strength, good flexibility, and high permeability to water vapor and gases [ 20 ]. These membranes can be fabricated into ultrathin and lightweight fiber membranes, making them suitable for use in water filtration. Specifically, EVA has been investigated to produce porous nanofibers with high porosity, large surface-to-volume ratio, and exceptional water permeability, which are all desired properties of an effective water filter [ 21 ]. Additionally, EVA is more affordable than the leading filter jug on the market, and its filter cartridges last up to nine months, significantly longer than most competing products [ 20 ]. EVA has been used in blends rather than standalone for membrane fabrication for water treatment. Cikova et al. electrospun EVA and polylactic acid (PLA) blends with 28 wt% of EVA using solvents (dicholormethane:acetone, ratio: 70/30), the higher proportion of PLA produced microfibers with improved mechanical strength than EVA alone due to limited solubility [ 22 ]. In another study, Omastová et al. employed carbon nanotubes in multi-walled pattern (CNTMW) into EVA fibers through electrospinning using cholesteryl 1-pyrenecarboxylate (PyChol) as a compatibilizer. The fibers diameter reached 846 − 447 nm with 3% CNTMW in the polymer solution. This ratio enhanced the thermal stability with improved morphological structure, though no water treatment was performed [ 23 ]. Tang et al. also co-blended EVA with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) for vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) through thermal induced separation, after conducting several VMS tests using aqueous solution of NaCL at 65 C with pressure of 3 kPa, it was noticed that HDPE/EVA membranes demonstrated the largest permeation flux of 23.87 kg/m2/h and desired salt rejection of ≥ 99.9% [ 24 ]. As discussed, PET and EVA have been used separately or in blending forms with other materials, thus, the combined potential of PET and EVA for water treatment through electrospinning is yet to be explored. By filling this research gap, this study aims to exploit the beneficial properties of PET based nonwoven polyester and EVA, by presenting the novel synthesis of nanofibrous membrane using polyester blended with EVA at different ratios (10, 15, 20, and 30 wt.%) by electrospinning. This study investigates and compares the performance of nanofibers composed of pure polyester and blended with EVA for the filtration of high TDS water. The Characterization techniques used for nanofiber composites such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), a Universal Testing Machine (UTM), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The parameters tested for water samples are total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, pH, and bacterial contamination. 2. Materials and Methods Nonwoven polymer fabric is primarily made up of 99.99% Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and an EVA sheet containing 25% vinyl acetate, purchased from Avon Commercial Corporation, Karachi, Pakistan. Toluene ≥ 99.8% was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (CAS Number: 108-88-3), used as a solvent for electrospinning solutions. The illustrations of non-woven polyester and EVA are provided in Fig. 1 . 2.1. Preparation of a solution Four different solute concentrations of EVA (10, 15, 20, and 30 wt.%) were prepared in toluene with total concentration of 20 ml of the solution. The procedure for the preparation of the solution was adopted from the study of Tian et al. [ 25 ]. Initially, toluene and EVA were combined in an Erlenmeyer flask, then, a magnetic stirrer was inserted, and the flask was covered to prevent solvent evaporation during the subsequent stirring stage at 70°C until the EVA dissolved in 35–40 minutes. At this stage, the prepared mixture was observed as homogenous and translucent, and amenable to electrospinning. Figure 2 shows the sample preparation method, whereas the details of the prepared solutions are provided in the supplementary material in Table S1 . 2.2. Electrospinning setup The electrospinning setup used in this study is shown in Fig. 3 , which consists of a 50 ml polypropylene syringe for loading the electrospinning solution. The Electrospun nanofibers were collected using a detachable flat metal screen that was electrically grounded and adjusted to a desired height and direction. A high-voltage power of 15 KV was supplied at 10 cm between the nozzle and the collection plate, where a nonwoven 10x10 cm polyester was placed to collect the fiber of EVA. Spinneret controlled the flow rate and quantity of polymer solutions through a pump. The spinneret was made from a stainless gauge-16 hypodermic needle with outer diameter = 1.651 mm, needle size 0.8 mm, thickness of 40 µm, with the flow rate of 13 µl/min at a temperature of 25°C. The objective of each tested solution was to optimize the electrospinning parameters to obtain defect-free nanofibers. This was achieved by varying the polymer concentration (10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% and 30 wt%), needle tip-to-collector distance, flow rate, and the provided voltage. Initially, the syringe was operated manually to mobilize the solution to the syringe tip. The temperature was maintained at ambient conditions (25°C) throughout all experiments. The electrospun fibers of Polyester/EVA were easily separated from the aluminum foil that covered the collector; as a result, no additional coating was required to collect the electrospun mats, which were then sealed within a plastic bag. The electrospinning experiments were conducted in the Department of Polymer and Petrochemical Engineering, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi. Whereas the characterization was performed at different laboratories in the same university. 2.3. Preparation of high TDS water and the Filtration process The saline water was collected from the Arabian Sea near the Karachi coast, Pakistan, with an initial TDS of about 35,000 mg/L. From this, two synthetic saline water samples were prepared by dilution to obtain TDS values of 1,300 mg/L and 3,000 mg/L. The high TDS water samples were filtered by a developed nanofiber composite through vacuum filtration. The electrospun fiber folded to match the measurements of the Whatman filter paper, which is 90 mm in diameter with one qualitative circle (Cat. No. 1001 090). As part of the vacuum filtration equipment, the membrane was placed on the Büchner funnel. Filtration continued until the membrane was clear of all remaining solutions. 2.4. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) The heterotrophic plate count (HPC) was conducted by a sample consisting of 1 ml of coil from bacteria in TDS water. Twenty-one Petri plates were disinfected and sterilized, and eighteen tubes filled with 9 mL of distilled water were used for dilution. 11.76 g of nutrient agar and 420 ml of distilled water were added to create the nutrient agar, which was then put inside an autoclave chamber along with petri plates and tubes. Fill sterile petri dishes with 15 ml of the preferred media allow the agar to harden. Petri plates were inverted, resulting in a 2 to 3 g water loss when the lids were on overnight. For initial and subsequent transfers from each container, use 1 ml sample and a sterile pipette. As the pre-dried agar plate rotates on a turntable, a pipette is used as the desired sample volume of 1 ml onto its surface. Slowly release the sample from the pipette while making a back-and-forth motion, allowing the inoculum to be completely absorbed into the medium before inverting and incubating at 35°C for 24 hours [ 26 ]. The bacterial count/ml was computed by equations (Eq. 1 and Eq. 2). The overall flow diagram of the methodology is provided in Fig. 4 . \(\:CFU/ml=\frac{colonies\:counted\:\times\:dilution\:factor}{actual\:volume\:of\:sample\:plated}\) (Eq. 1) \(\:Log\:CFU/ml=\frac{CFU}{dilution\:factor\times\:aliquot}\) (Eq. 2) 2.5. Characterization of nanofiber composite and high TDS water The surface morphology of nanofibers was determined through the optical microscope (OP). The observer can examine the image using the condenser lens to focus light on the sample and objective lenses (10X to 1000X) to magnify the beam containing the image to the projector lens. The morphological, structural, and surface characteristics of the nanofibers were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The tensile strength of the fiber was evaluated by UTM (Universal Testing Machine). The stress-strain curves are generated in real time using force and displacement data. High-resolution cameras allow crack detection and strain measurement without physical contact. The characterization of synthetic high TDS water was conducted through TDS, turbidity and bacterial count. The digital meters HI-9813-5, and HI-98703 were used for the determination of TDS and turbidity respectively. Whereas bacterial count was determined by Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) using this standard method (ASTM E1326-20). 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Characterization of fiber 3.1.1. Optical image The surface morphology of ethylene-vinyl acetate films cast on polyester nonwoven fabric at different weight percentages is shown in Fig. 5 . It consists of a layer of EVA with a thickness of 200 µm. This graphic shows how EVA concentration changes the appearance and interaction of the film with the fabric below. At a concentration of 10 wt% EVA, the surface morphology reveals a noticeable backing layer of the nonwoven polyester fabric beneath the EVA film. This implies that the thin EVA covering allows some visibility of the fiber. The existence of the fabric layer suggests that the polyester beneath the EVA is partially visible, retaining some of the underlying fabric's texture and pattern on the surface. Similar to the 10 wt% EVA, the backing fabric remains visible in the 15 wt% EVA. Compared to the lower concentration, there may be a slight improvement in coverage, even though the fabric layer remains partially exposed. The top surface shows a noticeable improvement in morphology at a 20wt% EVA concentration. The nonwoven polyester fabric is better covered by the EVA film, which also makes the fabric layer underneath less noticeable. At a concentration of 30 weight percent EVA, the top surface's shape is noticeably improved. The EVA layer makes the surface appear smoother and more continuous by almost hiding the background fabric. As Fig. 5 illustrates, increasing the EVA concentration has an impact on the cast film's surface morphology. At lower concentrations (10wt% and 15wt%), the EVA layer partially exposes the polyester fabric, revealing recognizable traces of the underlying texture. As the EVA concentration increases (20wt% and 30wt%), the film gets smoother and more covered, making the wavy texture of the polyester fabric less noticeable. 3.1.2. FTIR The surface chemical changes on polyester/EVA fibers were investigated using an FTIR scanning spectrophotometer over 500–4000 cm − 1 . Figure 6 shows FTIR spectra for polyester/EVA composites with 10wt%, 15wt%, 20wt%, and 30wt% of EVA. It shows esters, alcohol, anhydrides, and aromatic rings. The absorption bands at 2917 and 2849 cm − 1 stand for ν_s, as (C–H) bonds from alkyl chains while the band at 1735 cm − 1 is due to stretching vibrations of carbonyl group ν(C = O) from acid. The low-intensity band at ~ 1462 cm − 1 corresponds to δ(CH_2) vibrations, whereas that at ~ 1370 and ~ 1236 cm − 1 corresponds to ν(O–C) from the acid. The bending and ring puckering vibrations of the C–H on the benzene rings are responsible for the peak at around 720 cm − 1 [ 27 ]. Additionally, stretching ν(C–N) = 1019 and bending wagging vibrations –NH_2 = NH are indicated by new absorption bands appearing at about 956 cm − 1 . Likely, the oxygen-containing polar groups present on the polyester fabric's surface are the result of interactions between polymer nanocomposites and –O–C = O (carboxylic) groups. A polar group containing oxygen on the surface will be altered. Stretching vibrations of Zn–O samples result in 605 cm − 1 , meaning that there are ZnO nanoparticles present [ 28 ]. According to the FTIR spectra, the polyester/EVA fibers contain a range of functional groups, suggesting multiple chemical interactions. Alcohol, carboxylic acids, and esters are markers of how the polyester matrix and EVA component interact. These interactions may affect the composites' overall functionality and chemical properties. The detection and successful integration of ZnO nanoparticles into the fiber matrix is indicated by the signal at 605 cm⁻³. Among other things, this could enhance the material's antibacterial or UV protection properties. The changes observed in the FTIR spectra, particularly the new peaks and shifts, suggest that the addition of ZnO and EVA nanoparticles altered the surface chemistry of the polyester/EVA fibers. This type of modification can alter the way fibers function and interact with other materials. 3.1.3. SEM The alignment of the resultant ENF was seen using SEM. Figure 7 shows scanning electron microscopy images of ENF from polyester/EVA 10wt%, polyester/EVA 15wt%, polyester/EVA 20wt%, and polyester/EVA 30wt%. It is evident that under identical conditions, uniaxially aligned nanofibers were produced in all compositions. Polyester/EVA 30wt% blend, nevertheless, seems to have the best alignment. These images additionally demonstrate the presence of interconnected fibers. Both contents offered this issue. Individual fibers are only theoretically achieved if the solvent has mostly evaporated during the trajectory, and the jet is solvent-free when it reaches the collector (Ramakrishna 2005). As a result, the solvent's evaporation was probably inappropriate. Because of their high specific surface area and great roughness, rough fibers have been effectively used in a variety of applications, including energy harvesting and self-cleaning surfaces [ 29 , 30 ]. Research has demonstrated that the creation of rough fibers with the use of a single solvent solution High Boiling Point Solvent (HBPS) (Toluene), is attributed to electrical force [ 31 ] and buckling instability. The SEM revealed the fibers' somewhat uneven structure. Glassy skin forms in the later stage of electrospinning because of phase separation and the low rate of solvent evaporation. Microorganisms and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) can be effectively removed from water using the 10 µmm-sized EVA fibers. Because of their large surface area, porosity, and capacity to add functional groups or nanoparticles, electrospun fibers can improve the adsorption and filtering qualities required to lower TDS levels and microbes in water [ 32 , 33 ]. The solvents are trapped by this glassy skin, which then faces evaporation. Rough surfaces could develop as a result of weak spots that may still exist. The fibers in d) have less space and are more compacted, which will result in high efficiency as compared to others and a) has a rougher surface as compared to others, and has more space between the fibers will result in a decrease in efficiency. 3.1.4. Tensile strength The nanofiber samples’ weights and areas varied depending on the various concentrations of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) in the polymer solution used for electrospinning. The electrospinning process is influenced by the increase in EVA content in the electrospinning solution, which also affects nanofiber properties shown in Fig. 8 . Electrospinning determines the weight and area of nanofiber samples through the deposition of a polymer solution onto a collector. More fibers are deposited as EVA concentrations rise, resulting in increased solution viscosity. This results in fatter fiber or bigger deposition areas on the collector. The tensile strength of the polyester nanofibers is increased by adding EVA at 10 wt% and 15 wt%, to 43.2 N/mm² and 43.1 N/mm², respectively. Better interfacial adhesion between polyester and EVA as well as possible reinforcing effects from EVA particles in the composite structure, are responsible for this improvement. The tensile strength drops to 27.7 N/mm² and 12 N/mm² at 20wt% and 30wt% EVA concentrations, respectively, mentioned in Table 1 . This decrease could be the result of a high EVA content that compromises the mechanical integrity of the nanofibers by causing inferior polymer chain alignment or phase separation. Table 1 Tensile strength of polyester and polyester/EVA composite. Sample Area mm 2 Tensile strength in N/mm 2 Polyester 4.05 30.7 Polyester/EVA 10wt% 4.05 43.2 Polyester/EVA 15wt% 9 43.1 Polyester/EVA 20wt% 9 27.7 Polyester/EVA 30wt% 3.50 12 In conclusion, due to variations in solution viscosity influencing electrospinning, the weights and areas of the nanofiber samples varied with EVA content. The resulting polyester/EVA nanocomposite fibers' tensile strength varied significantly based on the amount of EVA used, demonstrating the intricate relationship between the mechanical properties, processing variables, and polymer composition. 3.2. Characterization of high TDS synthetic water 3.2.1. Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC) Electrical conductivity (EC) measurements and two total dissolved solids (TDS) levels (1300 mg/L and 3000 mg/L) were used to assess filters made of polyester/EVA composite fibers at different concentration levels (Polyester/EVA 10 wt.%, Polyester/EVA 15 wt.%, Polyester/EVA 20 wt.%, and Polyester/EVA 30 wt.%). As the concentration of polyester composite fibers rose, both trials showed a considerable improvement in the removal efficiency of TDS and EC as shown in Fig. 9 . The polyester-only filter in experiment 1 decreased the EC to 1300 µs/cm and eliminated 25.8% of the TDS from an initial concentration of 1300 mg/L. The Polyester/EVA 15% filter reduced the EC to 962 µs/cm and eliminated 63.73% of the TDS. In contrast, the Polyester/EVA 10% filter eliminated 55.97% of the TDS and decreased the EC to 1000 µs/cm. The EC was lowered to 572 µs/cm using the Polyester/EVA 20% filter, which removed 77.76% of the TDS. At 30 percent, the composite fiber filter decreased the EC to 196 µs/cm and eliminated 89.4% of the TDS. Experiment 2 showed a similar pattern, with the polyester-only filter removing 26.3% of the initial TDS and lowering the EC to 4420 µs/cm at a 3000 mg/L concentration. The EC was lowered to 1119 µs/cm, and 81.2% of TDS was eliminated using the Polyester/EVA 20% filter. The composite fiber filter at a 30% weight percentage eliminated 90% of TDS, which also reduced the EC to 718 µs/cm. For example, with polystyrene/Polystyrene Nanofiber (PNZ) composite at 30%, the highest observed removal rate in the prior study was 86.30%, demonstrating the usefulness of composite fibers in water treatment applications [ 34 ]. The Polyester/EVA composite fibers’ adsorption ability, which probably captures both solid particles (such as suspended solids) and ions that contribute to EC, is responsible for the decrease in both TDS and EC. Composite fibers offer a greater surface area for filtering, allowing more dissolved ions and particles to be captured. This results in notable decreases in both TDS and EC, particularly at higher concentrations (e.g., 30wt.%). TDS removal efficiency and EC reduction rise in tandem with an increase in composite fiber concentration. This implies that decreased TDS and EC readings result from the filters' improved ability to capture ions and dissolved particles. The study shows that in the filtering tests, TDS and EC have a significant positive correlation. Since the same dissolved particles and ions that make up TDS also contribute to EC, EC drops as TDS does. When trying to meet drinking water standards like those set by the WHO, which recommend TDS levels below 1000 mg/L and EC values between 200 and 800 µs/cm, the Polyester/EVA composite fibers have proven to be especially effective at removing both dissolved solids (TDS) and ions (EC). This makes them ideal for water treatment. 3.2.2. pH Composite fiber filters with different concentrations (Polyester/EVA 10wt%, Polyester/EVA 15wt%, Polyester/EVA 20wt%, and Polyester/EVA 30wt%) were used in the filtration studies. Samples were taken right away for pH assessment. The pH readings obtained from the filtering process demonstrate how well composite fiber filters work to keep water's pH within the permitted range of 6.5–8.5, according to WHO guidelines. The pH fluctuated from 7.54 to 7.89 in Experiment 1 with varying concentrations of composite fiber, from an initial pH of 7.96. Comparably, the composite fiber used in experiment 2 displayed a pH range of 7.72 to 7.89, beginning at the initial pH of 8.13 indicated in Table 2 . Table 2 pH values of water samples before and after the treatment. Sample pH (1300mg/L) pH (3000mg/L) Before 7.96 8.13 Polyester 7.89 7.72 Polyester/EVA 10% 7.80 7.6 Polyester/EVA 15% 7.79 7.54 Polyester/EVA 20% 7.56 7.47 Polyester/EVA 30% 7.54 7.35 Among the measured concentrations, the high TDS range concentration notably produced the lowest pH value post-filtration, indicating a possible buffering action or adsorption of alkaline components from the water. In conclusion, tests on water filtration showed that composite fiber filters were capable of effectively regulating pH. pH was kept within WHO-recommended bounds at low and high TDS concentrations, demonstrating their potential to improve water quality in real-world applications. 3.2.3. Turbidity Composite fiber filters with different concentrations (Polyester/EVA 10wt.%, Polyester/EVA 15wt.%, Polyester/EVA 20wt.%, and Polyester/EVA 30wt.%) were used in the filtration trials. Two trials were conducted, each with a different starting TDS level (high and low). The turbidity of filtered water samples was measured immediately after filtering to evaluate purity. A composite fiber filter reduces post-filtration cloudiness in water wells based on measurements of turbidity. The polyester-only filter in Experiment 1 with low beginning TDS lowered turbidity to 1.33 NTU. As composite fiber concentrations increased, turbidity decreased even more, with the 30 wt.% concentration obtaining the lowest turbidity of 0.30 NTU. Higher concentrations of composite fibers improved water clarity; the 30wt.% concentration produced the lowest turbidity of 1.01 NTU. In a similar vein, in Experiment 2 with high beginning TDS, the polyester-only filter reduced turbidity to 5.96 NTU in Table 3 . Table 3 Turbidity values of water samples before and after the treatment. Sample Turbidity NTU (1300mg/L) Turbidity NTU (3000mg/L) Before 1.67 6.35 Polyester 1.33 5.96 Polyester/EVA 10% 1.28 4.07 Polyester/EVA 15% 0.66 3.39 Polyester/EVA 20% 0.59 2.33 Polyester/EVA 30% 0.3 1.01 Following filtering, all turbidity values (from 0.30 to 5.96 NTU) fall within the permissible range of drinking water standards (≤ 5 NTU), proving that composite fiber filters successfully satisfy the turbidity limits for drinkable water. The findings show a distinct pattern in which turbidity decreases more when composite fiber concentrations are higher. This implies that composite fibers have a larger surface area and adsorptive capacity improve their capacity to collect and eliminate particle matter, thereby enhancing the purity of the water. In conclusion, composite fiber filters significantly lessen turbidity in water samples with different TDS concentrations, especially those with higher concentrations (20wt% and 30wt%). 3.2.4. Heterotrophic plate count The HPC results demonstrate how well various Polyester/EVA filtration materials work to lessen waterborne microbial contamination. Before filtration, the number of colonies that produced was uncountable as shown in Fig. 10 a to c). The best-performing Polyester/EVA filters were those with 20 and 30 weight percent; they continuously produced microbiological levels that were acceptable at all dilutions, and the number of colonies was illustrated in Fig. 10 k-o). The efficiency of the 10wt% and 15wt% filters, on the other hand, varied, with some results continuing to go outside allowable bounds displayed in Fig. 10 d to j), and the details are shown in Table 4 . Table 4 CFU and log CFU values of colonies before and after the treatment. Sample Dilution Count CFU Acceptability Log CFU/ml Before filtration \(\:{10}^{-1}\) Uncountable Uncountable Not acceptable — \(\:{10}^{-2}\) Uncountable Uncountable Not acceptable — \(\:{10}^{-3}\) Uncountable Uncountable Not acceptable — Polyester/EVA 10wt% \(\:{10}^{-1}\) Uncountable Uncountable Not acceptable — \(\:{10}^{-2}\) 15 1500 CFU Not acceptable 4.17 \(\:{10}^{-3}\) 4 4000 CFU Not acceptable 5.10 Polyester/EVA 15wt% \(\:{10}^{-1}\) 222 2220 CFU Not acceptable 3.86 \(\:{10}^{-2}\) 2 200 CFU Acceptable 3.30 \(\:{10}^{-3}\) 1 1000 CFU Not Acceptable 3.5 Polyester/EVA 20wt% \(\:{10}^{-1}\) 12 120 CFU Acceptable 2.57 \(\:{10}^{-2}\) 1 100 CFU Acceptable 3.0 \(\:{10}^{-3}\) 0 0 CFU Acceptable 0 Polyester/EVA 30wt% \(\:{10}^{-1}\) 1 10 CFU Acceptable 1.5 \(\:{10}^{-2}\) 1 100 CFU Acceptable 3.0 \(\:{10}^{-3}\) 0 0 CFU Acceptable 0 For applications needing strict microbial control, the 30-weight percent Polyester/EVA filter is the better choice because it demonstrated the greatest efficacy in reaching low microbial counts. For efficient microbial elimination, 20wt% or 30wt% Polyester/EVA filters are advised. Future studies should concentrate on improving the materials used in filters and looking at new techniques to increase the effectiveness of germ removal. After assessing the overall results, it can be deduced that the electrospinning process can be affected by several parameters. Such as collecting time and EVA concentration, have an impact on the alignment of the electrospun fibers, as demonstrated throughout the explanation of the method. It was evident that, even with the same flow rate of 13microliter/min, the number of deposited fibers varied depending on the composition and the time. As a result, the weights of the tensile testing samples varied. In our instance, the number of deposited fibers was highest at the highest polymer concentration. This outcome is consistent with findings from prior studies that showed that as solution concentration increased, so did the areal density of the produced fibers. [ 35 ]. 4. Conclusion In the present study, the synthesis and characterization of nanofibers from polyester alone and blended with EVA at varying ratios (10, 15, 20, and 30 wt.%), along with their performance for water treatment, have been discussed. Results showed that the nanofiber with 30wt% had the lowest strength of 12 N/mm2, while 10wt% and 15wt% nanofibers showed the highest strengths of 43.2 and 43.1 N/mm2, respectively. Whereas nanofibers with 30% EVA efficiently removed 90% of the TDS and bacterial contamination. These findings show that increasing the percentage of polyester enhances the material strength, whereas a higher proportion of EVA was found beneficial for the removal of TDS and microorganism impurities. So, a technoeconomic analysis would be suggested for future studies to choose the best material from a blend of polyester-EVA for water treatment. This study can become a fundamental study for designing a polyester/EVA-based membrane for water treatment plants, especially in areas where microbiological and TDS pollution are significant concerns. 5. Challenges and Recommendations In the present study, the maximum tensile strength of 43 N/mm² was observed at a lower EVA concentration; however, the filtration efficiency increased at the highest EVA ratio. This observation has been reported in the literature, where polymer blending enhances the removal capacity at the cost of mechanical performance, such as tensile strength [ 36 ]. The multilayered membranes with 10 to 15% EVA are suggested for future work. Such membranes have a core-shell structure, which has proven promising for exhibiting high filtration efficiency and tensile strength simultaneously [ 37 ]. A detailed characterization is needed to determine the fiber diameter, pore size distribution, and total porosity. These parameters are crucial for relating morphology to the rejection rate of contaminants, particularly when comparing results that show 90% removal of nanoparticles with fiber diameters < 500 nm. Quantitative morphological characterization is required, including porosimetry (mercury intrusion, capillary flow), provision of a fiber diameter histogram, and tortuosity measurement, as the study reported a 99% removal of nanoparticles with a fiber diameter of < 500 nm [ 38 ]. Since fouling constantly remains a key problem in filtration systems, it weakens the flux and lifespan of the membrane. Recommendation: The tests concerning fouling resistance and regeneration evaluation should be conducted, such as cyclic flux tests with model organics and microbes [ 39 ]. Cleaning protocols should be adopted (chemical cleaning, backwashing), with measurement of flux recovery. Antimicrobial additives, surface modification agents (such as TiO₂ photocatalysts, silver nanoparticles, and polydopamine coatings), or other substances could reduce biofouling and extend operational lifespan [ 40 ]. Although the present study successfully removed 90% of the TDS, some questions need to be explored further, such as the nature and type of TDS components, how they interact with the strain, and how they affect performance under different conditions, including pH, organic load, and ionic strength. Future studies should focus on the interaction of polyester/EVA membrane with actual contaminated wastewater containing diverse organic matter in the form of dissolved and suspended solids, as well as microbial contamination. This would further enhance the application of blending polyester with EVA. The discussion related to the molecular or supramolecular level is missing here, which influences the surface charge responsible for bacterial rejection. For Mechanistic and surface chemistry investigations, zeta potential measurements, surface charge assays, and contact angle goniometry should be ideal for examining the effect of EVA on hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity and bacterial adherence or rejection. XPS depth analysis could describe the phase distribution, polymer blending, and functional group shifts in the adsorption mechanisms. These Mechanistic insights would guide targeted modifications, including embedding charged moieties to trap TDS ions or antimicrobial agents to kill bacteria [ 41 ]. Declarations Conflict of Interest: The Authors declare no conflict of interest. Author Contribution M. A (Experiments, analysis, investigation, data validation, manuscript writing, review, and editing), A.A. S (Supervision, manuscript writing, review, and editing), N.B.M (Experiments, analysis, investigation), M.I.K (Investigation, manuscript writing, review, and editing and Funding acquisition) A.R (analysis, manuscript writing, review, and editing). Acknowledgement The Authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University for funding this work through the Large Research Project under grant number RGP2/549/46. References Fida M, Li P, Wang Y et al (2023) Water Contamination and Human Health Risks in Pakistan: A Review. Expo Heal 15:619–639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-022-00512-1 Perveen S, Amar-Ul-Haque (2023) Drinking water quality monitoring, assessment and management in Pakistan: A review. Heliyon 9:e13872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13872 Ezugbe EO, Rathilal S (2020) Membrane Technologies in Wastewater Treatment: A Review. 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Membranes (Basel) 14: https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes14070145 Wei W, Zhang P, Cao F et al (2022) Ultrathin flexible electrospun EVA nanofiber composite with electrothermally-driven shape memory effect for electromagnetic interference shielding. Chem Eng J 446:137135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.137135 Herkert NJ, Merrill J, Peters C et al (2020) Assessing the effectiveness of point-of-use residential drinking water filters for perfluoroalkyl substances (pfass). Environ Sci Technol Lett 7:178–184. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00004 Číková E, Kuliček J, Janigová I, Omastová M (2018) Electrospinning of ethylene vinyl acetate/Poly(Lactic Acid) blends on a water surface. Mater (Basel) 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091737 Omastová M, Číková E, Mičušík M (2019) Electrospinning of ethylene vinyl acetate/carbon nanotube nanocomposite fibers. 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Membr (Basel) 3:375–388. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes3040375 Tlili I, Alkanhal TA (2019) Nanotechnology for water purification: Electrospun nanofibrous membrane in water and wastewater treatment. J Water Reuse Desalin 9:232–247. https://doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2019.057 Sihombing YA, Sinaga MZE, Hardiyanti R et al (2022) Preparation, characterization, and desalination study of polystyrene membrane integrated with zeolite using the electrospinning method. Heliyon 8:4–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10113 Mit-Uppatham C, Nithitanakul M, Supaphol P (2004) Ultrafine electrospun polyamide-6 fibers: Effect of solution conditions on morphology and average fiber diameter. Macromol Chem Phys 205:2327–2338. https://doi.org/10.1002/macp.200400225 Chabalala MB, Gumbi NN, Mamba BB et al (2021) Photocatalytic nanofiber membranes for the degradation of micropollutants and their antimicrobial activity: Recent advances and future prospects. Membr (Basel) 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11090678 Nayl AA, Abd-Elhamid AI, Awwad NS et al (2022) Review of the Recent Advances in Electrospun Nanofibers Applications in Water Purification. Polym (Basel) 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14081594 Faccini M, Borja G, Boerrigter M et al (2015) Electrospun Carbon Nanofiber Membranes for Filtration of Nanoparticles from Water. J Nanomater 2015:. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/247471 Mallah NB, Shah AA, Pirzada AM et al (2024) Advanced Control Strategies of Membrane Fouling in Wastewater Treatment: A Review. Processes 12:. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122681 Yun S (2024) Applications and Benefits of Electrospun Nanofiber Membranes in Water Treatment. 14:2–3. https://doi.org/10.35248/2155-9589.24.14 Agrawal S, Ranjan R, Lal B et al (2021) Synthesis and water treatment applications of nanofibers by electrospinning. Processes 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9101779 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7429597","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":503923468,"identity":"16078d70-6141-48d1-994e-671ae4e57ce8","order_by":0,"name":"Muniza Asif","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NED University of Engineering \u0026 Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muniza","middleName":"","lastName":"Asif","suffix":""},{"id":503923469,"identity":"af001a97-d369-4d9b-9f73-1fe44d20e380","order_by":1,"name":"Ayaz Ali Shah","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAvUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgc8EIYBECcQpYXZAKhFgiQtbBKkaeFvP/6s4m2bTR0De/M2CcYdaYS1SJzJMbs5ty1NgoHnWJkE45kcIpx1IIftNm/bYQkGiRwzCca2CsI65M8/f1bM2/ZfgkH+DZFaDG4kmDHzth0A2sID0kKEwwxvvDGWnHMuWbKNJ63YIvEMEd6XO5/+8MObMjt+fvbDG2983JFMWAscsIGIxAYSdEAAI+laRsEoGAWjYAQAAOxkNCPWdMo1AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Dawood University of Engineering \u0026 Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ayaz","middleName":"Ali","lastName":"Shah","suffix":""},{"id":503923470,"identity":"78501c65-e940-4f58-a883-dad2c0117017","order_by":2,"name":"Nabi Bakhsh Mallah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hamdard University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nabi","middleName":"Bakhsh","lastName":"Mallah","suffix":""},{"id":503923471,"identity":"785aac0e-3803-430b-aa15-3c61c095721f","order_by":3,"name":"Muhammad Ilyas Khan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Khalid University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"Ilyas","lastName":"Khan","suffix":""},{"id":503923472,"identity":"df736c02-5b45-447f-93fb-082e19ae4d74","order_by":4,"name":"Aamir Raza","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dawood University of Engineering \u0026 Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aamir","middleName":"","lastName":"Raza","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-22 00:08:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7429597/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7429597/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89787880,"identity":"2362588e-3ec0-43b5-a257-f7e21acbb308","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:34","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":205026,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Polyester (non-woven), b) EVA sheet.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/21a96bd02b738cac5d7da8d7.png"},{"id":89787876,"identity":"8922d548-e0f8-4a8c-8db8-bdef02cf3d6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:33","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":314428,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePreparation of solution for electrospinning: a) weight of EVA 10 wt.%, b) EVA 10 wt.% dissolved in toluene.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/ed838570190abd3c27aede2e.png"},{"id":89787888,"identity":"2ae609b5-c7e2-4d39-b44c-89c5c5ae4a03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:34","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66665,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Electrospinning setup.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/f0d8fdeaae70ac0637a8bce5.png"},{"id":89788440,"identity":"1a3c4110-ef08-4025-87f0-0cab3895c2ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:54:33","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35254,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe overall methodology is adopted in the present study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/b1e435cb1739962055121e7c.png"},{"id":89787895,"identity":"eea600da-c7c1-4857-b406-64c08c27f42a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:34","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1190595,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe surface image of a) polyester/EVA 10wt%, b) polyester/EVA 15wt%, c) polyester/EVA 20wt% and d) polyester/EVA 30wt%.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/f03c0ce5243f9a496f1ce0af.png"},{"id":89787892,"identity":"ac2c1458-bd45-43b1-b4df-08576741ed87","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30461,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR spectra of polyester/EVA composites.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/01b91817f5fb2556499f9b3f.jpg"},{"id":89787869,"identity":"00494887-760f-45ff-9cb6-4987ab7e5754","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:33","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255226,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM micrographs a) polyester/EVA 10wt%, b) polyester/EVA 15wt%, c) polyester/EVA 20wt% and d) polyester/EVA 30wt%.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/fb3e3536a295896e4ba854a6.jpg"},{"id":89788447,"identity":"1808831b-0839-4a76-987b-0a1a990fbd01","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:54:34","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105740,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTensile strength of polyester and polyester/EVA composites.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/51ac1cf36d598ec4af3bf10b.png"},{"id":89787874,"identity":"7d0a4266-9dca-4308-a4ed-3717d6dc4d12","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:33","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96384,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTDS and EC concentration of high TDS water before and after the filtration with nanocomposite fiber membrane at different ratios.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/0af3758c1564c31addb66aca.png"},{"id":89787883,"identity":"b57fd894-f625-47c2-9034-e46c0587b77b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":195398,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ebefore filtration at 10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e b) at 10\u003csup\u003e-2 \u003c/sup\u003ec) at 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e d) after filtration from Polyester/EVA 10wt% at 10\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003ee) at 10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e f) at 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e g) after filtration from Polyester/EVA 15wt% at 10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e h) at 10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e i) at 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e j) after filtration from Polyester/EVA 20wt% at 10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e k) at 10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e l) at 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e m) after filtration from Polyester/EVA 30wt% at \u0026nbsp;10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e n) at 10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e o) at 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/cbcccc9e882d737fcfaf0fa7.jpg"},{"id":92609744,"identity":"d436ff42-5f42-41a3-aa0a-602c2594990e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-01 16:01:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3326375,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/2b7b74d6-dc60-40dd-b5d4-20d376318bf4.pdf"},{"id":89787868,"identity":"d74bb38c-f6c0-4727-b63e-7f7ef023a424","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 04:46:33","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16673,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"supplementarydata.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7429597/v1/c4c78e0806df27c781bad2c3.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Synthesis and Characterization of Polyester Based Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Nanofiber Membrane for Water Treatment","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe availability of clean drinking water is a precursor for life within the ecosystem; therefore, it must be available in adequate, secure, and safe amounts. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), \"safe drinking water\" is defined as water that poses no appreciable danger to health when consumed over time. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. A variety of technologies have been used to purify water, including Reverse Osmosis (RO) and equilibrium distillation technologies, physical techniques (purification, sedimentation, and centrifugation), chemical techniques (coagulation, agglomeration, and oxidation), and biological techniques (anaerobic and aerobic digestion) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. These techniques produce clean and drinkable water by reducing and removing contaminants. Membrane technology is one of the methods that has generated interest in academia and business because of its distinct benefits, which include non-phase change, minimal energy usage, excellent water supply, compact design, and straightforward process integration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Nanofibers stand out from other types of nanomaterials for their high specific surface areas and porosities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. There are various methods used to create nanofibers, including drawing, self-assembly, melt-blowing, bicomponent extrusion, electrospinning, centrifugal spinning, and template synthesis. Electrospinning is the most promising method for producing nanofibers with varying sizes, shapes, and doping [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. This is the most straightforward and economical method available [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition to the development of membranes that perform very well in water purification operations, symmetrical and homogeneous-structured nanofiber scaffolds were created [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Membranes that are primarily made using a single or combined electrospinning technique are referred to as ENMs. These membranes consist of overlapping layers of nanofibers, with sizes ranging from microns to nanometers. Because of these qualities, particularly water purification and desalination, ENMs are considered one of the most promising avenues for energy storage, electric power generation, healthcare, biotechnology, and environmental applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyesters have superior properties for water treatment technologies, namely their ability to endure chemical exposure and mechanical stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. low cost, water permeability, chlorine resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], and versatility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This adaptability of polyesters favors the formation of numerous kinds of nanofibers depending upon their properties (porosity, surface area, and mechanical strength), and electrospinning parameters (solution concentration, flow velocity, and applied voltage) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Polyester nanofibers employed in water treatment typically possess a negative surface charge, nano-diameter ranging from 200 to 400 nm, which enables them to maintain the balance between high surface area and mechanical strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The fibers are arranged randomly, forming porous and nonwoven structure patterns. This arrangement improves the filtration efficiency by adeptly capturing impurities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The cost of wastewater treatment and desalination significantly decreased with the use of such membranes, which would also increase the operational viability and dependability of desalination membrane technology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent research has revealed the growing potential of PET membranes through electrospinning for advanced water treatment applications. Amin et al. synthesized nanomembranes via blending recycled PET and chitosan through electrospinning, resulting in high adsorption for heavy metals and improved fiber morphology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. In another study, Kravets et al. developed a hybrid membrane for desalination by layering electrospun Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with PET. The developed membrane exhibited a higher porous structure with enhanced membrane distillation efficiency, showing an approximately 99.97 salt rejection coefficient and a nanofiber density between 20.7 and 27.6 g/m\u0026sup2; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, Shakayeva et al. created a membrane by modifying PET through grafting dodecafluoroheptyl acrylate (DFHA) via photoinitiated graft polymerization. Modified membranes with a contact angle of 97 were examined for desalination with a NaCl concentration of 7 to 30 g/L, and showed a desalination rate of 94% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) is an economical and environmentally beneficial material that has been used in Water filtration and has demonstrated positive results in improving the water quality, ref. EVA is known for its high mechanical strength, good flexibility, and high permeability to water vapor and gases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. These membranes can be fabricated into ultrathin and lightweight fiber membranes, making them suitable for use in water filtration. Specifically, EVA has been investigated to produce porous nanofibers with high porosity, large surface-to-volume ratio, and exceptional water permeability, which are all desired properties of an effective water filter [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, EVA is more affordable than the leading filter jug on the market, and its filter cartridges last up to nine months, significantly longer than most competing products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. EVA has been used in blends rather than standalone for membrane fabrication for water treatment. Cikova et al. electrospun EVA and polylactic acid (PLA) blends with 28 wt% of EVA using solvents (dicholormethane:acetone, ratio: 70/30), the higher proportion of PLA produced microfibers with improved mechanical strength than EVA alone due to limited solubility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In another study, Omastov\u0026aacute; et al. employed carbon nanotubes in multi-walled pattern (CNTMW) into EVA fibers through electrospinning using cholesteryl 1-pyrenecarboxylate (PyChol) as a compatibilizer. The fibers diameter reached 846\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;447 nm with 3% CNTMW in the polymer solution. This ratio enhanced the thermal stability with improved morphological structure, though no water treatment was performed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Tang et al. also co-blended EVA with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) for vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) through thermal induced separation, after conducting several VMS tests using aqueous solution of NaCL at 65 C with pressure of 3 kPa, it was noticed that HDPE/EVA membranes demonstrated the largest permeation flux of 23.87 kg/m2/h and desired salt rejection of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;99.9% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. As discussed, PET and EVA have been used separately or in blending forms with other materials, thus, the combined potential of PET and EVA for water treatment through electrospinning is yet to be explored. By filling this research gap, this study aims to exploit the beneficial properties of PET based nonwoven polyester and EVA, by presenting the novel synthesis of nanofibrous membrane using polyester blended with EVA at different ratios (10, 15, 20, and 30 wt.%) by electrospinning. This study investigates and compares the performance of nanofibers composed of pure polyester and blended with EVA for the filtration of high TDS water. The Characterization techniques used for nanofiber composites such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), a Universal Testing Machine (UTM), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The parameters tested for water samples are total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, pH, and bacterial contamination.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eNonwoven polymer fabric is primarily made up of 99.99% Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and an EVA sheet containing 25% vinyl acetate, purchased from Avon Commercial Corporation, Karachi, Pakistan. Toluene\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;99.8% was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (CAS Number: 108-88-3), used as a solvent for electrospinning solutions. The illustrations of non-woven polyester and EVA are provided in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Preparation of a solution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFour different solute concentrations of EVA (10, 15, 20, and 30 wt.%) were prepared in toluene with total concentration of 20 ml of the solution. The procedure for the preparation of the solution was adopted from the study of Tian et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Initially, toluene and EVA were combined in an Erlenmeyer flask, then, a magnetic stirrer was inserted, and the flask was covered to prevent solvent evaporation during the subsequent stirring stage at 70\u0026deg;C until the EVA dissolved in 35\u0026ndash;40 minutes. At this stage, the prepared mixture was observed as homogenous and translucent, and amenable to electrospinning. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the sample preparation method, whereas the details of the prepared solutions are provided in the supplementary material in Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Electrospinning setup\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe electrospinning setup used in this study is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, which consists of a 50 ml polypropylene syringe for loading the electrospinning solution. The Electrospun nanofibers were collected using a detachable flat metal screen that was electrically grounded and adjusted to a desired height and direction. A high-voltage power of 15 KV was supplied at 10 cm between the nozzle and the collection plate, where a nonwoven 10x10 cm polyester was placed to collect the fiber of EVA. Spinneret controlled the flow rate and quantity of polymer solutions through a pump. The spinneret was made from a stainless gauge-16 hypodermic needle with outer diameter\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.651 mm, needle size 0.8 mm, thickness of 40 \u0026micro;m, with the flow rate of 13 \u0026micro;l/min at a temperature of 25\u0026deg;C. The objective of each tested solution was to optimize the electrospinning parameters to obtain defect-free nanofibers. This was achieved by varying the polymer concentration (10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% and 30 wt%), needle tip-to-collector distance, flow rate, and the provided voltage. Initially, the syringe was operated manually to mobilize the solution to the syringe tip. The temperature was maintained at ambient conditions (25\u0026deg;C) throughout all experiments. The electrospun fibers of Polyester/EVA were easily separated from the aluminum foil that covered the collector; as a result, no additional coating was required to collect the electrospun mats, which were then sealed within a plastic bag. The electrospinning experiments were conducted in the Department of Polymer and Petrochemical Engineering, NED University of Engineering \u0026amp; Technology, Karachi. Whereas the characterization was performed at different laboratories in the same university.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Preparation of high TDS water and the Filtration process\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe saline water was collected from the Arabian Sea near the Karachi coast, Pakistan, with an initial TDS of about 35,000 mg/L. From this, two synthetic saline water samples were prepared by dilution to obtain TDS values of 1,300 mg/L and 3,000 mg/L. The high TDS water samples were filtered by a developed nanofiber composite through vacuum filtration. The electrospun fiber folded to match the measurements of the Whatman filter paper, which is 90 mm in diameter with one qualitative circle (Cat. No. 1001 090). As part of the vacuum filtration equipment, the membrane was placed on the B\u0026uuml;chner funnel. Filtration continued until the membrane was clear of all remaining solutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe heterotrophic plate count (HPC) was conducted by a sample consisting of 1 ml of coil from bacteria in TDS water. Twenty-one Petri plates were disinfected and sterilized, and eighteen tubes filled with 9 mL of distilled water were used for dilution. 11.76 g of nutrient agar and 420 ml of distilled water were added to create the nutrient agar, which was then put inside an autoclave chamber along with petri plates and tubes. Fill sterile petri dishes with 15 ml of the preferred media allow the agar to harden. Petri plates were inverted, resulting in a 2 to 3 g water loss when the lids were on overnight. For initial and subsequent transfers from each container, use 1 ml sample and a sterile pipette. As the pre-dried agar plate rotates on a turntable, a pipette is used as the desired sample volume of 1 ml onto its surface. Slowly release the sample from the pipette while making a back-and-forth motion, allowing the inoculum to be completely absorbed into the medium before inverting and incubating at 35\u0026deg;C for 24 hours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The bacterial count/ml was computed by equations (Eq.\u0026nbsp;1 and Eq.\u0026nbsp;2). The overall flow diagram of the methodology is provided in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:CFU/ml=\\frac{colonies\\:counted\\:\\times\\:dilution\\:factor}{actual\\:volume\\:of\\:sample\\:plated}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Eq.\u0026nbsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:Log\\:CFU/ml=\\frac{CFU}{dilution\\:factor\\times\\:aliquot}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Eq.\u0026nbsp;2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Characterization of nanofiber composite and high TDS water\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface morphology of nanofibers was determined through the optical microscope (OP). The observer can examine the image using the condenser lens to focus light on the sample and objective lenses (10X to 1000X) to magnify the beam containing the image to the projector lens. The morphological, structural, and surface characteristics of the nanofibers were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The tensile strength of the fiber was evaluated by UTM (Universal Testing Machine). The stress-strain curves are generated in real time using force and displacement data. High-resolution cameras allow crack detection and strain measurement without physical contact. The characterization of synthetic high TDS water was conducted through TDS, turbidity and bacterial count. The digital meters HI-9813-5, and HI-98703 were used for the determination of TDS and turbidity respectively. Whereas bacterial count was determined by Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) using this standard method (ASTM E1326-20).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Characterization of fiber\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1. Optical image\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface morphology of ethylene-vinyl acetate films cast on polyester nonwoven fabric at different weight percentages is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. It consists of a layer of EVA with a thickness of 200 \u0026micro;m. This graphic shows how EVA concentration changes the appearance and interaction of the film with the fabric below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt a concentration of 10 wt% EVA, the surface morphology reveals a noticeable backing layer of the nonwoven polyester fabric beneath the EVA film. This implies that the thin EVA covering allows some visibility of the fiber. The existence of the fabric layer suggests that the polyester beneath the EVA is partially visible, retaining some of the underlying fabric's texture and pattern on the surface. Similar to the 10 wt% EVA, the backing fabric remains visible in the 15 wt% EVA. Compared to the lower concentration, there may be a slight improvement in coverage, even though the fabric layer remains partially exposed. The top surface shows a noticeable improvement in morphology at a 20wt% EVA concentration. The nonwoven polyester fabric is better covered by the EVA film, which also makes the fabric layer underneath less noticeable. At a concentration of 30 weight percent EVA, the top surface's shape is noticeably improved. The EVA layer makes the surface appear smoother and more continuous by almost hiding the background fabric.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e illustrates, increasing the EVA concentration has an impact on the cast film's surface morphology. At lower concentrations (10wt% and 15wt%), the EVA layer partially exposes the polyester fabric, revealing recognizable traces of the underlying texture. As the EVA concentration increases (20wt% and 30wt%), the film gets smoother and more covered, making the wavy texture of the polyester fabric less noticeable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2. FTIR\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface chemical changes on polyester/EVA fibers were investigated using an FTIR scanning spectrophotometer over 500\u0026ndash;4000 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows FTIR spectra for polyester/EVA composites with 10wt%, 15wt%, 20wt%, and 30wt% of EVA. It shows esters, alcohol, anhydrides, and aromatic rings. The absorption bands at 2917 and 2849 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e stand for ν_s, as (C\u0026ndash;H) bonds from alkyl chains while the band at 1735 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is due to stretching vibrations of carbonyl group ν(C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O) from acid. The low-intensity band at ~\u0026thinsp;1462 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e corresponds to δ(CH_2) vibrations, whereas that at ~\u0026thinsp;1370 and ~\u0026thinsp;1236 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e corresponds to ν(O\u0026ndash;C) from the acid. The bending and ring puckering vibrations of the C\u0026ndash;H on the benzene rings are responsible for the peak at around 720 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, stretching ν(C\u0026ndash;N)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1019 and bending wagging vibrations \u0026ndash;NH_2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;NH are indicated by new absorption bands appearing at about 956 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. Likely, the oxygen-containing polar groups present on the polyester fabric's surface are the result of interactions between polymer nanocomposites and \u0026ndash;O\u0026ndash;C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O (carboxylic) groups. A polar group containing oxygen on the surface will be altered. Stretching vibrations of Zn\u0026ndash;O samples result in 605 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, meaning that there are ZnO nanoparticles present [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the FTIR spectra, the polyester/EVA fibers contain a range of functional groups, suggesting multiple chemical interactions. Alcohol, carboxylic acids, and esters are markers of how the polyester matrix and EVA component interact. These interactions may affect the composites' overall functionality and chemical properties. The detection and successful integration of ZnO nanoparticles into the fiber matrix is indicated by the signal at 605 cm⁻\u0026sup3;. Among other things, this could enhance the material's antibacterial or UV protection properties. The changes observed in the FTIR spectra, particularly the new peaks and shifts, suggest that the addition of ZnO and EVA nanoparticles altered the surface chemistry of the polyester/EVA fibers. This type of modification can alter the way fibers function and interact with other materials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.3. SEM\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe alignment of the resultant ENF was seen using SEM. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows scanning electron microscopy images of ENF from polyester/EVA 10wt%, polyester/EVA 15wt%, polyester/EVA 20wt%, and polyester/EVA 30wt%. It is evident that under identical conditions, uniaxially aligned nanofibers were produced in all compositions. Polyester/EVA 30wt% blend, nevertheless, seems to have the best alignment. These images additionally demonstrate the presence of interconnected fibers. Both contents offered this issue. Individual fibers are only theoretically achieved if the solvent has mostly evaporated during the trajectory, and the jet is solvent-free when it reaches the collector (Ramakrishna 2005). As a result, the solvent's evaporation was probably inappropriate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBecause of their high specific surface area and great roughness, rough fibers have been effectively used in a variety of applications, including energy harvesting and self-cleaning surfaces [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Research has demonstrated that the creation of rough fibers with the use of a single solvent solution High Boiling Point Solvent (HBPS) (Toluene), is attributed to electrical force [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] and buckling instability. The SEM revealed the fibers' somewhat uneven structure. Glassy skin forms in the later stage of electrospinning because of phase separation and the low rate of solvent evaporation. Microorganisms and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) can be effectively removed from water using the 10 \u0026micro;mm-sized EVA fibers. Because of their large surface area, porosity, and capacity to add functional groups or nanoparticles, electrospun fibers can improve the adsorption and filtering qualities required to lower TDS levels and microbes in water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The solvents are trapped by this glassy skin, which then faces evaporation. Rough surfaces could develop as a result of weak spots that may still exist. The fibers in d) have less space and are more compacted, which will result in high efficiency as compared to others and a) has a rougher surface as compared to others, and has more space between the fibers will result in a decrease in efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.4. Tensile strength\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe nanofiber samples\u0026rsquo; weights and areas varied depending on the various concentrations of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) in the polymer solution used for electrospinning. The electrospinning process is influenced by the increase in EVA content in the electrospinning solution, which also affects nanofiber properties shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. Electrospinning determines the weight and area of nanofiber samples through the deposition of a polymer solution onto a collector. More fibers are deposited as EVA concentrations rise, resulting in increased solution viscosity. This results in fatter fiber or bigger deposition areas on the collector.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe tensile strength of the polyester nanofibers is increased by adding EVA at 10 wt% and 15 wt%, to 43.2 N/mm\u0026sup2; and 43.1 N/mm\u0026sup2;, respectively. Better interfacial adhesion between polyester and EVA as well as possible reinforcing effects from EVA particles in the composite structure, are responsible for this improvement. The tensile strength drops to 27.7 N/mm\u0026sup2; and 12 N/mm\u0026sup2; at 20wt% and 30wt% EVA concentrations, respectively, mentioned in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. This decrease could be the result of a high EVA content that compromises the mechanical integrity of the nanofibers by causing inferior polymer chain alignment or phase separation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTensile strength of polyester and polyester/EVA composite.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003emm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTensile strength in N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 10wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 15wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 20wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 30wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, due to variations in solution viscosity influencing electrospinning, the weights and areas of the nanofiber samples varied with EVA content. The resulting polyester/EVA nanocomposite fibers' tensile strength varied significantly based on the amount of EVA used, demonstrating the intricate relationship between the mechanical properties, processing variables, and polymer composition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Characterization of high TDS synthetic water\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectrical conductivity (EC) measurements and two total dissolved solids (TDS) levels (1300 mg/L and 3000 mg/L) were used to assess filters made of polyester/EVA composite fibers at different concentration levels (Polyester/EVA 10 wt.%, Polyester/EVA 15 wt.%, Polyester/EVA 20 wt.%, and Polyester/EVA 30 wt.%). As the concentration of polyester composite fibers rose, both trials showed a considerable improvement in the removal efficiency of TDS and EC as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe polyester-only filter in experiment 1 decreased the EC to 1300 \u0026micro;s/cm and eliminated 25.8% of the TDS from an initial concentration of 1300 mg/L. The Polyester/EVA 15% filter reduced the EC to 962 \u0026micro;s/cm and eliminated 63.73% of the TDS. In contrast, the Polyester/EVA 10% filter eliminated 55.97% of the TDS and decreased the EC to 1000 \u0026micro;s/cm. The EC was lowered to 572 \u0026micro;s/cm using the Polyester/EVA 20% filter, which removed 77.76% of the TDS. At 30 percent, the composite fiber filter decreased the EC to 196 \u0026micro;s/cm and eliminated 89.4% of the TDS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperiment 2 showed a similar pattern, with the polyester-only filter removing 26.3% of the initial TDS and lowering the EC to 4420 \u0026micro;s/cm at a 3000 mg/L concentration. The EC was lowered to 1119 \u0026micro;s/cm, and 81.2% of TDS was eliminated using the Polyester/EVA 20% filter. The composite fiber filter at a 30% weight percentage eliminated 90% of TDS, which also reduced the EC to 718 \u0026micro;s/cm. For example, with polystyrene/Polystyrene Nanofiber (PNZ) composite at 30%, the highest observed removal rate in the prior study was 86.30%, demonstrating the usefulness of composite fibers in water treatment applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. The Polyester/EVA composite fibers\u0026rsquo; adsorption ability, which probably captures both solid particles (such as suspended solids) and ions that contribute to EC, is responsible for the decrease in both TDS and EC. Composite fibers offer a greater surface area for filtering, allowing more dissolved ions and particles to be captured. This results in notable decreases in both TDS and EC, particularly at higher concentrations (e.g., 30wt.%). TDS removal efficiency and EC reduction rise in tandem with an increase in composite fiber concentration. This implies that decreased TDS and EC readings result from the filters' improved ability to capture ions and dissolved particles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study shows that in the filtering tests, TDS and EC have a significant positive correlation. Since the same dissolved particles and ions that make up TDS also contribute to EC, EC drops as TDS does. When trying to meet drinking water standards like those set by the WHO, which recommend TDS levels below 1000 mg/L and EC values between 200 and 800 \u0026micro;s/cm, the Polyester/EVA composite fibers have proven to be especially effective at removing both dissolved solids (TDS) and ions (EC). This makes them ideal for water treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. pH\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposite fiber filters with different concentrations (Polyester/EVA 10wt%, Polyester/EVA 15wt%, Polyester/EVA 20wt%, and Polyester/EVA 30wt%) were used in the filtration studies. Samples were taken right away for pH assessment. The pH readings obtained from the filtering process demonstrate how well composite fiber filters work to keep water's pH within the permitted range of 6.5\u0026ndash;8.5, according to WHO guidelines. The pH fluctuated from 7.54 to 7.89 in Experiment 1 with varying concentrations of composite fiber, from an initial pH of 7.96. Comparably, the composite fiber used in experiment 2 displayed a pH range of 7.72 to 7.89, beginning at the initial pH of 8.13 indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH values of water samples before and after the treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH (1300mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH (3000mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 10%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 15%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 20%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 30%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the measured concentrations, the high TDS range concentration notably produced the lowest pH value post-filtration, indicating a possible buffering action or adsorption of alkaline components from the water. In conclusion, tests on water filtration showed that composite fiber filters were capable of effectively regulating pH. pH was kept within WHO-recommended bounds at low and high TDS concentrations, demonstrating their potential to improve water quality in real-world applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. Turbidity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposite fiber filters with different concentrations (Polyester/EVA 10wt.%, Polyester/EVA 15wt.%, Polyester/EVA 20wt.%, and Polyester/EVA 30wt.%) were used in the filtration trials. Two trials were conducted, each with a different starting TDS level (high and low). The turbidity of filtered water samples was measured immediately after filtering to evaluate purity. A composite fiber filter reduces post-filtration cloudiness in water wells based on measurements of turbidity. The polyester-only filter in Experiment 1 with low beginning TDS lowered turbidity to 1.33 NTU. As composite fiber concentrations increased, turbidity decreased even more, with the 30 wt.% concentration obtaining the lowest turbidity of 0.30 NTU. Higher concentrations of composite fibers improved water clarity; the 30wt.% concentration produced the lowest turbidity of 1.01 NTU. In a similar vein, in Experiment 2 with high beginning TDS, the polyester-only filter reduced turbidity to 5.96 NTU in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbidity values of water samples before and after the treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbidity NTU (1300mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTurbidity NTU (3000mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 10%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 15%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 20%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 30%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing filtering, all turbidity values (from 0.30 to 5.96 NTU) fall within the permissible range of drinking water standards (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5 NTU), proving that composite fiber filters successfully satisfy the turbidity limits for drinkable water. The findings show a distinct pattern in which turbidity decreases more when composite fiber concentrations are higher. This implies that composite fibers have a larger surface area and adsorptive capacity improve their capacity to collect and eliminate particle matter, thereby enhancing the purity of the water. In conclusion, composite fiber filters significantly lessen turbidity in water samples with different TDS concentrations, especially those with higher concentrations (20wt% and 30wt%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.4. Heterotrophic plate count\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe HPC results demonstrate how well various Polyester/EVA filtration materials work to lessen waterborne microbial contamination. Before filtration, the number of colonies that produced was uncountable as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ea to c). The best-performing Polyester/EVA filters were those with 20 and 30 weight percent; they continuously produced microbiological levels that were acceptable at all dilutions, and the number of colonies was illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ek-o). The efficiency of the 10wt% and 15wt% filters, on the other hand, varied, with some results continuing to go outside allowable bounds displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ed to j), and the details are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFU and log CFU values of colonies before and after the treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDilution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCount\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLog CFU/ml\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore filtration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 10wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUncountable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4000 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 15wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2220 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Acceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 20wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyester/EVA 30wt%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{10}^{-3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 CFU\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor applications needing strict microbial control, the 30-weight percent Polyester/EVA filter is the better choice because it demonstrated the greatest efficacy in reaching low microbial counts. For efficient microbial elimination, 20wt% or 30wt% Polyester/EVA filters are advised. Future studies should concentrate on improving the materials used in filters and looking at new techniques to increase the effectiveness of germ removal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter assessing the overall results, it can be deduced that the electrospinning process can be affected by several parameters. Such as collecting time and EVA concentration, have an impact on the alignment of the electrospun fibers, as demonstrated throughout the explanation of the method. It was evident that, even with the same flow rate of 13microliter/min, the number of deposited fibers varied depending on the composition and the time. As a result, the weights of the tensile testing samples varied. In our instance, the number of deposited fibers was highest at the highest polymer concentration. This outcome is consistent with findings from prior studies that showed that as solution concentration increased, so did the areal density of the produced fibers. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the synthesis and characterization of nanofibers from polyester alone and blended with EVA at varying ratios (10, 15, 20, and 30 wt.%), along with their performance for water treatment, have been discussed. Results showed that the nanofiber with 30wt% had the lowest strength of 12 N/mm2, while 10wt% and 15wt% nanofibers showed the highest strengths of 43.2 and 43.1 N/mm2, respectively. Whereas nanofibers with 30% EVA efficiently removed 90% of the TDS and bacterial contamination. These findings show that increasing the percentage of polyester enhances the material strength, whereas a higher proportion of EVA was found beneficial for the removal of TDS and microorganism impurities. So, a technoeconomic analysis would be suggested for future studies to choose the best material from a blend of polyester-EVA for water treatment. This study can become a fundamental study for designing a polyester/EVA-based membrane for water treatment plants, especially in areas where microbiological and TDS pollution are significant concerns.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.\tChallenges and Recommendations ","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the maximum tensile strength of 43 N/mm\u0026sup2; was observed at a lower EVA concentration; however, the filtration efficiency increased at the highest EVA ratio. This observation has been reported in the literature, where polymer blending enhances the removal capacity at the cost of mechanical performance, such as tensile strength [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The multilayered membranes with 10 to 15% EVA are suggested for future work. Such membranes have a core-shell structure, which has proven promising for exhibiting high filtration efficiency and tensile strength simultaneously [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA detailed characterization is needed to determine the fiber diameter, pore size distribution, and total porosity. These parameters are crucial for relating morphology to the rejection rate of contaminants, particularly when comparing results that show 90% removal of nanoparticles with fiber diameters\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;500 nm. Quantitative morphological characterization is required, including porosimetry (mercury intrusion, capillary flow), provision of a fiber diameter histogram, and tortuosity measurement, as the study reported a 99% removal of nanoparticles with a fiber diameter of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;500 nm [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince fouling constantly remains a key problem in filtration systems, it weakens the flux and lifespan of the membrane. Recommendation: The tests concerning fouling resistance and regeneration evaluation should be conducted, such as cyclic flux tests with model organics and microbes [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Cleaning protocols should be adopted (chemical cleaning, backwashing), with measurement of flux recovery. Antimicrobial additives, surface modification agents (such as TiO₂ photocatalysts, silver nanoparticles, and polydopamine coatings), or other substances could reduce biofouling and extend operational lifespan [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the present study successfully removed 90% of the TDS, some questions need to be explored further, such as the nature and type of TDS components, how they interact with the strain, and how they affect performance under different conditions, including pH, organic load, and ionic strength. Future studies should focus on the interaction of polyester/EVA membrane with actual contaminated wastewater containing diverse organic matter in the form of dissolved and suspended solids, as well as microbial contamination. This would further enhance the application of blending polyester with EVA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe discussion related to the molecular or supramolecular level is missing here, which influences the surface charge responsible for bacterial rejection. For Mechanistic and surface chemistry investigations, zeta potential measurements, surface charge assays, and contact angle goniometry should be ideal for examining the effect of EVA on hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity and bacterial adherence or rejection. XPS depth analysis could describe the phase distribution, polymer blending, and functional group shifts in the adsorption mechanisms. These Mechanistic insights would guide targeted modifications, including embedding charged moieties to trap TDS ions or antimicrobial agents to kill bacteria [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interest:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM. A (Experiments, analysis, investigation, data validation, manuscript writing, review, and editing), A.A. S (Supervision, manuscript writing, review, and editing), N.B.M (Experiments, analysis, investigation), M.I.K (Investigation, manuscript writing, review, and editing and Funding acquisition) A.R (analysis, manuscript writing, review, and editing).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University for funding this work through the Large Research Project under grant number RGP2/549/46.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFida M, Li P, Wang Y et al (2023) Water Contamination and Human Health Risks in Pakistan: A Review. 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Processes 12:. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122681\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/pr12122681\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYun S (2024) Applications and Benefits of Electrospun Nanofiber Membranes in Water Treatment. 14:2\u0026ndash;3. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.35248/2155-9589.24.14\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.35248/2155-9589.24.14\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgrawal S, Ranjan R, Lal B et al (2021) Synthesis and water treatment applications of nanofibers by electrospinning. Processes 9. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/pr9101779\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/pr9101779\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Nanocomposite fiber, Electrospinning, Polyester, EVA, Water treatment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7429597/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7429597/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study focused on the development of nanofibrous composites for water filtration. The novel nanofiber composite membranes were developed using polyester with varying weight concentrations of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) at different blended ratios (10, 15, 20, and 30wt%) by electrospinning at an applied voltage of 15 KV, and a flow rate of 13 \u0026micro;l/min. The characterization of synthesized nanofiber composites was conducted using analytical techniques, including optical screening, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile testing with a universal testing machine (UTM), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The UTM result demonstrated that the nanofiber composite with concentrations of EVA of 10wt% and 15wt% showed the highest strengths of 43.2 and 43.1 N/mm2, respectively. However, the nanofiber with 30wt% efficiently removed 90% of the total dissolved solids (TDS) and bacterial contamination. Conclusively, the above findings have shown that increasing the percentage of polyester results in an increase in its mechanical strength. At the same time, a higher concentration of EVA is found to be more successful in eliminating total dissolved solids (TDS) and microbiological pollutants.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Synthesis and Characterization of Polyester Based Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Nanofiber Membrane for Water Treatment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-25 04:46:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7429597/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7868860b-cdb5-4b46-a385-d8d4130eb449","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-01T15:53:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-25 04:46:28","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7429597","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7429597","identity":"rs-7429597","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}