For Whom Does a Brief Mindfulness Induction Work? An exploration of the moderating role of individual differences in the effect of mindfulness induction on executive functioning and mind-wandering

For Whom Does a Brief Mindfulness Induction Work? An exploration of the moderating role of individual differences in the effect of mindfulness induction on executive functioning and mind-wandering | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article For Whom Does a Brief Mindfulness Induction Work? An exploration of the moderating role of individual differences in the effect of mindfulness induction on executive functioning and mind-wandering Ke Shi, Clara Calia, Zsofia K. Takacs This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7100595/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective Short mindfulness inductions might be expected to have beneficial effects on executive functions and mind-wandering; however, the empirical results are mixed. This might be explained by individual differences in the effect. This study aims to examine the impact of a 10-minute-long mindfulness induction on executive functions and mind-wandering to assess whether the effects are moderated by individual differences, including trait mindfulness, Big Five personality traits, trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness mindset and baseline mood state in addition to previous mindfulness meditation experience. Methods Participants were randomly assigned to either a brief mindfulness exercise condition or an audio book listening control condition. Executive functions were assessed using cognitive tasks, while mind-wandering was measured through a reading task with probe-caught questions. Moderator variables included various dispositional traits and baseline mood state. Results The mindfulness induction successfully induced a temporary state of mindfulness but did not yield overall improvements in executive functions or mind-wandering. However, moderation analyses revealed that mindfulness traits such as description and observation, the personality trait of imagination and baseline negative mood state moderated the effects on working memory and cognitive inhibition. Conclusion The effects of mindfulness inductions on cognitive performance do depend on individual differences. This underscores the importance of considering personal traits when evaluating the cognitive effects of mindfulness inductions. Mindfulness induction individual differences executive functions mind-wandering Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Executive Functions (EFs) enable goal-directed behaviour and a flexible response to the environment (Friedman & Miyake, 2017 ), by regulating attention, emotion, behaviour, and thoughts beyond automatic responses (Diamond, 2013 ; Leyland et al., 2019 ). EFs comprise working memory (also named updating, referring to the ability to retain and manipulate information that is stored in short-term memory), cognitive inhibition (one's ability to control automatic behaviours and thoughts deliberately) and cognitive flexibility (also named shifting, referring to the ability to switch between different mental sets and rules, allowing a more flexible approach to problems) (Diamond, 2013 ; Miyake et al., 2000 ). Mind wandering (MW) refers to the decoupling of thoughts from the current train of thoughts or the task at hand and adults spend a third of their waking hours mind-wandering (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015 ). When the mind wanders, attention drifts away from the task and individuals produce unrelated thoughts (D’Mello & Mills, 2021 ). While MW may enhance originality (Teng & Lien, 2022 ), it is linked to reading difficulties (Feng et al., 2013 ; Soemer & Schiefele, 2019 ) and poor cognitive performance (Mrazek et al., 2012 ). MW is also associated with increased negative emotions (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010 ). EFs and MW are crucial for mental health, well-being (Bettis et al., 2017 ; Mrazek, Phillips, et al., 2013 ), and social and emotional skills (D’Mello & Mills, 2021 ; Fernandes, 2017 ; Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010 ; Peng, 2023 ). Mindfulness is an intentional practice and “…the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003a , p. 145). It can be both a trait , a relatively stable innate capacity to be mindful (Brown et al., 2016 ; Brown & Ryan, 2003 ; Kiken et al., 2015 ) and a state , the extent of one’s focus on the present moment at a given time (Tanay & Bernstein, 2013 ). During mindfulness meditation the meditator is instructed to focus their attention on a target (e.g. the breath or sounds in the environment) or maintain open, non-judgmental awareness of the present moment, returning attention when the mind wanders (Ainsworth et al., 2013 ; Lutz et al., 2008 ; Teper & Inzlicht, 2013 ). Such practice of monitoring of one’s attention and redirecting one’s focus can be thought of an attention training and thus it seems logical that it could have benefits on attentional control and potentially EFs skills and MW (Leyland et al., 2018 ; Lutz et al., 2008 ; Shapiro et al., 2006 ; Teper & Inzlicht, 2013 ). Meta-analytic evidence suggests that mindfulness programmes yield small but significant EF improvements (Whitfield et al., 2021 ). The effect of mindfulness-based intervention on reducing mind-wandering has been empirically substantiated by the studies conducted by Banks et al. ( 2019 ) and Mrazek et al. (2013b) . Even brief mindfulness training (3 days of 20 minutes) improved sustained attention and reduced MW (Rahl et al., 2017 ). While mindfulness-based interventions include multiple sessions and aim to elevate participants’ trait mindfulness, another line of research including brief mindfulness inductions to induce a state of mindfulness has emerged to investigate the acute effects of mindfulness exercises. This line of evidence shows mixed results for cognitive benefits, however, Brown et al. ( 2016 ) reported improved recognition memory after a 9-minute mindfulness induction. Similarly, Goldberg et al. ( 2021 ) found enhanced working memory following 12-minute loving-kindness and gratitude meditations, compared to controls. MW was reduced after a short mindfulness induction in undergraduates (Mrazek et al., 2012 ) and in anxious individuals (Xu et al., 2017 ). Banks et al. ( 2019 ) found reduced negatively valenced MW following a mindfulness induction after negative mood priming. However, Baranski ( 2021 ) found no significant EFs improvement after a 15-minute mindful breathing exercise in university students. In fact, a recent meta-analysis found no evidence that mindfulness inductions improve inhibitory control or switching, though results were heterogeneous (Gill et al., 2020 ). A potential reason for these mixed results is that the efficacy of mindfulness practice might be moderated by individual differences such as personality traits including neuroticism and trait mindfulness similar to preliminary results regarding mindfulness interventions (Tang & Braver, 2020b ). Some individual differences in the efficacy of a mindfulness intervention have been also found among adolescents (Saarinen et al., 2022). These results suggest that mindfulness might be more effective for some than others. However, there are even fewer studies regarding such individual differences regarding mindfulness inductions, although this might provide an explanation for the mixed results on executive function skills. Accordingly, we investigated the potential moderating effects of a range of individual differences in the effects of a short mindfulness induction on EFs and MW including Big-5 personality, trait mindfulness, previous meditation experience, trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness mindset and baseline mood states. Mindfulness and Individual differences Big five personality It is generally accepted that personality contains five facets: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness (de Vibe et al., 2015 ; Goldberg, 1992 ; Matko et al., 2022 ). People with elevated levels of neuroticism are more susceptible to psychological distress, respond poorly to environmental distress and interpret normal life situations more negatively (Krick & Felfe, 2020 ; Matko et al., 2022 ). In contrast, mindfulness meditation promotes non-judgmental awareness of present experiences, which is linked to better psychological outcomes (Bravo et al., 2016 ; Brown et al., 2016 ; Kabat-Zinn, 2003a ). Neuroticism negatively correlated with trait mindfulness (Giluk, 2009 ). Norris et al. ( 2018 ) found that a 10-minute mindfulness induction group exhibited larger N2 amplitudes in Attentional Network task among participants low in neuroticism, indicating effects of mindfulness inductions might be larger for them. In contrast, Zabelina et al. ( 2011 ) found enhanced creativity only in highly neurotic participants after mindfulness induction. Some studies found no moderating effect of neuroticism on cognitive empathy (Winning & Boag, 2015 ), state mindfulness, or anxiety (Palmer et al., 2023 ). It is plausible that people with higher imagination (sometimes used interchangeably with ‘openness’ (Sassenberg et al., 2023 ; Woolley et al., 2020 )) are more susceptible to mindfulness induction, which emphasizes open, accepting awareness of experience (Barner & Barner, 2011 ; Crane et al., 2017 ; Kabat-Zinn, 2003b ). However, two studies found no moderating effect of openness on empathy(Winning & Boag, 2015 ) or state mindfulness (Caldera, 2017 ) after mindfulness induction. Agreeableness may influence compliance with mindfulness interventions (Forbes et al., 2018; Tang & Braver, 2020), yet no moderating effect was found on empathy outcomes after induction (Winning & Boag, 2015 ). Conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to trait mindfulness (Giluk, 2009 ) and the amount of mindfulness experience (Baer et al., 2004 ; van den Hurk et al., 2011 ). Conscientious individuals tend to exhibit better mental and physical health, which is commonly associated with the traits of responsibility, self-control and goal-directedness (Giluk, 2009 ; Sesker et al., 2016 ). As it has been proposed, conscientiousness might relate to intervention adherence and compliance (Tang & Braver, 2020). In fact, a mindfulness intervention was found more effective for reducing stress for participants high on conscientiousness (de Vibe et al., 2015 ). Extraverts are typically more sociable and engaged (van den Hurk et al., 2011 ). Winning and Boag ( 2015 ) found that individuals lower in conscientiousness and extraversion benefited more from a 15-minute induction on cognitive empathy. In sum, there is scant evidence regarding the moderating role of openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness and extraversion on immediate outcomes. Trait mindfulness Although lower trait mindfulness predicts greater psychological improvements after interventions (Tang & Braver, 2020b ), findings on acute effects remain inconsistent. Some studies failed to find a significant moderation effect of trait mindfulness on state mindfulness (Bravo et al., 2018 ; Caldera, 2017 ), on mood (Remmers et al., 2016 ) or working memory (Noone & Hogan, 2018 ), other studies did find evidence for it, however, in different directions. Participants with higher trait mindfulness benefited from mindfulness inductions on effort following negative feedback (Nagy et al., 2023 ), on stress regulation in the context of conflict with partner (Laurent et al., 2015 ) and on state anxiety (Sousa et al., 2021 ). In contrast, larger benefits were shown for individuals with lower trait mindfulness on motivation (Oberleiter et al., 2022 ), on executive attention (Watier & Dubois, 2016 ), and only low trait mindfulness participants experienced a decrease in implicit racial bias in response to a mindfulness induction (Scheps & Walsh, 2020 ), and an increase in state mindfulness (Palmer et al., 2023 ). It seems logical to assume that people with greater trait mindfulness tend to benefit more from such short inductions: they might reach a state of mindfulness more easily. For instance, Shapiro et al. ( 2006 ) proposed that meditators with higher trait mindfulness tend to show higher attentional regulation ability. However, it also seems plausible that participants with lower levels of trait mindfulness have more room for improvement and might benefit more from a mindfulness exercise. Previous meditation experience Previous meditation experience may moderate the effects of mindfulness induction. While one study found no moderating role on state mindfulness, anxiety, or state affect (Palmer et al., 2023 ), another showed higher state mindfulness of body among experienced meditators after induction (Bravo et al., 2018 ). Reed ( 2019 ) also found that there was a greater reduction in over-selection (that may occur in people with cognitive stress) after a 10-minute meditation in mindful-experienced participants than in a novice sample. Meditation-naïve individuals may find it harder to focus on the present without prior training (Strohmaier, 2020 ). Although the evidence is scant to our knowledge, trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness mindset and state affect could also be considered as the potential moderators, as these factors are related to trait mindfulness and might have an impact on how individuals experience mindfulness practice. Trait anxiety, the trait that regards how prone someone is to be anxious, is a stable individual attribute that is associated with top-down cognitive control processes (Jaiswal et al., 2019 ). This process impacts the regulatory function of attention that is central to mindfulness practices (Pacheco-Unguetti et al., 2010 ; Shapiro et al., 2006 ). Practicing attention regulation is the essential mechanism of mindfulness (Shapiro et al., 2006 ), but trait anxiety is associated with deficiencies in attention (Pacheco-Unguetti et al., 2010 ). At the same time, Baranski ( 2021 ) found no moderating effect of trait anxiety on the benefits of a mindfulness induction on EFs among university students.(Pacheco-Unguetti et al., 2010 ; Shapiro et al., 2006 ) Trait mind-wandering is one’s proneness to have unrelated thoughts during tasks ( Mrazek et al., 2013 a). It has been considered a type of individual difference (Godwin et al., 2017 ), is negatively correlated with trait mindfulness (Salavera et al., 2017 ). However, we are not aware of any evidence regarding the potential moderating role of this variable in the context of acute effects of mindfulness practice. A new measure of mindfulness mindset (people’s beliefs regarding the malleability of mindfulness skills, growth/fixed mindset) was recently developed (Orosz et al., 2024 ), and included as a potential moderator in our study. State affect may influence mindfulness, as positive emotions related to increased awareness, and individuals tend to be more attentive and less reactive during positive emotional states (Suelmann et al., 2018 ). In contrast, negative moods may divert attention to threats and impair working memory, making it harder to focus non-judgmentally on the present (Brose et al., 2012 ), thus hindering mindfulness. However, no prior evidence has examined this moderating effect. Present study The primary aim of this study was to explore which personality traits may moderate the effects of a short mindfulness induction on EFs (including working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control) and mind-wandering. It was hypothesized that: Hypothesis 1 The mindfulness group was expected to show higher state mindfulness, better EF performance, and reduced mind-wandering compared to controls. Hypothesis 2 Neuroticism was hypothesized to moderate mindfulness effects on EFs and MW; however, we cannot predict the direction of this effect due to the contrasting evidence. Conscientiousness and extraversion might also moderate the effects. In contrast, we expected no moderating effect of imagination and agreeableness on the efficacy of mindfulness induction (based on Winning & Boag, 2015 ). Hypothesis 3 Trait mindfulness was expected to moderate the effect of mindfulness induction on EFs and MW, though no directional or facet-specific hypotheses were made. Hypothesis 4 People with previous meditation experience might benefit more from mindfulness induction. Given that the evidence regarding the other moderators is mixed and scant, we did not have specific hypotheses regarding trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness malleability beliefs and state affect. Therefore, these moderating analyses were exploratory. Method This study was pre-registered on OSF before the observation of data. The registration information including all task materials, analysis plan, anonymized data and R coding can be found on the OSF at https://osf.io/wjs5d/?view_only=aefe2a52f586474b97000f9b87a38f04 (anonymized for peer review). Sample University students were recruited through social media and on-campus advertisement at XXX (anonymized for peer-review). Students who registered earned credits for their participation. Eligibility required English fluency, psychology majors were excluded to avoid bias from potential meditation experience or awareness of study aims. A priori G*Power analysis (R² increase in multiple regression) indicated 55 participants were needed for a medium effect size (f² = 0.15, power = 0.8), and 395 for a small effect. For main effects, 64 per group were needed for a medium effect, and 394 for a small effect. We recruited 147 participants but had to exclude two participants because of technical issues, and another two participants in control group because they realized the research aim (that it was about comparing mindfulness and a control audio to improve cognitive functioning). The final sample included 143 students: 118 women (82.52%), 92 individuals (64.34%) with prior mindfulness meditation experience, and 54 (37.76%) with other meditation experience. This study was approved by the research ethics committee of the XXXX (anonymized for peer review). Study design and procedure Participants provided informed consent online via Qualtrics (Quatrics, 2024 ), then scheduled a lab appointment. They were told the study investigated methods to improve cognitive performance and individual differences in effectiveness, mindfulness was not mentioned to maintain blinding. In the lab, a research assistant was present in the room to provide assistance as needed, but participants completed all materials independently on a computer in the lab. Each participant was seated at a desktop computer where they first completed demographic and trait-related questionnaires. Following this, participants were randomly assigned to either the control condition or the mindfulness condition via the online platform of Psytoolkit (Stoet, 2010 , 2017 ) so the research assistant was unaware of the condition the participant was assigned to. In both conditions participants were asked to put on headphones and close their eyes to enhance their focus on the audio content (either the mindfulness or the control audio). Then, participants proceeded to complete a 2-back working memory task, a task-switching task and a reading task with mind wandering probes. The order of these tasks was counterbalanced to control for potential order effects. Afterward, participants completed a state mindfulness questionnaire referring to their audio-listening experience and answered awareness-check questions. Each was orally debriefed and given a written debriefing form (See Fig. 1 for flowchart). The whole experiment was designed and presented via Psytoolkit (Stoet, 2010 , 2017 ). The experimental manipulation Participants in the mindfulness group listened to an audio recording of a mindfulness meditation for about 10 minutes. The same script was used as in a previous induction experiment (Nagy et al., 2023 ). It directs participants to close their eyes and concentrate on the present moment, including specific instructions to focus on their breathing, sounds, awareness and thoughts. The script also incorporates a body scan and promotes acceptance of present experiences. In the control condition, participants listened to an excerpt from the audio version of The Hobbit by JRR Tolkien with eyes closed (10 minutes approximately), similar to previous experiments (Xu et al., 2017 ; Zeidan et al., 2010 ). Measures Participants were asked to respond to several demographic questions on their gender, age and the programme they were enrolled on. The International Personality Item Pool – Five Factor Model – mini version (The mini-IPIP) (Donnellan et al., 2006 ) was used to measure Big five personality : extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and imagination, each with 4 items rated from 1 (very inaccurate) to 5 (very accurate). Internal consistency of the subscales was acceptable (Extraversion: a = 0.76, Neuroticism: a = 0.71, Conscientiousness: a = 0.71, Agreeableness: a = 0.70, and Imagination: a = 0.68). The 15-item Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaires (FFMQ-15) (Baer et al., 2006 ) was used to measure Trait mindfulness including observing (Cronbach’s a = 0.45), describing (Cronbach’s a = 0.82), acting with awareness (Cronbach’s a = 0.71), nonjudging (Cronbach’s a = 0.81) and nonreactivity (Cronbach’s a = 0.73). Each facet included 3 items rated from 1 (never/rarely true) to 5 (very often/always true). Total scale reliability was α = .68. Four adapted items from Bravo (2018) (with permission) were used to identify prior mindfulness meditation experience (e.g. “Do you have previous or current experience with mindfulness meditation?”). The 5-item Mind-wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) ( Mrazek et al., 2013 a) measured different levels of Trait mind-wandering (e.g., “I have difficulty maintaining focus on simple or repetitive work”), rated from 1 (almost never) to 6 (almost always). It showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s a = 0.71). The 20-item State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait version (STAI-T) (Spielberger et al., 1983 ) was used to assess Trait anxiety , aiming to measure individual differences in anxiety proneness. Items were rated on a 4-point scale (e.g., “Almost Never” to “Almost Always”), with higher scores indicating a higher degree of anxiety. It showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s a = 0.91). The Mindfulness Mindset Scale (Orosz et al., 2024 ) is an 8-item self-report scale that measures individuals’ beliefs about the malleability of mindfulness skills , and includes four sub-scales: present orientation, awareness, self-acceptance and attention. All items are rated on a 5-point Linkert scale (1 = Strongly disagree; 5 = Strongly agree). An example item is “The extent to which one can live in the present moment is a characteristic that can’t really be changed” It showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s a = 0.87). The International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) (Thompson, 2007 ) measures positive and negative state affect of respondents with 5 positive (i.e. Alert, Inspired, Determined, Attentive and Active) and 5 negative mood words (i.e. Upset, Hostile, Ashamed, Nervous and Afraid) on a five-point Likert scale from never to always. The adapted instruction is “Think about yourself and indicate the extent to which you have felt the following over the PAST FEW HOURS” to collect state emotion. It demonstrated good reliability (with Cronbach's a for the Negative Affect (NA) and Positive Affect (PA) factors being 0.70 and 0.81, respectively). The State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) (Tanay & Bernstein, 2013 ) assessed State mindfulness using a 5-point scale (1 = not at all to 5 = very well). It included two subscales: mindfulness of mind (15 items, e.g., “I found some of my experiences interesting”) and body (6 items, e.g., “I noticed physical sensations come and go”). Higher scores indicate higher levels of state of mindfulness. This was used as a manipulation check in the present study. It showed high reliability (with Cronbach's a for the state mindfulness of body and state mindfulness of mind being 0.85 and 0.91, respectively). The Task-Switching Task (TST) (Stoet, 2010 , 2017 ; Vandierendonck et al., 2010 ) ( https://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/taskswitching.html ) is a letter/number paradigm based on the task of Rogers and Monsell ( 1995 ), used to measure Inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility in this study. The 2-back (letter) task paradigm was used to measure Working memory . It is available at https://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/nback2.html . Mind-wandering Mind-wandering was measured by a reading task incorporating probe-caught questions during and reading comprehension questions following reading segments. See Supplementary File Part 2 for the detailed task description and the specific indices of cognitive tasks and reading task used in this study. Statistical Analysis The statistical analyses were conducted in R with the package PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2022 ). Differences between the mindfulness and control group in state mindfulness, executive functions and mind-wandering were examined by t-tests. For those data that violated the assumptions, the robust T-test was conducted (Field et al., 2014 ). Pearson correlation was used to evaluate the bivariate relationships among baseline variables, state mindfulness, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and mind-wandering. The moderating role of individual differences (including demographic information, Big-5 personality traits, trait mindfulness, trait mind-wandering, trait anxiety, state affect and mindfulness mindset) were analyzed in PROCESS using least squares regression (Hayes, 2013). The Johnson-Neyman technique was used to investigate the significant transition point of observed data. In these analyses, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and mind-wandering scores were the dependent variables, while experimental condition (i.e. control or mindfulness group) was the independent variable. To eliminate multicollinearity among the variables, the continuous data was centralized before analyses. Robust bootstrap method was used in these analyses (Darlington & Hayes, 2016 ). The 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated by bias-corrected bootstrapping procedure with the number of iterations set to 10000. If the 95% CI of the interaction terms and indirect effects did not include zero, it meant that the moderator variables significantly moderated the effect of experimental condition on the outcome variable. Additionally, to elucidate the interaction effects, simple regression lines were plotted. Additionally, we conducted a large number of statistical tests in various exploratory analyses. We decided not to use p-value correction due to the lack of consensus regarding appropriate adjustments for multiple comparisons (Armstrong, 2014 ; Rothman, 1990 ). While some argue that correcting the p-value in the context of multiple comparisons is essential to avoid Type I error, others contend that such corrections can increase the risk of Type II errors, potentially reducing statistical power (Ding et al., 2020 ; Rothman, 1990 ). Multiple testing often revolves around the familywise error rate; however, it is challenging to delineate the hypotheses included within a family, particularly in exploratory analyses (Darlington & Hayes, 2017 ). Therefore, we followed the approach suggested by Althouse ( 2016 ), which is to describe the analyses conducted, report the confidence intervals, p-values, and provide explanations, thereby allowing readers to interpret the results based on the information provided and their own judgments. Results The means and standard deviations on the individual differences variables are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Sociodemographic sample characteristics and baseline data of the mindfulness group and control group Variables All participants n = 143 Mindfulness induction group n = 83 Control group n = 60 Female 118 (82.52%) 71 (85.54%) 47 (78.33%) With other meditation experience 54 (37.76%) 29 (34.94%) 25 (41.67%) With any mindfulness meditation experience 92 (64.34%) 53 (63.86%) 39 (65%) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) Age 25.59 (5.31) 25.7 (5.58) 25.45 (4.94) FFMQ-Total 50.71 (6.39) 51.52 (6.52) 49.58 (6.07) Observing 10.73 (2.13) 10.75 (1.97) 10.7 (2.34) Describing 10.86 (2.54) 11.28 (2.38) 10.28 (2.66) Acting with awareness 9.7 (2.31) 9.71 (2.28) 9.68 (2.37) Non-judgmental 9.99 (2.68) 10.45 (2.79) 9.35 (2.39) Non-reactivity 9.43 (2.28) 9.34 (2.36) 9.57 (2.18) Neuroticism 12.57 (3.33) 12.17 (3.55) 13.12 (2.96) Extraversion 11.5 (3.52) 11.31 (3.44) 11.77 (3.64) Conscientiousness 13.14 (3.46) 13.04 (3.26) 13.28 (3.74) Imagination 16.24 (2.81) 16.2 (2.67) 16.28 (3.01) Agreeableness 16.36 (2.71) 16.41 (2.35) 16.3 (3.15) Trait anxiety 47.06 (10.18) 46.34 (10.83) 48.07 (9.19) Positive state affect 14.2 (3.66) 14.47 (3.62) 13.83 (3.72) Negative state effect 8.41 (3.31) 8.66 (3.51) 8.05 (3.00) Mindfulness malleability beliefs 18.1 (6.15) 18.13 (5.98) 18.05 (6.43) Trait mind-wandering 18.81 (4.44) 18.52 (4.64) 19.22 (4.15) Manipulation Check A manipulation check was conducted to assess whether the mindfulness induction led to an increase in participants’ self-reported state mindfulness. As shown in Table 2 , there were large and moderate, significant differences between the control and the mindfulness induction group on state mindfulness of mind and body, respectively. This confirmed that a state of mindfulness was successfully induced in the mindfulness induction group. Table 2 Effects of the mindfulness induction on state mindfulness and cognitive outcomes Measures M (SD) Control group M (SD) Mindfulness group t p Cohens’ d 95% CI State mindfulness of mind 16.32 (5.16) 18.82 (5.43) -5.07 < 0.001 0.87 [0.52, 1.21] State mindfulness of body 48.05 (10.55) 52.83 (9.90) -2.77 0.01 0.47 [0.14, 0.81] Working memory (d’) 2.81 (0.93) 2.83 (0.96) -0.15 0.89 0.04 [0.00, 0.29] Working memory (RT) 599.34 (143.80) 647.86 (179.61) -1.74 0.09 0.22 [0.00, 0.45] Working memory (accuracy) 0.91 (0.09) 0.91 (0.08) -0.45 0.65 0.05 [0.00, 0.32] Flexibility (switch cost RT on correct trials) 385.55 (232.26) 234.97 (260.22) -1.17 0.24 0.20 [-0.13, 0.53] Inhibition (RT on correct trials) 776.94 (136.23) 813.34 (199.24) -1.06 0.27 0.13 [0.00, 0.39] Mind wandering (self-reported incidence) 0.32 (0.23) 0.35 (0.23) -0.70 0.49 0.10 [0.00, 0.35] Reading comprehension performance) 0.53 (0.18) 0.51 (0.19) 0.79 0.43 0.09 [0.00, 0.34] Bivariate relationships Pearson correlations for the variables used in the present study are shown in Fig. 2 . Figure 2 is a correlation matrix of the main variables, where both the direction and strength of Pearson correlations are visualized. Blue circles represent positive correlations, and red circles represent negative correlations. The size and intensity of the circles correspond to the magnitude of the correlation coefficient. Only statistically significant correlations (p < .05) are displayed, with non-significant results left blank. Variable labels include means and SDs. InRT = Inhibition measured by RT, TraitMW = Trait mind-wandering, MWRate = Mind wandering (self-reported incidence), NegAff = Negative state affect, WMd = Working memory (d’), WMRT = Working memory (RT), WMAcc = Working memory (accuracy), AWA = Acting with awareness, Njud = Non-judgmental, PosAFF = positive sate affect, SMS = state of mindfulness, NRea = Non-reactivity. Main effects on working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and mind-wandering As shown in Table 2 , the analyses revealed no significant differences between the mindfulness and control groups concerning working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition and mind-wandering. Moderation analyses For working memory , as shown in Table 3, the effect of condition on working memory (accuracy) was moderated by the mindfulness trait d escribing. The interaction accounted for a 3% additional variance in the model ( R 2 change). The simple slopes analysis (top left of Fig. 3 ) showed that there was a tendency that people with lower levels of trait describing benefited more from the mindfulness induction on working memory accuracy. Results from the Johnson–Neyman (JN) technique confirmed this: among individuals with low levels of describing mindfulness significantly enhanced working memory accuracy ( p = 0.04), with 5.63% of the observed data falling within this range. This indicates that people with lower levels of the mindfulness trait describing experienced a significant benefit from the mindfulness induction. The effect of condition on working memory (d’) was moderated by the mindfulness trait describing. The interaction accounted for a 3% variance in the model. As shown in Fig. 3 , among lower levels of trait describing, mindfulness seemed to benefit working memory index d’. The JN technique revealed no significant transition points within the observed data, however, there was a tendency that mindfulness might be somewhat more beneficial for people with lower describing. The effect of condition on working memory (accuracy) was moderated by the mindfulness trait observing . The interaction accounted for a 2% variance in the model. As shown in the top right of Fig. 3 , similar to trait description, at lower levels of trait observing mindfulness seemed to enhance working memory accuracy. However, the JN technique revealed no significant transition points within the observed data. The effect of condition on working memory (d’) was also moderated by the i magination sub-facet of the IPIP inventory of personality. The interaction accounted for a 2% variance in the model. Inspection of the simple slopes (see bottom left of Fig. 3 ) showed that there was a tendency that people with lower imagination benefited more from mindfulness induction. However, the JN technique revealed no significant transition points within the observed data. In terms of cognitive inhibition , the result showed that the effect of condition on i nhibition (RT) was also moderated by the mindfulness trait describing . The interaction accounted for a 2% variance in the model. The left of Fig. 4 suggests that only at higher levels of trait description, mindfulness seemed to benefit inhibition (lower RTs). Results from the JN technique indicated that among individuals with lower levels of description, the mindfulness induction had a significant effect on inhibition (RT) ( p = 0.04), with 32.17% of the observed data falling within this range. The effect of condition on inhibition (RT) was also moderated by negative state affect , as shown in Table 3. The interaction accounted for a 5% variance in the model. As shown on the right of Fig. 4 , at higher levels of negative state affect the control condition was superior in enhancing inhibition (RT). Results from the JN technique indicated that among individuals with high levels of negative state affect, the mindfulness induction had a significant negative effect on inhibition (RT) ( p = 0.01), with 26.57% of the observed data falling within this range. This indicates that higher levels of negative state emotion hindered individuals’ ability to benefit from mindfulness induction in terms of inhibitory ability. There were no other significant interaction effects between condition and any individual differences including trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, previous mindfulness meditation experience, total trait mindfulness and other facets of trait mindfulness, other factors of Big Five personality traits or mood states on working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition or mind-wandering (see Supplementary Table S1 -Table S7). Table 3: Individual differences variables with a significant moderating effect. Model ΔR 2 B BootMean BootSE BootLLCI 95% BootULCI 95% Working memory (d’) 0.03 Group 0.01 0.01 0.16 -0.29 0.32 Description 0.06 0.06 0.04 -0.01 0.14 Group * Description -0.13 -0.13 0.05 -0.23 -0.03 Working memory (d’) 0.02 Group 0.02 0.03 0.16 -0.28 0.33 Imagination 0.05 0.06 0.05 -0.02 0.16 Group * Imagination -0.1 -0.11 0.06 -0.22 -0.002 Working memory (accuracy) 0.02 Group 0.01 0.001 0.01 -0.02 0.04 Observation 0.004 0.003 0.004 -0.004 0.01 Group * Observation -0.01 -0.01 0.006 -0.02 -0.0002 Working memory (accuracy) 0.03 Group 0.01 0.01 0.01 -0.02 0.03 Description 0.005 0.005 0.003 -0.002 0.01 Group * Description -0.01 -0.01 0.005 -0.02 -0.003 Inhibition (RT) 0.02 Group 37.13 37.88 28.95 -17.86 95.74 Description 8.04 7.83 5.80 -3.83 18.98 Group* Description -20.93 -20.81 10.50 -41.90 -0.57 Inhibition (RT) 0.05 Group 35.66 36.44 26.59 -14.59 89.15 Negative affect -9.61 -10.16 5.28 -22.38 -1.03 Group* Negative affect 25.77 26.55 10.26 8.89 48.81 Discussion Mindfulness practice may not be suitable for everyone. The present study aimed to investigate individual differences in the effects of a brief mindfulness induction on executive functions (EFs) (including working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition) and mind-wandering. We hypothesized that brief mindfulness induction would enhance EFs and reduce mind-wandering compared to the control condition. Furthermore, we posited that these effects could be moderated by individual differences such as the Big Five personality traits, prior experience with mindfulness meditation and trait mindfulness. We also explored the potential moderating roles of trait mind-wandering, trait anxiety, mindfulness mindset and state affect. Contrary to our hypothesis, although state mindfulness was successfully induced, the mindfulness group did not exhibit improvements in working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition or mind-wandering when compared with the control group. Regarding individual differences, our findings did not support our hypotheses regarding the moderating effect of neuroticism, conscientiousness or extraversion. However, results did confirm that trait mindfulness plays a role. More specifically, the sub-facet of trait mindfulness ‘describing’ moderated the impact of the mindfulness induction on working memory and cognitive inhibition: participants with lower levels of describing benefited most in terms of working memory, while participants with higher levels of describing earned the most on cognitive inhibition. Although these results show the opposite direction, they highlight the specific potential role of mindfulness trait describing in the immediate effects of mindfulness practice on executive functioning. The results also demonstrated that the impact of the mindfulness condition on working memory depended on the levels of the mindfulness trait observing and the personality trait imagination: at lower levels of these traits a brief mindfulness exercise was most beneficial. These results are in line with previous findings showing that the effect of mindfulness practice depends on certain personality traits (Norris et al., 2018 ; Teng & Lien, 2022 ; Watier & Dubois, 2016 ), however, the specific role of trait imagination is novel. Finally, the effect on cognitive inhibition varied according to the level of state negative affect: mindfulness exercise seems to have the opposite effect at higher levels of state negative affect. Regarding the hypothesis that a short mindfulness induction could enhance performance in EFs, and mind-wandering, our results did not confirm this. This is different from some previous findings (Gorman & Green, 2016 ; Keng et al., 2013 ), although it confirms the conclusions of the meta-analysis of Gill and colleagues ( 2020 ). The absence of such main effects may be attributable to individual differences in the effect, in fact, our results highlighted some moderators of these effects. This is in line with previous findings that the effects of mindfulness induction are attenuated by baseline traits in the samples (Tanaka et al., 2021 ). An alternative explanation for the absence of main effects is that the mindfulness state induced by mindfulness induction might be too short, and it likely provided insufficient dosage or duration to engage the following cognitive tasks (Gill et al., 2020 ; Khatri et al., 2024 ). This is speculated because the long-term effects of mindfulness interventions clearly show benefits on cognitive functions and attention (Mrazek, Franklin, et al., 2013 ; Whitfield et al., 2021 ). Trait mindfulness While we expected trait mindfulness to moderate the efficacy of a brief mindfulness exercise on cognitive performance, according to the mixed results, we had no expectation regarding the direction of this moderation. Additionally, we inspected results according to the five sub-facets of trait mindfulness in the present study. We found that participants with higher levels of the mindfulness trait describing benefitted most in terms of inhibition, while the ones with lower levels benefitted most in regard to working memory. Additionally, individuals with lower levels of the mindfulness trait observing benefited on working memory. This is in contrast to previous non-significant findings regarding trait mindfulness moderating the effects on working memory (Noone & Hogan, 2018 ) and affirms the previous mixed results regarding the direction of this moderation (Laurent et al., 2015 ; Nagy et al., 2023 ; Oberleiter et al., 2022 ; Palmer et al., 2023 ; Scheps & Walsh, 2020 ; Sousa et al., 2021 ; Watier & Dubois, 2016 ). In fact, it seems that the role of trait mindfulness might be more specific - with certain sub-facets being central - and more complex - with different effects on different outcomes The mindfulness trait describing is defined as individuals’ ability of labelling/naming internal thoughts or feelings, and the ability of noticing internal and external experiences. It has been shown to be related to inhibitory control: higher describing scores are associated with lower Stroop interference scores, that is, better inhibitory control (Josefsson & Broberg, 2011 ). Similarly, there is a positive correlation between observing, describing and working memory: people with higher trait mindfulness perform better in cognitive task than those with lower trait mindfulness in stress situations (Li et al., 2021 ). Neuroscience research also supports this association, showing that the describing facet of trait mindfulness is positively linked to the volume of the anterior insula, a critical function of executive control (Molnar-Szakacs & Uddin, 2022 ; Treves et al., 2024 ). According to this, participants with higher baseline levels of describing and observing were the ones who benefited from the mindfulness induction on inhibition and working memory, our results shows that the ones with higher describing could benefit more from mindfulness induction on inhibition, but those with lower describing and observing benefited on working memory. Similar to our result on inhibition, Tanaka and colleagues ( 2021 ) found that an open monitoring mindfulness induction was more beneficial for individuals with higher performance on attentional network tasks. Further research is needed to clarify the exact role of the mindfulness trait description. This result contradicts the common belief that people with higher trait mindfulness may more readily engage in mindfulness induction to follow instructions, especially in the early phases, and derive greater benefits (Keng et al., 2016 ; Teng & Lien, 2022 ). A possible explanation for the differing effects of mindfulness on describing and observing facets of trait mindfulness and working memory versus inhibition is that mindfulness practice might not directly improve working memory but may enhance it indirectly through improved attention and inhibition control (Li et al., 2021 ; Yakobi et al., 2021 ). Individuals with higher levels of observation may overfocus on unrelated tasks, leading to more errors in inhibition (Lin et al., 2019 ). This result is in line with the similar findings from Geiser et al. (2018) that mindfulness priming effects are stronger for individuals less accustomed to the primed strategies (the skills gained from mindfulness practice). Specifically, individuals with lower levels of trait mindfulness might exhibit more pronounced benefits from mindfulness priming because they lack habitual access to strategies developed through mindfulness practice and are more sensitive to mindfulness instructions. This could result in a stronger response to mindfulness induction. This suggests that the priming effect from short mindfulness inductions can be particularly effective for individuals with lower baseline engagement, characterized by diminished describing and observing in working memory tasks. According to cognitive load theory (CLT), individuals can adjust the effort they exert based on task complexity and their goals (de Bruin et al., 2020 ; Wang & Lajoie, 2023 ). Given that the 2-back task used to measure working memory were relatively simple for most participants in this study—as indicated by their high accuracy—it is speculated that individuals with higher describing and observing abilities might allocate more cognitive resources to noticing and labelling their internal thoughts and experiences, thus reducing their available resources for controlling unrelated task performance. Due to the limited capacity of working memory and cognitive resources (Oberauer, 2019 ), people with higher describing and observing benefit less from short mindfulness induction. The research by Zhang et al ( 2013 ), which investigates the impact of task complexity and trait mindfulness on task performance, suggests that trait mindfulness is positively correlated with task performance among individuals engaged in high-complexity tasks. Given that the cognitive tasks in this study were not complex, this could explain the observed negative trend in descriptive traits and task performance in the mindfulness induction group. It appears that for people with a higher ability to notice and label their feelings, the cost of mindfulness induction may be outweighed by the benefits when the task is relatively easy and short. Additionally, the complex feature of observing in trait mindfulness skills may result in a directional difference. In meditators, trait mindful observing is negatively related to non-reactivity, which suggests that individuals with higher levels of observing may be unable to distance themselves from overwhelming thoughts. This implies they may expend more cognitive resources on internal or external thoughts (Lilja et al., 2013 ). Given that this study includes over 60% of participants with previous meditation experience, and the mindfulness induction is very brief yet includes instructions that prompt participants to notice their thoughts, it is not difficult to understand why those with higher observation might benefit less in terms of working memory. Imagination- Big five Personality moderates the effect of mindfulness condition on working memory In examining the main effect of the interaction between imagination and group condition on working memory, our results show a tendency for individuals with lower levels of imagination to benefit more from mindfulness induction, as indicated by increasing working memory scores with decreasing levels of imagination. Imagination, reflecting an individual’s capacity for creative thinking and openness to new experiences, is a strong predictor of the personality trait 'openness', which is sometimes used interchangeably with 'openness' in personality descriptions (Sassenberg et al., 2023 ; Woolley et al., 2020 ). Cross-cultural network analyses and meta-analyses have established that openness correlates significantly with the observing sub-facet of trait mindfulness (Hanley et al., 2019 ; Roemer et al., 2024 ), and higher levels of openness are associated with better working memory performance in older adults (Luchetti et al., 2021 ; Sharp et al., 2010 ). These findings are inconsistent with current research, suggesting that brief mindfulness inductions may shift the direction of this relationship. Such a change could be explained within the framework of personality theory. People with higher levels of imagination engage in divergent thinking and adopt more creative problem-solving approaches, differing from mindfulness practices that encourage focusing on the current task in a very short time (Swift et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, the strong association between imagination and the observing facet of mindfulness, as previously mentioned, may influence cognitive performance in the meditators' group. Individuals with higher imagination are likely to allocate more cognitive resources to alternative problem-solving methods or deeper processing of experiences. Concurrently, these individuals may also direct substantial resources towards managing challenging tasks. However, the 2-back task employed in this study may not have posed sufficient challenge for those with higher imagination, potentially explaining that short mindfulenss indcution seems to benefit more for those with lower level of imagination (Smillie et al., 2016 ). Negative state affect moderates the effect of mindfulness condition on cognitive inhibition Within the mindfulness group, as negative state emotion increases, the RT of cognitive inhibition increasing, indicating poorer inhibitory control ability, and it appears that people who are engaged in more negative state mood experience less benefits from mindfulness induction. Although previous studies have lacked exploration of the moderating effect of state mood in mindfulness induction, existing research has found a negative relationship between negative mood and cognitive performance. For instance, Dolcos and McCarthy ( 2006 ) demonstrated that negative emotions could distract individuals' attention from the task at hand, thereby hindering cognitive performance. Evidence from brain ERPs further supports this, indicating that negative emotions interfere with cognitive performance by consuming substantial cognitive resources during initial processing. As a result, the brain requires additional resources to enhance cognitive control in subsequent tasks (Yang K. et al., 2023 ). Despite many forms of mindfulness practice being proven effective in reducing anxiety and depression—forms of negative emotion (Geisler et al., 2018 ; Khoury et al., 2015 ; Rodrigues et al., 2017 ), the increased state mindfulness observed in the mindfulness group suggests that mindfulness may initially heighten awareness of negative emotions. Short mindfulness inductions might improve the ability to focus on internal thoughts and feelings, enhancing self-awareness. This heightened self-awareness could lead individuals to report higher levels of negative emotions due to increased attention to internal negative states, thereby leading to less benefit in cognitive inhibition tasks. This is consistent with the interference effect, which posits that negative emotions reduce attentional resources and subsequently impact performance in tasks requiring cognitive inhibition, such as switching task in this study (H. Yang et al., 2021 ). It is important to consider that mindfulness practices, particularly short-term inductions, may initially increase individuals' awareness of their negative emotional states before any ameliorative effects are realized. This heightened awareness might temporarily impair cognitive functions that rely on attentional resources and inhibitory control. Therefore, when assessing the impact of mindfulness on cognitive inhibition, it is crucial to account for the potential moderating effects of state mood and the duration of mindfulness practice. These findings are important because they suggest that the efficacy of mindfulness induction may depend on certain mindfulness and personality traits of the participants, indicating that mindfulness induction may not be equally effective for everyone, at least as far as cognitive performance is concerned. This highlights the need to consider individual differences when recommending or practicing mindfulness to improve effectiveness, adherence and cost-effectiveness. Limitations There are areas for improvement in this research. Firstly, we used a moderate-sized effect for statistical power calculations, so the present study did not have enough power to detect small effect sizes. Thus, non-significant results should be interpreted with caution because those might in fact reflect small effects. Additionally, due to instability in the experimental platform, there was a difference in sample sizes between the experimental and control groups and this may have reduced statistical power. Secondly, the observation sub-scale used in this study demonstrated very low reliability, which may affect the trustworthiness of the corresponding results—a problem also noted in other studies. Future research could employ a longer version of the trait mindfulness scale, which might offer better reliability. Then, the cognitive tasks used in the study seem easy for the university samples, it is advisable to employ more complex cognitive tasks with more trials to avoid ceiling effects. By increasing task difficulty and trial numbers, researchers can obtain more sensitive and distinguishable results among participants, allowing for a more accurate assessment of cognitive changes resulting from mindfulness induction. Future research may also consider implementing longer-term or repeated mindfulness sessions to investigate the lasting effects and cumulative benefits of mindfulness practice. Applying multiple sessions over time may provide deeper insights into how sustained mindfulness influences cognitive functions and how it interplays with personality traits. Analyzing such moderation effects in mindfulness novice sample and experienced sample separately are also recommended, even this exploratory failed to find the moderating effect of previous mindfulness mediation experience. It is also worth noting that this research is exploratory, so the results require more robust evidence to enhance their validity and generalizability. Conclusion The present study investigated how individual differences during mindfulness induction moderate its effects on executive functions (EFs), specifically working memory, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive inhibition in addition to mind-wandering. The results suggest that although the induction was successful, it did not have a main effect on EFs and mind-wandering. However, the mindfulness traits describing and observing and the personality trait imagination were found to moderate the effect of mindfulness on working memory, while negative mood state and trait description moderated the effect on cognitive inhibition. It appears that a short mindfulness induction is more useful for those with lower trait describing, trait observing and imagination on working memory. In terms of inhibitory control, it was not useful for those with a high level of negative mood state, but it was more beneficial to those with higher mindfulness trait describing. There was no evidence to suggest that either other mindfulness or personality traits, including acting with awareness, non-judgmental attitude, non-reactivity, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, or mindfulness mindset, trait anxiety or trait mind-wandering moderated the effects on EFs or mind-wandering. Results highlight that brief mindfulness inductions do not have the same benefits for everyone. Declarations Author Contribution The first author led all aspects of the project, including conceptualization, methodology design, data collection, formal analysis, visualization, writing and editing draft. The second author supervised the project and provided feedback on manuscript revisions. The third author provided supervision throughout the project and contributed to the review and editing of the manuscript. Acknowledgement We thank MSc students for their assistance with data collection: Ariana McSweeney, Benaisha Katrak, Calvin Chia, Ilbay Devin Doruk, Jacek Laaser, Ladislav Rypar, Lin Wang, Marlene Ohly, Ning Ying, Nuoqi Dai, Philip Bleach, Qi Pan, Selena Jiang, Siyi Lin, Siyi Liu, Varshini Duvvuru, Victoria Mooney, Yisi Leng. References Ainsworth, B., Eddershaw, R., Meron, D., Baldwin, D. S., & Garner, M. (2013). The effect of focused attention and open monitoring meditation on attention network function in healthy volunteers. Psychiatry Research , 210 (3), 1226–1231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.002 Althouse, A. D. (2016). Adjust for Multiple Comparisons? It’s Not That Simple. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery , 101 (5), 1644–1645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2015.11.024 Armstrong, R. A. (2014). When to use the Bonferroni correction. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics , 34 (5), 502–508. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12131 Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: The kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. Assessment , 11 (3), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104268029 Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment , 13 (1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504 Banks, J. B., Jha, A. P., Hood, A. V. B., Goller, H. G., & Craig, L. L. (2019). Reducing the TUTs that hurt: The impact of a brief mindfulness induction on emotionally valenced mind wandering. Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 31 (8), 785–799. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2019.1676759 Baranski, M. F. S. (2021). 009_No state effects of brief mindfulness meditation on the executive functions of inhibition, shifting, and updating. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement , 5 (3), 311–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-020-00198-w Barner, C. P., & Barner, R. W. (2011). Mindfulness, Openness to Experience, and Transformational Learning . Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199736300.013.0087 Bettis, A. H., Coiro, M. J., England, J., Murphy, L. K., Zelkowitz, R. L., Dejardins, L., Eskridge, R., Adery, L. H., Yarboi, J., Pardo, D., & Compas, B. E. (2017). Comparison of two approaches to prevention of mental health problems in college students: Enhancing coping and executive function skills. Journal of American College Health , 65 (5), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1312411 Bravo, A. J., Boothe, L. G., & Pearson, M. R. (2016). Getting Personal with Mindfulness: A Latent Profile Analysis of Mindfulness and Psychological Outcomes. Mindfulness , 7 (2), 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0459-7 Bravo, A. J., Pearson, M. R., Wilson, A. D., & Witkiewitz, K. (2018). When traits match states: Examining the associations between self-report trait and state mindfulness following a state mindfulness induction. Mindfulness , 9 (1), 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0763-5 Brose, A., Schmiedek, F., Lövdén, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Daily variability in working memory is coupled with negative affect: The role of attention and motivation. Emotion , 12 (3), 605–617. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024436 Brown, K. W., Goodman, R. J., Ryan, R. M., & Anālayo, B. (2016). Mindfulness Enhances Episodic Memory Performance: Evidence from a Multimethod Investigation. PLOS ONE , 11 (4), e0153309. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153309 Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 (4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822 Caldera, C. (2017). Comparing the effects of mindfulness meditation and relaxation in a brief laboratory induction . https://uknowledge.uky.edu/psychology_etds/106 Crane, R. S., Brewer, J., Feldman, C., Kabat-Zinn, J., Santorelli, S., Williams, J. M. G., & Kuyken, W. (2017). What defines mindfulness-based programs? The warp and the weft. Psychological Medicine , 47 (6), 990–999. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716003317 Darlington, R. B., & Hayes, A. F. (2016). Detecting and Managing Irregularities. Regression analysis and linear models: Concepts, applications, and implementation (pp. 480–518). Guilford. Darlington, R. B., & Hayes, A. F. (2017). Multiple Tests. Regression analysis and linear models: Concepts, applications, and implementation (pp. 311–339). Guilford Press. de Bruin, A. B. H., Roelle, J., Carpenter, S. K., & Baars, M. (2020). Synthesizing Cognitive Load and Self-regulation Theory: A Theoretical Framework and Research Agenda. Educational Psychology Review , 32 (4), 903–915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09576-4 de Vibe, M., Solhaug, I., Tyssen, R., Friborg, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., Sørlie, T., Halland, E., & Bjørndal, A. (2015). Does Personality Moderate the Effects of Mindfulness Training for Medical and Psychology Students? Mindfulness , 6 (2), 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0258-y Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology , 64 , 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Ding, Y., Li, D., Li, X., Xiao, J., Zhang, H., & Wang, Y. (2020). Profiles of adolescent traditional and cyber bullying and victimization: The role of demographic, individual, family, school, and peer factors. Computers in Human Behavior , 111 , 106439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106439 D’Mello, S. K., & Mills, C. S. (2021). Mind wandering during reading: An interdisciplinary and integrative review of psychological, computing, and intervention research and theory. Language and Linguistics Compass , 15 (4), e12412. https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12412 Dolcos, F., & McCarthy, G. (2006). Brain Systems Mediating Cognitive Interference by Emotional Distraction. The Journal of Neuroscience , 26 (7), 2072–2079. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5042-05.2006 Donnellan, M. B., Oswald, F. L., Baird, B. M., & Lucas, R. E. (2006). The mini-IPIP scales: Tiny-yet-effective measures of the Big Five factors of personality. Psychological Assessment , 18 (2), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.192 Feng, S., D’Mello, S., & Graesser, A. C. (2013). Mind wandering while reading easy and difficult texts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 20 (3), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-012-0367-y Fernandes, B. (2017). Executive Functions, Emotion Regulation and Mental Health Problems in Children and Adolescents . University of Roehampton. Field, A., Miles, J., & Field, Z. (2014). Comparing two means. Discovering statistics using R (pp. 359–397). Sage. Repr. Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex; A Journal Devoted To The Study Of The Nervous System And Behavior , 86 , 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023 Geisler, F. C. M., Bechtoldt, M. N., Oberländer, N., & Schacht-Jablonowsky, M. (2018). The benefits of a mindfulness exercise in a performance situation. Psychological Reports , 121 (5), 853–876. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117740135 Gill, L. N., Renault, R., Campbell, E., Rainville, P., & Khoury, B. (2020). Mindfulness induction and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Consciousness and Cognition , 84 , 102991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2020.102991 Giluk, T. L. (2009). Mindfulness, Big Five personality, and affect: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences , 47 (8), 805–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.026 Godwin, C. A., Hunter, M. A., Bezdek, M. A., Lieberman, G., Elkin-Frankston, S., Romero, V. L., Witkiewitz, K., Clark, V. P., & Schumacher, E. H. (2017). Functional connectivity within and between intrinsic brain networks correlates with trait mind wandering. Neuropsychologia , 103 , 140–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.006 Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The Development of Markers for the Big-Five Factor Structure . 26–42. https://oce-ovid-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/article/00012030-199203000-00006/HTML Goldberg, S. B., Flook, L., Hirshberg, M. J., Davidson, R. J., & Schaefer, S. M. (2021). Brief breath awareness training yields poorer working memory performance in the context of acute stress. Cognition and Emotion , 35 (5), 1009–1017. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1878113 Gorman, T. E., & Green, C. S. (2016). Short-term mindfulness intervention reduces the negative attentional effects associated with heavy media multitasking. Scientific Reports , 6 (1), 24542. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep24542 Hanley, A. W., De Vibe, M., Solhaug, I., Gonzalez-Pons, K., & Garland, E. L. (2019). Mindfulness training reduces neuroticism over a 6-year longitudinal randomized control trial in norwegian medical and psychology students. Journal of Research in Personality , 82 , 103859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103859 Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach, third edition . Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B. (2010). The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure. Memory (Hove, England) , 18 (4), 394–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211003702171 Jaiswal, S., Muggleton, N. G., Juan, C. H., & Liang, W. K. (2019). Indices of association between anxiety and mindfulness: A guide for future mindfulness studies. Personality Neuroscience , 2 , e9. https://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2019.12 Johannes, N., Veling, H., Dora, J., Meier, A., Reinecke, L., & Buijzen, M. (2018). Mind-wandering and mindfulness as mediators of the relationship between online vigilance and well-being. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking , 21 (12), 761–767. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0373 Josefsson, T., & Broberg, A. (2011). Meditators and non-meditators on sustained and executive attentional performance. Mental Health Religion & Culture , 14 (3), 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670903578621 Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003a). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice , 10 (2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016 Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003b). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) . 8 (9), 73. https://www.proquest.com/openview/fef538e3ed2210c1201ef2a946faed43/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=29080 Keng, S. L., Robins, C. J., Smoski, M. J., Dagenbach, J., & Leary, M. R. (2013). Reappraisal and mindfulness: A comparison of subjective effects and cognitive costs. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 51 (12), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.10.006 Keng, S. L., Seah, S. T. H., Tong, E. M. W., & Smoski, M. (2016). Effects of brief mindful acceptance induction on implicit dysfunctional attitudes and concordance between implicit and explicit dysfunctional attitudes. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 83 , 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.05.004 Khatri, R. A., Baumgartner, N. W., Noh, K., Ullrich-French, S., Schmitt, S., Wang, C., & Kao, S. (2024). Mindfulness induction and executive function after high‐intensity interval training with and without mindful recovery intervals. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports , 34 (1), e14558. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14558 Khoury, B., Sharma, M., Rush, S. E., & Fournier, C. (2015). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 78 (6), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009 Kiken, L. G., Garland, E. L., Bluth, K., Palsson, O. S., & Gaylord, S. A. (2015). From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Personality and Individual Differences , 81 , 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044 Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science , 330 (6006), 932–932. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1192439 Krick, A., & Felfe, J. (2020). Who benefits from mindfulness? The moderating role of personality and social norms for the effectiveness on psychological and physiological outcomes among police officers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 25 (2), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000159 Laurent, H. K., Laurent, S. M., Nelson, B., Wright, D. B., & De Araujo Sanchez, M. A. (2015). Dispositional mindfulness moderates the effect of a brief mindfulness induction on physiological stress responses. Mindfulness , 6 (5), 1192–1200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0377-0 Leyland, A., Emerson, L. M., & Rowse, G. (2018). Testing for an effect of a mindfulness induction on child executive functions. Mindfulness , 9 (6), 1807–1815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0923-2 Leyland, A., Rowse, G., & Emerson, L. M. (2019). Experimental effects of mindfulness inductions on self-regulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Emotion , 19 (1), 108–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000425 Li, Y., Yang, N., Zhang, Y., Xu, W., & Cai, L. (2021). The Relationship Among Trait Mindfulness, Attention, and Working Memory in Junior School Students Under Different Stressful Situations. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558690 Lilja, J. L., Lundh, L. G., Josefsson, T., & Falkenström, F. (2013). Observing as an Essential Facet of Mindfulness: A Comparison of FFMQ Patterns in Meditating and Non-Meditating Individuals. Mindfulness , 4 (3), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0111-8 Lin, Y., Fisher, M. E., & Moser, J. S. (2019). Clarifying the relationship between mindfulness and executive attention: A combined behavioral and neurophysiological study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 14 (2), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsy113 Luchetti, M., Terracciano, A., Stephan, Y., Aschwanden, D., & Sutin, A. R. (2021). Personality traits and memory: A multilevel analysis across 27 countries from the survey of health, ageing and retirement in europe. Psychological Science , 32 (7), 1047–1057. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797621993101 Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 12 (4), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005 Matko, K., Berghöfer, A., Jeitler, M., Sedlmeier, P., & Bringmann, H. C. (2022). Who benefits most? Interactions between personality traits and outcomes of four incremental meditation and yoga treatments. Journal of Clinical Medicine , 11 (15), 4553. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11154553 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex Frontal Lobe Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology , 41 (1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Molnar-Szakacs, I., & Uddin, L. Q. (2022). Anterior insula as a gatekeeper of executive control. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 139 , 104736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104736 Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological Science , 24 (5), 776–781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612459659 Mrazek, M. D., Phillips, D. T., Franklin, M. S., Broadway, J. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Young and restless: Validation of the mind-wandering questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind-wandering for youth. Frontiers in Psychology , 4 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00560 Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Mindfulness and mind-wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion , 12 (3), 442–448. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026678 Nagy, T., Sik, K., Török, L., Bőthe, B., Takacs, Z. K., & Orosz, G. (2023). Brief Growth Mindset and Mindfulness Inductions to Facilitate Task Persistence After Negative Feedback. Collabra: Psychology , 9 (1), 74253. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.74253 Noone, C., & Hogan, M. J. (2018). 012_Improvements in critical thinking performance following mindfulness meditation depend on thinking dispositions. Mindfulness , 9 (2), 461–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0789-8 Norris, C. J., Creem, D., Hendler, R., & Kober, H. (2018). 004_Brief mindfulness meditation improves attention in novices: Evidence from ERPs and moderation by neuroticism. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , 12 , 315. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00315 Oberauer, K. (2019). Working Memory and Attention – A Conceptual Analysis and Review. Journal of Cognition , 2 (1), 36. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.58 Oberleiter, S., Wainig, H., Voracek, M., & Tran, U. S. (2022). No effects of a brief mindfulness intervention on controlled motivation and amotivation, but effect moderation through trait mindfulness: A randomized controlled trial. Mindfulness , 13 (10), 2434–2447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01968-7 Orosz, G., Török, L., Takacs, Z. K., Evans, K. M., Sik, K., Rigaud, K., Gál, É., & Bőthe, B. (2024). Mindfulset—Harnessing or unleashing learning potential through mindfulness mindset. Journal of Educational Psychology , 116 (3), 466–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000839 Pacheco-Unguetti, A. P., Acosta, A., Callejas, A., & Lupiáñez, J. (2010). Attention and anxiety: Different attentional functioning under state and trait anxiety. Psychological Science , 21 (2), 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609359624 Palmer, R., Roos, C., Vafaie, N., & Kober, H. (2023). The effect of ten vs. Twenty minutes of mindfulness meditation on state mindfulness and affect . https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2570008/v1 Peng, P. (2023). The role of executive function in reading development and reading intervention. Mind Brain and Education , 17 (4), 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12375 Quatrics (2024). Version (2024). [Computer software]. Qualtrics. https://www.qualtrics.com Rahl, H. A., Lindsay, E. K., Pacilio, L. E., Brown, K. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Brief mindfulness meditation training reduces mind wandering: The critical role of acceptance. Emotion , 17 (2), 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000250 Reed, P. (2019). 010_Previous mindfulness experience interacts with brief mindfulness induction when reducing stimulus overselectivity. Applied Cognitive Psychology , 33 (2), 265–271. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3474 Remmers, C., Topolinski, S., & Koole, S. L. (2016). Why being mindful may have more benefits than you realize: Mindfulness improves both explicit and implicit mood regulation. Mindfulness , 7 (4), 829–837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0520-1 Rodrigues, M. F., Nardi, A. E., & Levitan, M. (2017). Mindfulness in mood and anxiety disorders: A review of the literature. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , 39 (3), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2016-0051 Roemer, A., Cervin, M., Medvedeva, A., Bravo, A. J., & Medvedev, O. N. (2024). Big Five of Mindfulness and Personality: Cross-Cultural Network Analysis. Mindfulness , 15 (1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02293-3 Rogers, R. D., & Monsell, S. (1995). Costs of a predictible switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 124 (2), 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.207 Rothman, K. J. (1990). No Adjustments Are Needed for Multiple Comparisons. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) , 1 (1), 43–46. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199001000-00010 Salavera, C., Urcola-Pardo, F., Usán, P., & Jarie, L. (2017). Translation and validation of the mind-wandering test for spanish adolescents. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica , 30 (1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-017-0066-8 Sassenberg, T. A., Condon, D. M., Christensen, A. P., & DeYoung, C. G. (2023). Imagination as a Facet of Openness/Intellect: A New Scale Differentiating Experiential Simulation and Conceptual Innovation. Creativity Research Journal , 35 (4), 583–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2023.2177810 Scheps, M. H., & Walsh, J. (2020). The moderating effect of trait mindfulness on implicit racial bias following a brief mindfulness induction: A pilot study. Transpersonal Psychology Review , 22 (1), Article 1. https://shop.bps.org.uk/transpersonal-psychology-review-vol-22-no-1-2020 Sesker, A. A., Súilleabháin, P. Ó., Howard, S., & Hughes, B. M. (2016). Conscientiousness and mindfulness in midlife coping: An assessment based on MIDUS II: Anxiety stress and coping. Personality and Mental Health , 10 (1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1323 Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 62 (3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20237 Sharp, E. S., Reynolds, C. A., Pedersen, N. L., & Gatz, M. (2010). Cognitive engagement and cognitive aging: Is openness protective? Psychology and Aging , 25 (1), 60–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018748 Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2015). The science of mind wandering: Empirically navigating the stream of consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology , 66 (1), 487–518. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331 Smillie, L. D., Varsavsky, V., Avery, R. E., & Perry, R. (2016). Trait Intellect Predicts Cognitive Engagement: Evidence from a Resource Allocation Perspective. European Journal of Personality , 30 (3), 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2059 Soemer, A., & Schiefele, U. (2019). Text difficulty, topic interest, and mind wandering during reading. Learning and Instruction , 61 , 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.12.006 de Sousa, G. M., de Lima-Araújo, G. L., de Araújo, D. B., & de Sousa, M. B. C. (2021). Brief mindfulness-based training and mindfulness trait attenuate psychological stress in university students: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychology , 9 (1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00520-x Spielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P., & Jacobs, G. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y1 – Y2). In Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; Vol. IV . Stoet, G. (2010). PsyToolkit: A software package for programming psychological experiments using Linux. Behavior Research Methods , 42 (4), 1096–1104. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.4.1096 Stoet, G. (2017). PsyToolkit: A Novel Web-Based Method for Running Online Questionnaires and Reaction-Time Experiments. Teaching of Psychology , 44 (1), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316677643 Strohmaier, S. (2020). The relationship between doses of mindfulness-based programs and depression, anxiety, stress, and mindfulness: A dose-response meta-regression of randomized controlled trials. Mindfulness , 11 (6), 1315–1335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01319-4 Suelmann, H., Brouwers, A., & Snippe, E. (2018). Explaining variations in mindfulness levels in daily life. Mindfulness , 9 (6), 1895–1906. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0932-1 Swift, V., Wilson, K. E., & Peterson, J. B. (2020). Zooming in on the attentional foundations of the Big Five. Personality and Individual Differences , 164 , 110000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110000 Tanaka, M., Nakashima, R., Hiromitsu, K., & Imamizu, H. (2021). Individual differences in the change of attentional functions with brief one-time focused attention and open monitoring meditations. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 , 716138. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716138 Tanay, G., & Bernstein, A. (2013). State Mindfulness Scale (SMS): Development and initial validation. Psychological Assessment , 25 (4), 1286–1299. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034044 Tang, R., & Braver, T. S. (2020a). Predicting individual preferences in mindfulness techniques using personality traits. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 , 1163. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01163 Tang, R., & Braver, T. S. (2020b). Towards an individual differences perspective in mindfulness training research: Theoretical and empirical considerations. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 , 818. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00818 Teng, S. C., & Lien, Y. W. (2022). 007_Propensity or diversity? Investigating how mind wandering influences the incubation effect of creativity. PLOS ONE , 17 (4), e0267187. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267187 Teper, R., & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Meditation, mindfulness and executive control: The importance of emotional acceptance and brain-based performance monitoring. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 8 (1), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss045 Thompson, E. R. (2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable short-form of the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , 38 (2), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301 Treves, I. N., Pichappan, K., Hammoud, J., Bauer, C. C. C., Ehmann, S., Sacchet, M. D., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2024). The Mindful Brain: A Systematic Review of the Neural Correlates of Trait Mindfulness. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 36 (11), 2518–2555. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_02230 van den Hurk, P. A. M., Wingens, T., Giommi, F., Barendregt, H. P., Speckens, A. E. M., & van Schie, H. T. (2011). On the Relationship Between the Practice of Mindfulness Meditation and Personality—An Exploratory Analysis of the Mediating Role of Mindfulness Skills. Mindfulness , 2 (3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0060-7 Vandierendonck, A., Liefooghe, B., & Verbruggen, F. (2010). Task switching: Interplay of reconfiguration and interference control. Psychological Bulletin , 136 (4), 601. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019791 Wang, T., & Lajoie, S. P. (2023). How Does Cognitive Load Interact with Self-Regulated Learning? A Dynamic and Integrative Model. Educational Psychology Review , 35 (3), 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09794-6 Watier, N., & Dubois, M. (2016). 008_The effects of a brief mindfulness exercise on executive attention and recognition memory. Mindfulness , 7 (3), 745–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0514-z Whitfield, T., Barnhofer, T., Acabchuk, R., Cohen, A., Lee, M., Schlosser, M., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Bottcher, A., Britton, W., Coll-Padros, N., Collette, F., Chetelat, G., Dautricourt, S., Demnitz-King, H., Dumais, T., Klimecki, O., Meiberth, D., Moulinet, I., Muller, T., & Marchant, N. L. (2021). The effect of mindfulness-based programs on cognitive function in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-021-09519-y Winning, A. P., & Boag, S. (2015). Does brief mindfulness training increase empathy? The role of personality. Personality and Individual Differences , 86 , 492–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.011 Woolley, J. D., Bunce, L., & Boerger, E. A. (2020). Chapter 8—Relations between imagination and creativity. In D. D. Preiss, D. Cosmelli, & J. C. Kaufman (Eds.), Creativity and the Wandering Mind (pp. 181–203). Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128164006000080 Xu, M., Purdon, C., Seli, P., & Smilek, D. (2017). Mindfulness and mind wandering: The protective effects of brief meditation in anxious individuals. Consciousness and Cognition , 51 , 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.03.009 Yakobi, O., Smilek, D., & Danckert, J. (2021). The effects of mindfulness meditation on attention, executive control and working memory in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Cognitive Therapy and Research , 45 (4), 543–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10177-2 Yang, H., Li, J., & Zheng, X. (2021). Different Influences of Negative and Neutral Emotional Interference on Working Memory in Trait Anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 , 570552. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570552 Yang, K., Zeng, Y., Tong, L., Hu, Y., Zhang, R., Li, Z., & Yan, B. (2023). Extremely negative emotion interferes with cognition: Evidence from ERPs and time-varying brain network. Journal of Neuroscience Methods , 396 , 109922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2023.109922 Zabelina, D. L., Robinson, M. D., Ostafin, B. D., & Council, J. R. (2011). Manipulating Mindfulness Benefits Creative Elaboration at High Levels of Neuroticism. Empirical Studies of the Arts , 29 (2), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.2190/EM.29.2.g Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and Cognition , 19 (2), 597–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014 Zhang, J., Ding, W., Li, Y., & Wu, C. (2013). Task complexity matters: The influence of trait mindfulness on task and safety performance of nuclear power plant operators. Personality and Individual Differences , 55 (4), 433–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.004 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementaryfile.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7100595","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":487541472,"identity":"57e0c734-ccc1-48cd-b441-aeee89fc88e8","order_by":0,"name":"Ke Shi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACgwPszxgSGGzkIFw2MMmMV4thA48ZUEuaMfFajBl4QMoOJTYQrcUMqOXBA4YD6fOnHX/A8KGMQZ6/gcfYAJ8WGwb25wYJDHdyN9zOMWCccY7BcMYBHuME/FoYzCQS/z3L3SCdw8DM28bAuIGBx/gAfocBtSQwHE6Xn53+gPlvG4M9QS3GUC0JDLcTDJgZ2xgSQVrwOsywmQekJc0Q5JeDPeckkmccZivG632D4+3PJH8w2MgDHfbwwY8yG9v+9ubNEvi0oMQB0AsShGJlFIyCUTAKRgExAADdt0BUNAZR5AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Edinburgh","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ke","middleName":"","lastName":"Shi","suffix":""},{"id":487541473,"identity":"55f54d19-247f-43d7-94c3-8f9fa9b74905","order_by":1,"name":"Clara Calia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Edinburgh","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clara","middleName":"","lastName":"Calia","suffix":""},{"id":487541474,"identity":"0dcf319d-2ef8-49b2-a563-dce27284059e","order_by":2,"name":"Zsofia K. Takacs","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Edinburgh","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zsofia","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Takacs","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-11 10:23:23","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7100595/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7100595/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87346539,"identity":"c19b8e88-fd71-4be3-88e4-1e3d13d91275","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 02:27:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":92641,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlowchart of research\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7100595/v1/6b599e76712ea93f14e0a65d.png"},{"id":87346950,"identity":"13ea9e14-8f08-4af2-9562-e34e273b0c60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 02:35:08","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":364307,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean, SD and correlations of variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFig.2 is a correlation matrix of the main variables, where both the direction and strength of Pearson correlations are visualized. Blue circles represent positive correlations, and red circles represent negative correlations. The size and intensity of the circles correspond to the magnitude of the correlation coefficient. Only statistically significant correlations (p \u0026lt; .05) are displayed, with non-significant results left blank. Variable labels include means and SDs. InRT = Inhibition measured by RT, TraitMW = Trait mind-wandering, MWRate = Mind wandering (self-reported incidence), NegAff = Negative state affect, WMd = Working memory (d’), WMRT= Working memory (RT), WMAcc= Working memory (accuracy), AWA = Acting with awareness, Njud = Non-judgmental, PosAFF = positive sate affect, SMS = state of mindfulness, NRea = Non-reactivity.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7100595/v1/1525b13ea41b6b8ef6b1ff94.png"},{"id":87346541,"identity":"9e6adf3c-a962-4341-b33c-8f3c55543c8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 02:27:08","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":123436,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe plot of interactions on working memory\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7100595/v1/471773a7a618c9bbef9cffe3.jpeg"},{"id":87346545,"identity":"27a20493-c7b0-4a6a-9182-b7ec44e6fa0b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 02:27:09","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe plot of interactions on cognitive inhibition\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7100595/v1/c69b4b10a72511501b6ff5cd.jpeg"},{"id":94597164,"identity":"de76cdd9-504f-4a64-bc9f-878f9cdd1b16","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 18:45:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1952575,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7100595/v1/8278cedb-54cc-4a42-b5ec-03755f75b551.pdf"},{"id":87346543,"identity":"a0574aa2-95a1-469f-86b0-55c83103e082","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-23 02:27:08","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":246340,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementaryfile.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7100595/v1/eb1d70bb1cfd4b31180c1897.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eFor Whom Does a Brief Mindfulness Induction Work? An exploration of the moderating role of individual differences in the effect of mindfulness induction on executive functioning and mind-wandering\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eExecutive Functions (EFs) enable goal-directed behaviour and a flexible response to the environment (Friedman \u0026amp; Miyake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), by regulating attention, emotion, behaviour, and thoughts beyond automatic responses (Diamond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Leyland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). EFs comprise working memory (also named updating, referring to the ability to retain and manipulate information that is stored in short-term memory), cognitive inhibition (one's ability to control automatic behaviours and thoughts deliberately) and cognitive flexibility (also named shifting, referring to the ability to switch between different mental sets and rules, allowing a more flexible approach to problems) (Diamond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Miyake et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Mind wandering (MW) refers to the decoupling of thoughts from the current train of thoughts or the task at hand and adults spend a third of their waking hours mind-wandering (Smallwood \u0026amp; Schooler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). When the mind wanders, attention drifts away from the task and individuals produce unrelated thoughts (D\u0026rsquo;Mello \u0026amp; Mills, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). While MW may enhance originality (Teng \u0026amp; Lien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), it is linked to reading difficulties (Feng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Soemer \u0026amp; Schiefele, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and poor cognitive performance (Mrazek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). MW is also associated with increased negative emotions (Killingsworth \u0026amp; Gilbert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). EFs and MW are crucial for mental health, well-being (Bettis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Mrazek, Phillips, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and social and emotional skills (D\u0026rsquo;Mello \u0026amp; Mills, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Fernandes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Killingsworth \u0026amp; Gilbert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Peng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMindfulness is an intentional practice and \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment\u0026rdquo; (Kabat-Zinn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003a\u003c/span\u003e, p. 145). It can be both a \u003cem\u003etrait\u003c/em\u003e, a relatively stable innate capacity to be mindful (Brown et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Brown \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Kiken et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and a \u003cem\u003estate\u003c/em\u003e, the extent of one\u0026rsquo;s focus on the present moment at a given time (Tanay \u0026amp; Bernstein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). During mindfulness meditation the meditator is instructed to focus their attention on a target (e.g. the breath or sounds in the environment) or maintain open, non-judgmental awareness of the present moment, returning attention when the mind wanders (Ainsworth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Lutz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Teper \u0026amp; Inzlicht, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Such practice of monitoring of one\u0026rsquo;s attention and redirecting one\u0026rsquo;s focus can be thought of an attention training and thus it seems logical that it could have benefits on attentional control and potentially EFs skills and MW (Leyland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Lutz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Shapiro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Teper \u0026amp; Inzlicht, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Meta-analytic evidence suggests that mindfulness programmes yield small but significant EF improvements (Whitfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The effect of mindfulness-based intervention on reducing mind-wandering has been empirically substantiated by the studies conducted by Banks et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Mrazek et al.\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e(2013b)\u003c/span\u003e. Even brief mindfulness training (3 days of 20 minutes) improved sustained attention and reduced MW (Rahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile mindfulness-based interventions include multiple sessions and aim to elevate participants\u0026rsquo; trait mindfulness, another line of research including brief mindfulness inductions to induce a state of mindfulness has emerged to investigate the acute effects of mindfulness exercises. This line of evidence shows mixed results for cognitive benefits, however, Brown et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported improved recognition memory after a 9-minute mindfulness induction. Similarly, Goldberg et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found enhanced working memory following 12-minute loving-kindness and gratitude meditations, compared to controls.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMW was reduced after a short mindfulness induction in undergraduates (Mrazek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and in anxious individuals (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR114\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Banks et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found reduced negatively valenced MW following a mindfulness induction after negative mood priming. However, Baranski (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found no significant EFs improvement after a 15-minute mindful breathing exercise in university students. In fact, a recent meta-analysis found no evidence that mindfulness inductions improve inhibitory control or switching, though results were heterogeneous (Gill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA potential reason for these mixed results is that the efficacy of mindfulness practice might be moderated by individual differences such as personality traits including neuroticism and trait mindfulness similar to preliminary results regarding mindfulness interventions (Tang \u0026amp; Braver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e). Some individual differences in the efficacy of a mindfulness intervention have been also found among adolescents (Saarinen et al., 2022). These results suggest that mindfulness might be more effective for some than others. However, there are even fewer studies regarding such individual differences regarding mindfulness inductions, although this might provide an explanation for the mixed results on executive function skills. Accordingly, we investigated the potential moderating effects of a range of individual differences in the effects of a short mindfulness induction on EFs and MW including Big-5 personality, trait mindfulness, previous meditation experience, trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness mindset and baseline mood states.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMindfulness and Individual differences\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBig five personality\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is generally accepted that personality contains five facets: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness (de Vibe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Goldberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Matko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). People with elevated levels of neuroticism are more susceptible to psychological distress, respond poorly to environmental distress and interpret normal life situations more negatively (Krick \u0026amp; Felfe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Matko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, mindfulness meditation promotes non-judgmental awareness of present experiences, which is linked to better psychological outcomes (Bravo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Brown et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kabat-Zinn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003a\u003c/span\u003e). Neuroticism negatively correlated with trait mindfulness (Giluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Norris et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found that a 10-minute mindfulness induction group exhibited larger N2 amplitudes in Attentional Network task among participants low in neuroticism, indicating effects of mindfulness inductions might be larger for them. In contrast, Zabelina et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR118\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) found enhanced creativity only in highly neurotic participants after mindfulness induction. Some studies found no moderating effect of neuroticism on cognitive empathy (Winning \u0026amp; Boag, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), state mindfulness, or anxiety (Palmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is plausible that people with higher imagination (sometimes used interchangeably with \u0026lsquo;openness\u0026rsquo; (Sassenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Woolley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)) are more susceptible to mindfulness induction, which emphasizes open, accepting awareness of experience (Barner \u0026amp; Barner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Crane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Kabat-Zinn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, two studies found no moderating effect of openness on empathy(Winning \u0026amp; Boag, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) or state mindfulness (Caldera, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) after mindfulness induction. Agreeableness may influence compliance with mindfulness interventions (Forbes et al., 2018; Tang \u0026amp; Braver, 2020), yet no moderating effect was found on empathy outcomes after induction (Winning \u0026amp; Boag, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to trait mindfulness (Giluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and the amount of mindfulness experience (Baer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; van den Hurk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Conscientious individuals tend to exhibit better mental and physical health, which is commonly associated with the traits of responsibility, self-control and goal-directedness (Giluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Sesker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs it has been proposed, conscientiousness might relate to intervention adherence and compliance (Tang \u0026amp; Braver, 2020). In fact, a mindfulness intervention was found more effective for reducing stress for participants high on conscientiousness (de Vibe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Extraverts are typically more sociable and engaged (van den Hurk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Winning and Boag (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) found that individuals lower in conscientiousness and extraversion benefited more from a 15-minute induction on cognitive empathy. In sum, there is scant evidence regarding the moderating role of openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness and extraversion on immediate outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrait mindfulness\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough lower trait mindfulness predicts greater psychological improvements after interventions (Tang \u0026amp; Braver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e), findings on acute effects remain inconsistent. Some studies failed to find a significant moderation effect of trait mindfulness on state mindfulness (Bravo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Caldera, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), on mood (Remmers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) or working memory (Noone \u0026amp; Hogan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), other studies did find evidence for it, however, in different directions. Participants with higher trait mindfulness benefited from mindfulness inductions on effort following negative feedback (Nagy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), on stress regulation in the context of conflict with partner (Laurent et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and on state anxiety (Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, larger benefits were shown for individuals with lower trait mindfulness on motivation (Oberleiter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), on executive attention (Watier \u0026amp; Dubois, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and only low trait mindfulness participants experienced a decrease in implicit racial bias in response to a mindfulness induction (Scheps \u0026amp; Walsh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and an increase in state mindfulness (Palmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt seems logical to assume that people with greater trait mindfulness tend to benefit more from such short inductions: they might reach a state of mindfulness more easily. For instance, Shapiro et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) proposed that meditators with higher trait mindfulness tend to show higher attentional regulation ability. However, it also seems plausible that participants with lower levels of trait mindfulness have more room for improvement and might benefit more from a mindfulness exercise.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious meditation experience\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious meditation experience may moderate the effects of mindfulness induction. While one study found no moderating role on state mindfulness, anxiety, or state affect (Palmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), another showed higher state mindfulness of body among experienced meditators after induction (Bravo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Reed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) also found that there was a greater reduction in over-selection (that may occur in people with cognitive stress) after a 10-minute meditation in mindful-experienced participants than in a novice sample. Meditation-na\u0026iuml;ve individuals may find it harder to focus on the present without prior training (Strohmaier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the evidence is scant to our knowledge, trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness mindset and state affect could also be considered as the potential moderators, as these factors are related to trait mindfulness and might have an impact on how individuals experience mindfulness practice. Trait anxiety, the trait that regards how prone someone is to be anxious, is a stable individual attribute that is associated with top-down cognitive control processes (Jaiswal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This process impacts the regulatory function of attention that is central to mindfulness practices (Pacheco-Unguetti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Shapiro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Practicing attention regulation is the essential mechanism of mindfulness (Shapiro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), but trait anxiety is associated with deficiencies in attention (Pacheco-Unguetti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, Baranski (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found no moderating effect of trait anxiety on the benefits of a mindfulness induction on EFs among university students.(Pacheco-Unguetti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Shapiro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrait mind-wandering is one\u0026rsquo;s proneness to have unrelated thoughts during tasks \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e(\u003c/span\u003eMrazek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003ea). It has been considered a type of individual difference (Godwin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), is negatively correlated with trait mindfulness (Salavera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, we are not aware of any evidence regarding the potential moderating role of this variable in the context of acute effects of mindfulness practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA new measure of mindfulness mindset (people\u0026rsquo;s beliefs regarding the malleability of mindfulness skills, growth/fixed mindset) was recently developed (Orosz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), and included as a potential moderator in our study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eState affect may influence mindfulness, as positive emotions related to increased awareness, and individuals tend to be more attentive and less reactive during positive emotional states (Suelmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, negative moods may divert attention to threats and impair working memory, making it harder to focus non-judgmentally on the present (Brose et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), thus hindering mindfulness. However, no prior evidence has examined this moderating effect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePresent study\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe primary aim of this study was to explore which personality traits may moderate the effects of a short mindfulness induction on EFs (including working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control) and mind-wandering. It was hypothesized that:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mindfulness group was expected to show higher state mindfulness, better EF performance, and reduced mind-wandering compared to controls.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeuroticism was hypothesized to moderate mindfulness effects on EFs and MW; however, we cannot predict the direction of this effect due to the contrasting evidence. Conscientiousness and extraversion might also moderate the effects. In contrast, we expected no moderating effect of imagination and agreeableness on the efficacy of mindfulness induction (based on Winning \u0026amp; Boag, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrait mindfulness was expected to moderate the effect of mindfulness induction on EFs and MW, though no directional or facet-specific hypotheses were made.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeople with previous meditation experience might benefit more from mindfulness induction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven that the evidence regarding the other moderators is mixed and scant, we did not have specific hypotheses regarding trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness malleability beliefs and state affect. Therefore, these moderating analyses were exploratory.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was pre-registered on OSF before the observation of data. The registration information including all task materials, analysis plan, anonymized data and R coding can be found on the OSF at \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://osf.io/wjs5d/?view_only=aefe2a52f586474b97000f9b87a38f04\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://osf.io/wjs5d/?view_only=aefe2a52f586474b97000f9b87a38f04\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (anonymized for peer review).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversity students were recruited through social media and on-campus advertisement at XXX (anonymized for peer-review). Students who registered earned credits for their participation. Eligibility required English fluency, psychology majors were excluded to avoid bias from potential meditation experience or awareness of study aims. A priori G*Power analysis (R\u0026sup2; increase in multiple regression) indicated 55 participants were needed for a medium effect size (f\u0026sup2; = 0.15, power\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.8), and 395 for a small effect. For main effects, 64 per group were needed for a medium effect, and 394 for a small effect. We recruited 147 participants but had to exclude two participants because of technical issues, and another two participants in control group because they realized the research aim (that it was about comparing mindfulness and a control audio to improve cognitive functioning). The final sample included 143 students: 118 women (82.52%), 92 individuals (64.34%) with prior mindfulness meditation experience, and 54 (37.76%) with other meditation experience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the research ethics committee of the XXXX (anonymized for peer review).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudy design and procedure\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants provided informed consent online via Qualtrics (Quatrics, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), then scheduled a lab appointment. They were told the study investigated methods to improve cognitive performance and individual differences in effectiveness, mindfulness was not mentioned to maintain blinding. In the lab, a research assistant was present in the room to provide assistance as needed, but participants completed all materials independently on a computer in the lab. Each participant was seated at a desktop computer where they first completed demographic and trait-related questionnaires. Following this, participants were randomly assigned to either the control condition or the mindfulness condition via the online platform of Psytoolkit (Stoet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) so the research assistant was unaware of the condition the participant was assigned to. In both conditions participants were asked to put on headphones and close their eyes to enhance their focus on the audio content (either the mindfulness or the control audio). Then, participants proceeded to complete a 2-back working memory task, a task-switching task and a reading task with mind wandering probes. The order of these tasks was counterbalanced to control for potential order effects. Afterward, participants completed a state mindfulness questionnaire referring to their audio-listening experience and answered awareness-check questions. Each was orally debriefed and given a written debriefing form (See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for flowchart). The whole experiment was designed and presented via Psytoolkit (Stoet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experimental manipulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Participants in the mindfulness group listened to an audio recording of a mindfulness meditation for about 10 minutes. The same script was used as in a previous induction experiment (Nagy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It directs participants to close their eyes and concentrate on the present moment, including specific instructions to focus on their breathing, sounds, awareness and thoughts. The script also incorporates a body scan and promotes acceptance of present experiences. In the control condition, participants listened to an excerpt from the audio version of \u003cem\u003eThe Hobbit\u003c/em\u003e by JRR Tolkien with eyes closed (10 minutes approximately), similar to previous experiments (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR114\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zeidan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR119\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasures\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants were asked to respond to several demographic questions on their gender, age and the programme they were enrolled on.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe International Personality Item Pool \u0026ndash; Five Factor Model \u0026ndash; mini version (The mini-IPIP) (Donnellan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) was used to measure \u003cb\u003eBig five personality\u003c/b\u003e: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and imagination, each with 4 items rated from 1 (very inaccurate) to 5 (very accurate). Internal consistency of the subscales was acceptable (Extraversion: a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.76, Neuroticism: a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71, Conscientiousness: a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71, Agreeableness: a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70, and Imagination: a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.68).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 15-item Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaires (FFMQ-15) (Baer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) was used to measure \u003cb\u003eTrait mindfulness\u003c/b\u003e including observing (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45), describing (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82), acting with awareness (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71), nonjudging (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81) and nonreactivity (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.73). Each facet included 3 items rated from 1 (never/rarely true) to 5 (very often/always true). Total scale reliability was α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.68.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFour adapted items from Bravo (2018) (with permission) were used to identify \u003cb\u003eprior mindfulness meditation experience\u003c/b\u003e (e.g. \u0026ldquo;Do you have previous or current experience with mindfulness meditation?\u0026rdquo;).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 5-item Mind-wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e(\u003c/span\u003eMrazek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003ea) measured different levels of \u003cb\u003eTrait mind-wandering\u003c/b\u003e (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I have difficulty maintaining focus on simple or repetitive work\u0026rdquo;), rated from 1 (almost never) to 6 (almost always). It showed good internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 20-item State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait version (STAI-T) (Spielberger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) was used to assess \u003cb\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/b\u003e, aiming to measure individual differences in anxiety proneness. Items were rated on a 4-point scale (e.g., \u0026ldquo;Almost Never\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;Almost Always\u0026rdquo;), with higher scores indicating a higher degree of anxiety. It showed good internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.91).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Mindfulness Mindset Scale (Orosz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) is an 8-item self-report scale that measures individuals\u0026rsquo; beliefs about the \u003cb\u003emalleability of mindfulness skills\u003c/b\u003e, and includes four sub-scales: present orientation, awareness, self-acceptance and attention. All items are rated on a 5-point Linkert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly disagree; 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly agree). An example item is \u0026ldquo;The extent to which one can live in the present moment is a characteristic that can\u0026rsquo;t really be changed\u0026rdquo; It showed good internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.87).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) (Thompson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) measures \u003cb\u003epositive and negative state affect\u003c/b\u003e of respondents with 5 positive (i.e. Alert, Inspired, Determined, Attentive and Active) and 5 negative mood words (i.e. Upset, Hostile, Ashamed, Nervous and Afraid) on a five-point Likert scale from never to always. The adapted instruction is \u0026ldquo;Think about yourself and indicate the extent to which you have felt the following over the PAST FEW HOURS\u0026rdquo; to collect state emotion. It demonstrated good reliability (with Cronbach's a for the Negative Affect (NA) and Positive Affect (PA) factors being 0.70 and 0.81, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) (Tanay \u0026amp; Bernstein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) assessed \u003cb\u003eState mindfulness\u003c/b\u003e using a 5-point scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very well). It included two subscales: mindfulness of mind (15 items, e.g., \u0026ldquo;I found some of my experiences interesting\u0026rdquo;) and body (6 items, e.g., \u0026ldquo;I noticed physical sensations come and go\u0026rdquo;). Higher scores indicate higher levels of state of mindfulness. This was used as a manipulation check in the present study. It showed high reliability (with Cronbach's a for the state mindfulness of body and state mindfulness of mind being 0.85 and 0.91, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Task-Switching Task (TST) (Stoet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Vandierendonck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/taskswitching.html\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/taskswitching.html\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e ) is a letter/number paradigm based on the task of Rogers and Monsell (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), used to measure \u003cb\u003eInhibitory control and cognitive flexibility\u003c/b\u003e in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 2-back (letter) task paradigm was used to measure \u003cb\u003eWorking memory\u003c/b\u003e. It is available at \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/nback2.html\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/nback2.html\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMind-wandering\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eMind-wandering was measured by a reading task incorporating probe-caught questions during and reading comprehension questions following reading segments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSee Supplementary File Part 2 for the detailed task description and the specific indices of cognitive tasks and reading task used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe statistical analyses were conducted in R with the package PROCESS macro (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Differences between the mindfulness and control group in state mindfulness, executive functions and mind-wandering were examined by t-tests. For those data that violated the assumptions, the robust T-test was conducted (Field et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Pearson correlation was used to evaluate the bivariate relationships among baseline variables, state mindfulness, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and mind-wandering. The moderating role of individual differences (including demographic information, Big-5 personality traits, trait mindfulness, trait mind-wandering, trait anxiety, state affect and mindfulness mindset) were analyzed in PROCESS using least squares regression (Hayes, 2013). The Johnson-Neyman technique was used to investigate the significant transition point of observed data. In these analyses, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and mind-wandering scores were the dependent variables, while experimental condition (i.e. control or mindfulness group) was the independent variable. To eliminate multicollinearity among the variables, the continuous data was centralized before analyses. Robust bootstrap method was used in these analyses (Darlington \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated by bias-corrected bootstrapping procedure with the number of iterations set to 10000. If the 95% CI of the interaction terms and indirect effects did not include zero, it meant that the moderator variables significantly moderated the effect of experimental condition on the outcome variable. Additionally, to elucidate the interaction effects, simple regression lines were plotted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, we conducted a large number of statistical tests in various exploratory analyses. We decided not to use p-value correction due to the lack of consensus regarding appropriate adjustments for multiple comparisons (Armstrong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Rothman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). While some argue that correcting the p-value in the context of multiple comparisons is essential to avoid Type I error, others contend that such corrections can increase the risk of Type II errors, potentially reducing statistical power (Ding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rothman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Multiple testing often revolves around the familywise error rate; however, it is challenging to delineate the hypotheses included within a family, particularly in exploratory analyses (Darlington \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we followed the approach suggested by Althouse (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), which is to describe the analyses conducted, report the confidence intervals, p-values, and provide explanations, thereby allowing readers to interpret the results based on the information provided and their own judgments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe means and standard deviations on the individual differences variables are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSociodemographic sample characteristics and baseline data of the mindfulness group and control group\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;143\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMindfulness induction group \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl group \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118 (82.52%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71 (85.54%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47 (78.33%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith other meditation experience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54 (37.76%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29 (34.94%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25 (41.67%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith any mindfulness meditation experience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92 (64.34%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53 (63.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39 (65%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.59 (5.31)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.7 (5.58)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.45 (4.94)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFFMQ-Total\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.71 (6.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.52 (6.52)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.58 (6.07)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObserving\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.73 (2.13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.75 (1.97)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.7 (2.34)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescribing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.86 (2.54)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.28 (2.38)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.28 (2.66)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActing with awareness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.7 (2.31)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.71 (2.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.68 (2.37)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-judgmental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.99 (2.68)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.45 (2.79)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.35 (2.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-reactivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.43 (2.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.34 (2.36)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.57 (2.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeuroticism\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.57 (3.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.17 (3.55)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.12 (2.96)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtraversion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.5 (3.52)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.31 (3.44)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.77 (3.64)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConscientiousness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.14 (3.46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.04 (3.26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.28 (3.74)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImagination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.24 (2.81)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.2 (2.67)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.28 (3.01)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgreeableness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.36 (2.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.41 (2.35)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.3 (3.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.06 (10.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.34 (10.83)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.07 (9.19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive state affect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.2 (3.66)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.47 (3.62)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.83 (3.72)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegative state effect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.41 (3.31)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.66 (3.51)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.05 (3.00)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMindfulness malleability beliefs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.1 (6.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.13 (5.98)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.05 (6.43)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrait mind-wandering\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.81 (4.44)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.52 (4.64)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.22 (4.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eManipulation Check\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA manipulation check was conducted to assess whether the mindfulness induction led to an increase in participants\u0026rsquo; self-reported state mindfulness. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, there were large and moderate, significant differences between the control and the mindfulness induction group on state mindfulness of mind and body, respectively. This confirmed that a state of mindfulness was successfully induced in the mindfulness induction group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffects of the mindfulness induction on state mindfulness and cognitive outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasures\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eControl group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMindfulness group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCohens\u0026rsquo; d\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eState mindfulness of mind\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.32 (5.16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.82 (5.43)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.52, 1.21]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eState mindfulness of body\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.05 (10.55)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.83 (9.90)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.14, 0.81]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking memory (d\u0026rsquo;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.81 (0.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.83 (0.96)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.29]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking memory (RT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e599.34 (143.80)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e647.86 (179.61)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.45]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking memory (accuracy)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91 (0.09)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91 (0.08)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.32]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlexibility (switch cost\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRT on correct trials)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e385.55 (232.26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e234.97 (260.22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-0.13, 0.53]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInhibition (RT on correct trials)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e776.94 (136.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e813.34 (199.24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.39]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMind wandering (self-reported incidence)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32 (0.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35 (0.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.35]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReading comprehension performance)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53 (0.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51 (0.19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.00, 0.34]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBivariate relationships\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePearson correlations for the variables used in the present study are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003eis a correlation matrix of the main variables, where both the direction and strength of Pearson correlations are visualized. Blue circles represent positive correlations, and red circles represent negative correlations. The size and intensity of the circles correspond to the magnitude of the correlation coefficient. Only statistically significant correlations (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05) are displayed, with non-significant results left blank. Variable labels include means and SDs. InRT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Inhibition measured by RT, TraitMW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Trait mind-wandering, MWRate\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mind wandering (self-reported incidence), NegAff\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Negative state affect, WMd\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Working memory (d\u0026rsquo;), WMRT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Working memory (RT), WMAcc\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Working memory (accuracy), AWA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Acting with awareness, Njud\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Non-judgmental, PosAFF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;positive sate affect, SMS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;state of mindfulness, NRea\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Non-reactivity.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain effects on working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and mind-wandering\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the analyses revealed no significant differences between the mindfulness and control groups concerning working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition and mind-wandering.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eModeration analyses\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFor working memory\u003c/b\u003e, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;3, the effect of condition on \u003cb\u003eworking memory (accuracy)\u003c/b\u003e was moderated by the mindfulness trait d\u003cb\u003eescribing.\u003c/b\u003e The interaction accounted for a 3% additional variance in the model (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e change). The simple slopes analysis (top left of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) showed that there was a tendency that people with lower levels of trait describing benefited more from the mindfulness induction on working memory accuracy. Results from the Johnson\u0026ndash;Neyman (JN) technique confirmed this: among individuals with low levels of describing mindfulness significantly enhanced working memory accuracy (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04), with 5.63% of the observed data falling within this range. This indicates that people with lower levels of the mindfulness trait describing experienced a significant benefit from the mindfulness induction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of condition on \u003cb\u003eworking memory (d\u0026rsquo;)\u003c/b\u003e was moderated by the \u003cb\u003emindfulness trait describing.\u003c/b\u003e The interaction accounted for a 3% variance in the model. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, among lower levels of trait describing, mindfulness seemed to benefit working memory index d\u0026rsquo;. The JN technique revealed no significant transition points within the observed data, however, there was a tendency that mindfulness might be somewhat more beneficial for people with lower describing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of condition on \u003cb\u003eworking memory (accuracy)\u003c/b\u003e was moderated by the \u003cb\u003emindfulness trait observing\u003c/b\u003e. The interaction accounted for a 2% variance in the model. As shown in the top right of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, similar to trait description, at lower levels of trait observing mindfulness seemed to enhance working memory accuracy. However, the JN technique revealed no significant transition points within the observed data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of condition on \u003cb\u003eworking memory (d\u0026rsquo;)\u003c/b\u003e was also moderated by the i\u003cb\u003emagination\u003c/b\u003e sub-facet of the IPIP inventory of personality. The interaction accounted for a 2% variance in the model. Inspection of the simple slopes (see bottom left of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) showed that there was a tendency that people with lower imagination benefited more from mindfulness induction. However, the JN technique revealed no significant transition points within the observed data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIn terms of cognitive inhibition\u003c/b\u003e, the result showed that the effect of condition on i\u003cb\u003enhibition (RT)\u003c/b\u003e was also moderated by the \u003cb\u003emindfulness trait describing\u003c/b\u003e. The interaction accounted for a 2% variance in the model. The left of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e suggests that only at higher levels of trait description, mindfulness seemed to benefit inhibition (lower RTs). Results from the JN technique indicated that among individuals with lower levels of description, the mindfulness induction had a significant effect on inhibition (RT) (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04), with 32.17% of the observed data falling within this range.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of condition on \u003cb\u003einhibition (RT)\u003c/b\u003e was also moderated by \u003cb\u003enegative state affect\u003c/b\u003e, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;3. The interaction accounted for a 5% variance in the model. As shown on the right of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, at higher levels of negative state affect the control condition was superior in enhancing inhibition (RT). Results from the JN technique indicated that among individuals with high levels of negative state affect, the mindfulness induction had a significant negative effect on inhibition (RT) (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01), with 26.57% of the observed data falling within this range. This indicates that higher levels of negative state emotion hindered individuals\u0026rsquo; ability to benefit from mindfulness induction in terms of inhibitory ability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were no other significant interaction effects between condition and any individual differences including trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, previous mindfulness meditation experience, total trait mindfulness and other facets of trait mindfulness, other factors of Big Five personality traits or mood states on working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition or mind-wandering (see Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e-Table S7).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;3: \u003cem\u003eIndividual differences variables with a significant moderating effect.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eΔR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBootMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBootSE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBootLLCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBootULCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWorking memory (d\u0026rsquo;)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup * Description\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWorking memory (d\u0026rsquo;)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImagination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup * Imagination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWorking memory (accuracy)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObservation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup * Observation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWorking memory (accuracy)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup * Description\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInhibition (RT)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup* Description\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-20.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-20.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-41.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInhibition (RT)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-14.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegative affect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-9.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-10.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-22.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup* Negative affect\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMindfulness practice may not be suitable for everyone. The present study aimed to investigate individual differences in the effects of a brief mindfulness induction on executive functions (EFs) (including working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition) and mind-wandering. We hypothesized that brief mindfulness induction would enhance EFs and reduce mind-wandering compared to the control condition. Furthermore, we posited that these effects could be moderated by individual differences such as the Big Five personality traits, prior experience with mindfulness meditation and trait mindfulness. We also explored the potential moderating roles of trait mind-wandering, trait anxiety, mindfulness mindset and state affect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContrary to our hypothesis, although state mindfulness was successfully induced, the mindfulness group did not exhibit improvements in working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition or mind-wandering when compared with the control group. Regarding individual differences, our findings did not support our hypotheses regarding the moderating effect of neuroticism, conscientiousness or extraversion. However, results did confirm that trait mindfulness plays a role. More specifically, the sub-facet of trait mindfulness \u0026lsquo;describing\u0026rsquo; moderated the impact of the mindfulness induction on working memory and cognitive inhibition: participants with lower levels of describing benefited most in terms of working memory, while participants with higher levels of describing earned the most on cognitive inhibition. Although these results show the opposite direction, they highlight the specific potential role of mindfulness trait describing in the immediate effects of mindfulness practice on executive functioning. The results also demonstrated that the impact of the mindfulness condition on working memory depended on the levels of the mindfulness trait observing and the personality trait imagination: at lower levels of these traits a brief mindfulness exercise was most beneficial. These results are in line with previous findings showing that the effect of mindfulness practice depends on certain personality traits (Norris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Teng \u0026amp; Lien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Watier \u0026amp; Dubois, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), however, the specific role of trait imagination is novel. Finally, the effect on cognitive inhibition varied according to the level of state negative affect: mindfulness exercise seems to have the opposite effect at higher levels of state negative affect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the hypothesis that a short mindfulness induction could enhance performance in EFs, and mind-wandering, our results did not confirm this. This is different from some previous findings (Gorman \u0026amp; Green, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Keng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), although it confirms the conclusions of the meta-analysis of Gill and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The absence of such main effects may be attributable to individual differences in the effect, in fact, our results highlighted some moderators of these effects. This is in line with previous findings that the effects of mindfulness induction are attenuated by baseline traits in the samples (Tanaka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). An alternative explanation for the absence of main effects is that the mindfulness state induced by mindfulness induction might be too short, and it likely provided insufficient dosage or duration to engage the following cognitive tasks (Gill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Khatri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This is speculated because the long-term effects of mindfulness interventions clearly show benefits on cognitive functions and attention (Mrazek, Franklin, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Whitfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTrait mindfulness\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile we expected trait mindfulness to moderate the efficacy of a brief mindfulness exercise on cognitive performance, according to the mixed results, we had no expectation regarding the direction of this moderation. Additionally, we inspected results according to the five sub-facets of trait mindfulness in the present study. We found that participants with higher levels of the mindfulness trait describing benefitted most in terms of inhibition, while the ones with lower levels benefitted most in regard to working memory. Additionally, individuals with lower levels of the mindfulness trait observing benefited on working memory. This is in contrast to previous non-significant findings regarding trait mindfulness moderating the effects on working memory (Noone \u0026amp; Hogan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and affirms the previous mixed results regarding the direction of this moderation (Laurent et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nagy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Oberleiter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Palmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Scheps \u0026amp; Walsh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Watier \u0026amp; Dubois, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, it seems that the role of trait mindfulness might be more specific - with certain sub-facets being central - and more complex - with different effects on different outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mindfulness trait describing is defined as individuals\u0026rsquo; ability of labelling/naming internal thoughts or feelings, and the ability of noticing internal and external experiences. It has been shown to be related to inhibitory control: higher describing scores are associated with lower Stroop interference scores, that is, better inhibitory control (Josefsson \u0026amp; Broberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, there is a positive correlation between observing, describing and working memory: people with higher trait mindfulness perform better in cognitive task than those with lower trait mindfulness in stress situations (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Neuroscience research also supports this association, showing that the describing facet of trait mindfulness is positively linked to the volume of the anterior insula, a critical function of executive control (Molnar-Szakacs \u0026amp; Uddin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Treves et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). According to this, participants with higher baseline levels of describing and observing were the ones who benefited from the mindfulness induction on inhibition and working memory, our results shows that the ones with higher describing could benefit more from mindfulness induction on inhibition, but those with lower describing and observing benefited on working memory. Similar to our result on inhibition, Tanaka and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that an open monitoring mindfulness induction was more beneficial for individuals with higher performance on attentional network tasks. Further research is needed to clarify the exact role of the mindfulness trait description.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis result contradicts the common belief that people with higher trait mindfulness may more readily engage in mindfulness induction to follow instructions, especially in the early phases, and derive greater benefits (Keng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Teng \u0026amp; Lien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A possible explanation for the differing effects of mindfulness on describing and observing facets of trait mindfulness and working memory versus inhibition is that mindfulness practice might not directly improve working memory but may enhance it indirectly through improved attention and inhibition control (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Yakobi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals with higher levels of observation may overfocus on unrelated tasks, leading to more errors in inhibition (Lin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This result is in line with the similar findings from Geiser et al. (2018) that mindfulness priming effects are stronger for individuals less accustomed to the primed strategies (the skills gained from mindfulness practice). Specifically, individuals with lower levels of trait mindfulness might exhibit more pronounced benefits from mindfulness priming because they lack habitual access to strategies developed through mindfulness practice and are more sensitive to mindfulness instructions. This could result in a stronger response to mindfulness induction. This suggests that the priming effect from short mindfulness inductions can be particularly effective for individuals with lower baseline engagement, characterized by diminished describing and observing in working memory tasks. According to cognitive load theory (CLT), individuals can adjust the effort they exert based on task complexity and their goals (de Bruin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Lajoie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Given that the 2-back task used to measure working memory were relatively simple for most participants in this study\u0026mdash;as indicated by their high accuracy\u0026mdash;it is speculated that individuals with higher describing and observing abilities might allocate more cognitive resources to noticing and labelling their internal thoughts and experiences, thus reducing their available resources for controlling unrelated task performance. Due to the limited capacity of working memory and cognitive resources (Oberauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), people with higher describing and observing benefit less from short mindfulness induction. The research by Zhang et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR120\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), which investigates the impact of task complexity and trait mindfulness on task performance, suggests that trait mindfulness is positively correlated with task performance among individuals engaged in high-complexity tasks. Given that the cognitive tasks in this study were not complex, this could explain the observed negative trend in descriptive traits and task performance in the mindfulness induction group. It appears that for people with a higher ability to notice and label their feelings, the cost of mindfulness induction may be outweighed by the benefits when the task is relatively easy and short.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the complex feature of observing in trait mindfulness skills may result in a directional difference. In meditators, trait mindful observing is negatively related to non-reactivity, which suggests that individuals with higher levels of observing may be unable to distance themselves from overwhelming thoughts. This implies they may expend more cognitive resources on internal or external thoughts (Lilja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Given that this study includes over 60% of participants with previous meditation experience, and the mindfulness induction is very brief yet includes instructions that prompt participants to notice their thoughts, it is not difficult to understand why those with higher observation might benefit less in terms of working memory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eImagination- Big five Personality moderates the effect of mindfulness condition on working memory\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn examining the main effect of the interaction between imagination and group condition on working memory, our results show a tendency for individuals with lower levels of imagination to benefit more from mindfulness induction, as indicated by increasing working memory scores with decreasing levels of imagination. Imagination, reflecting an individual\u0026rsquo;s capacity for creative thinking and openness to new experiences, is a strong predictor of the personality trait 'openness', which is sometimes used interchangeably with 'openness' in personality descriptions (Sassenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Woolley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Cross-cultural network analyses and meta-analyses have established that openness correlates significantly with the observing sub-facet of trait mindfulness (Hanley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Roemer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), and higher levels of openness are associated with better working memory performance in older adults (Luchetti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sharp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). These findings are inconsistent with current research, suggesting that brief mindfulness inductions may shift the direction of this relationship. Such a change could be explained within the framework of personality theory. People with higher levels of imagination engage in divergent thinking and adopt more creative problem-solving approaches, differing from mindfulness practices that encourage focusing on the current task in a very short time (Swift et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the strong association between imagination and the observing facet of mindfulness, as previously mentioned, may influence cognitive performance in the meditators' group. Individuals with higher imagination are likely to allocate more cognitive resources to alternative problem-solving methods or deeper processing of experiences. Concurrently, these individuals may also direct substantial resources towards managing challenging tasks. However, the 2-back task employed in this study may not have posed sufficient challenge for those with higher imagination, potentially explaining that short mindfulenss indcution seems to benefit more for those with lower level of imagination (Smillie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNegative state affect moderates the effect of mindfulness condition on cognitive inhibition\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin the mindfulness group, as negative state emotion increases, the RT of cognitive inhibition increasing, indicating poorer inhibitory control ability, and it appears that people who are engaged in more negative state mood experience less benefits from mindfulness induction. Although previous studies have lacked exploration of the moderating effect of state mood in mindfulness induction, existing research has found a negative relationship between negative mood and cognitive performance. For instance, Dolcos and McCarthy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that negative emotions could distract individuals' attention from the task at hand, thereby hindering cognitive performance. Evidence from brain ERPs further supports this, indicating that negative emotions interfere with cognitive performance by consuming substantial cognitive resources during initial processing. As a result, the brain requires additional resources to enhance cognitive control in subsequent tasks (Yang K. et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR117\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Despite many forms of mindfulness practice being proven effective in reducing anxiety and depression\u0026mdash;forms of negative emotion (Geisler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Khoury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Rodrigues et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), the increased state mindfulness observed in the mindfulness group suggests that mindfulness may initially heighten awareness of negative emotions. Short mindfulness inductions might improve the ability to focus on internal thoughts and feelings, enhancing self-awareness. This heightened self-awareness could lead individuals to report higher levels of negative emotions due to increased attention to internal negative states, thereby leading to less benefit in cognitive inhibition tasks. This is consistent with the interference effect, which posits that negative emotions reduce attentional resources and subsequently impact performance in tasks requiring cognitive inhibition, such as switching task in this study (H. Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR116\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is important to consider that mindfulness practices, particularly short-term inductions, may initially increase individuals' awareness of their negative emotional states before any ameliorative effects are realized. This heightened awareness might temporarily impair cognitive functions that rely on attentional resources and inhibitory control. Therefore, when assessing the impact of mindfulness on cognitive inhibition, it is crucial to account for the potential moderating effects of state mood and the duration of mindfulness practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings are important because they suggest that the efficacy of mindfulness induction may depend on certain mindfulness and personality traits of the participants, indicating that mindfulness induction may not be equally effective for everyone, at least as far as cognitive performance is concerned. This highlights the need to consider individual differences when recommending or practicing mindfulness to improve effectiveness, adherence and cost-effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLimitations\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are areas for improvement in this research. Firstly, we used a moderate-sized effect for statistical power calculations, so the present study did not have enough power to detect small effect sizes. Thus, non-significant results should be interpreted with caution because those might in fact reflect small effects. Additionally, due to instability in the experimental platform, there was a difference in sample sizes between the experimental and control groups and this may have reduced statistical power. Secondly, the observation sub-scale used in this study demonstrated very low reliability, which may affect the trustworthiness of the corresponding results\u0026mdash;a problem also noted in other studies. Future research could employ a longer version of the trait mindfulness scale, which might offer better reliability. Then, the cognitive tasks used in the study seem easy for the university samples, it is advisable to employ more complex cognitive tasks with more trials to avoid ceiling effects. By increasing task difficulty and trial numbers, researchers can obtain more sensitive and distinguishable results among participants, allowing for a more accurate assessment of cognitive changes resulting from mindfulness induction. Future research may also consider implementing longer-term or repeated mindfulness sessions to investigate the lasting effects and cumulative benefits of mindfulness practice. Applying multiple sessions over time may provide deeper insights into how sustained mindfulness influences cognitive functions and how it interplays with personality traits. Analyzing such moderation effects in mindfulness novice sample and experienced sample separately are also recommended, even this exploratory failed to find the moderating effect of previous mindfulness mediation experience. It is also worth noting that this research is exploratory, so the results require more robust evidence to enhance their validity and generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study investigated how individual differences during mindfulness induction moderate its effects on executive functions (EFs), specifically working memory, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive inhibition in addition to mind-wandering. The results suggest that although the induction was successful, it did not have a main effect on EFs and mind-wandering. However, the mindfulness traits describing and observing and the personality trait imagination were found to moderate the effect of mindfulness on working memory, while negative mood state and trait description moderated the effect on cognitive inhibition. It appears that a short mindfulness induction is more useful for those with lower trait describing, trait observing and imagination on working memory. In terms of inhibitory control, it was not useful for those with a high level of negative mood state, but it was more beneficial to those with higher mindfulness trait describing. There was no evidence to suggest that either other mindfulness or personality traits, including acting with awareness, non-judgmental attitude, non-reactivity, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, or mindfulness mindset, trait anxiety or trait mind-wandering moderated the effects on EFs or mind-wandering. Results highlight that brief mindfulness inductions do not have the same benefits for everyone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first author led all aspects of the project, including conceptualization, methodology design, data collection, formal analysis, visualization, writing and editing draft. The second author supervised the project and provided feedback on manuscript revisions. The third author provided supervision throughout the project and contributed to the review and editing of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank MSc students for their assistance with data collection: Ariana McSweeney, Benaisha Katrak, Calvin Chia, Ilbay Devin Doruk, Jacek Laaser, Ladislav Rypar, Lin Wang, Marlene Ohly, Ning Ying, Nuoqi Dai, Philip Bleach, Qi Pan, Selena Jiang, Siyi Lin, Siyi Liu, Varshini Duvvuru, Victoria Mooney, Yisi Leng.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAinsworth, B., Eddershaw, R., Meron, D., Baldwin, D. S., \u0026amp; Garner, M. (2013). The effect of focused attention and open monitoring meditation on attention network function in healthy volunteers. \u003cem\u003ePsychiatry Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e210\u003c/em\u003e(3), 1226\u0026ndash;1231. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlthouse, A. D. (2016). Adjust for Multiple Comparisons? It\u0026rsquo;s Not That Simple. \u003cem\u003eThe Annals of Thoracic Surgery\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e101\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1644\u0026ndash;1645. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2015.11.024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.athoracsur.2015.11.024\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArmstrong, R. A. (2014). When to use the Bonferroni correction. \u003cem\u003eOphthalmic and Physiological Optics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(5), 502\u0026ndash;508. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12131\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/opo.12131\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaer, R. A., Smith, G. T., \u0026amp; Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: The kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. \u003cem\u003eAssessment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(3), 191\u0026ndash;206. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104268029\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/1073191104268029\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., \u0026amp; Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. \u003cem\u003eAssessment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(1), 27\u0026ndash;45. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/1073191105283504\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBanks, J. B., Jha, A. P., Hood, A. V. B., Goller, H. G., \u0026amp; Craig, L. L. (2019). Reducing the TUTs that hurt: The impact of a brief mindfulness induction on emotionally valenced mind wandering. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Cognitive Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e31\u003c/em\u003e(8), 785\u0026ndash;799. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2019.1676759\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/20445911.2019.1676759\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaranski, M. F. S. (2021). 009_No state effects of brief mindfulness meditation on the executive functions of inhibition, shifting, and updating. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Cognitive Enhancement\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(3), 311\u0026ndash;329. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-020-00198-w\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s41465-020-00198-w\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBarner, C. P., \u0026amp; Barner, R. W. (2011). \u003cem\u003eMindfulness, Openness to Experience, and Transformational Learning\u003c/em\u003e. Oxford University Press. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199736300.013.0087\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199736300.013.0087\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBettis, A. H., Coiro, M. J., England, J., Murphy, L. K., Zelkowitz, R. L., Dejardins, L., Eskridge, R., Adery, L. H., Yarboi, J., Pardo, D., \u0026amp; Compas, B. E. (2017). Comparison of two approaches to prevention of mental health problems in college students: Enhancing coping and executive function skills. \u003cem\u003eJournal of American College Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e65\u003c/em\u003e(5), 313\u0026ndash;322. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1312411\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/07448481.2017.1312411\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBravo, A. J., Boothe, L. G., \u0026amp; Pearson, M. R. (2016). Getting Personal with Mindfulness: A Latent Profile Analysis of Mindfulness and Psychological Outcomes. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e(2), 420\u0026ndash;432. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0459-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-015-0459-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBravo, A. J., Pearson, M. R., Wilson, A. D., \u0026amp; Witkiewitz, K. (2018). When traits match states: Examining the associations between self-report trait and state mindfulness following a state mindfulness induction. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(1), 199\u0026ndash;211. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0763-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-017-0763-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBrose, A., Schmiedek, F., L\u0026ouml;vd\u0026eacute;n, M., \u0026amp; Lindenberger, U. (2012). Daily variability in working memory is coupled with negative affect: The role of attention and motivation. \u003cem\u003eEmotion\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(3), 605\u0026ndash;617. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0024436\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/a0024436\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBrown, K. W., Goodman, R. J., Ryan, R. M., \u0026amp; Anālayo, B. (2016). Mindfulness Enhances Episodic Memory Performance: Evidence from a Multimethod Investigation. \u003cem\u003ePLOS ONE\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(4), e0153309. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153309\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0153309\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBrown, K. W., \u0026amp; Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Personality and Social Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e84\u003c/em\u003e(4), 822\u0026ndash;848. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCaldera, C. (2017). \u003cem\u003eComparing the effects of mindfulness meditation and relaxation in a brief laboratory induction\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://uknowledge.uky.edu/psychology_etds/106\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://uknowledge.uky.edu/psychology_etds/106\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCrane, R. S., Brewer, J., Feldman, C., Kabat-Zinn, J., Santorelli, S., Williams, J. M. G., \u0026amp; Kuyken, W. (2017). What defines mindfulness-based programs? The warp and the weft. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Medicine\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e(6), 990\u0026ndash;999. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716003317\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0033291716003317\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDarlington, R. B., \u0026amp; Hayes, A. F. (2016). Detecting and Managing Irregularities. \u003cem\u003eRegression analysis and linear models: Concepts, applications, and implementation\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 480\u0026ndash;518). Guilford.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDarlington, R. B., \u0026amp; Hayes, A. F. (2017). Multiple Tests. \u003cem\u003eRegression analysis and linear models: Concepts, applications, and implementation\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 311\u0026ndash;339). Guilford Press.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ede Bruin, A. B. H., Roelle, J., Carpenter, S. K., \u0026amp; Baars, M. (2020). Synthesizing Cognitive Load and Self-regulation Theory: A Theoretical Framework and Research Agenda. \u003cem\u003eEducational Psychology Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e32\u003c/em\u003e(4), 903\u0026ndash;915. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09576-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10648-020-09576-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ede Vibe, M., Solhaug, I., Tyssen, R., Friborg, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., S\u0026oslash;rlie, T., Halland, E., \u0026amp; Bj\u0026oslash;rndal, A. (2015). Does Personality Moderate the Effects of Mindfulness Training for Medical and Psychology Students? \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(2), 281\u0026ndash;289. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0258-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-013-0258-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDiamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. \u003cem\u003eAnnual Review of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e64\u003c/em\u003e, 135\u0026ndash;168. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDing, Y., Li, D., Li, X., Xiao, J., Zhang, H., \u0026amp; Wang, Y. (2020). Profiles of adolescent traditional and cyber bullying and victimization: The role of demographic, individual, family, school, and peer factors. \u003cem\u003eComputers in Human Behavior\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e111\u003c/em\u003e, 106439. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106439\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.chb.2020.106439\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eD\u0026rsquo;Mello, S. K., \u0026amp; Mills, C. S. (2021). Mind wandering during reading: An interdisciplinary and integrative review of psychological, computing, and intervention research and theory. \u003cem\u003eLanguage and Linguistics Compass\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(4), e12412. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12412\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/lnc3.12412\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDolcos, F., \u0026amp; McCarthy, G. (2006). Brain Systems Mediating Cognitive Interference by Emotional Distraction. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(7), 2072\u0026ndash;2079. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5042-05.2006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5042-05.2006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDonnellan, M. B., Oswald, F. L., Baird, B. M., \u0026amp; Lucas, R. E. (2006). The mini-IPIP scales: Tiny-yet-effective measures of the Big Five factors of personality. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Assessment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(2), 192\u0026ndash;203. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.192\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.192\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFeng, S., D\u0026rsquo;Mello, S., \u0026amp; Graesser, A. C. (2013). Mind wandering while reading easy and difficult texts. \u003cem\u003ePsychonomic Bulletin \u0026amp; Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e(3), 586\u0026ndash;592. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-012-0367-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3758/s13423-012-0367-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFernandes, B. (2017). \u003cem\u003eExecutive Functions, Emotion Regulation and Mental Health Problems in Children and Adolescents\u003c/em\u003e. University of Roehampton.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eField, A., Miles, J., \u0026amp; Field, Z. (2014). Comparing two means. \u003cem\u003eDiscovering statistics using R\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 359\u0026ndash;397). Sage. Repr.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFriedman, N. P., \u0026amp; Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. \u003cem\u003eCortex; A Journal Devoted To The Study Of The Nervous System And Behavior\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e86\u003c/em\u003e, 186\u0026ndash;204. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGeisler, F. C. M., Bechtoldt, M. N., Oberl\u0026auml;nder, N., \u0026amp; Schacht-Jablonowsky, M. (2018). The benefits of a mindfulness exercise in a performance situation. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Reports\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e121\u003c/em\u003e(5), 853\u0026ndash;876. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117740135\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0033294117740135\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGill, L. N., Renault, R., Campbell, E., Rainville, P., \u0026amp; Khoury, B. (2020). Mindfulness induction and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eConsciousness and Cognition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e84\u003c/em\u003e, 102991. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2020.102991\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.concog.2020.102991\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGiluk, T. L. (2009). Mindfulness, Big Five personality, and affect: A meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Individual Differences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e(8), 805\u0026ndash;811. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.026\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.026\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGodwin, C. A., Hunter, M. A., Bezdek, M. A., Lieberman, G., Elkin-Frankston, S., Romero, V. L., Witkiewitz, K., Clark, V. P., \u0026amp; Schumacher, E. H. (2017). Functional connectivity within and between intrinsic brain networks correlates with trait mind wandering. \u003cem\u003eNeuropsychologia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e103\u003c/em\u003e, 140\u0026ndash;153. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoldberg, L. R. (1992). \u003cem\u003eThe Development of Markers for the Big-Five Factor Structure\u003c/em\u003e. 26\u0026ndash;42. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://oce-ovid-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/article/00012030-199203000-00006/HTML\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://oce-ovid-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/article/00012030-199203000-00006/HTML\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoldberg, S. B., Flook, L., Hirshberg, M. J., Davidson, R. J., \u0026amp; Schaefer, S. M. (2021). Brief breath awareness training yields poorer working memory performance in the context of acute stress. \u003cem\u003eCognition and Emotion\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e35\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1009\u0026ndash;1017. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1878113\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/02699931.2021.1878113\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGorman, T. E., \u0026amp; Green, C. S. (2016). Short-term mindfulness intervention reduces the negative attentional effects associated with heavy media multitasking. \u003cem\u003eScientific Reports\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(1), 24542. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/srep24542\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/srep24542\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHanley, A. W., De Vibe, M., Solhaug, I., Gonzalez-Pons, K., \u0026amp; Garland, E. L. (2019). Mindfulness training reduces neuroticism over a 6-year longitudinal randomized control trial in norwegian medical and psychology students. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Research in Personality\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e82\u003c/em\u003e, 103859. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103859\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103859\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHayes, A. F. (2022). \u003cem\u003eIntroduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach, third edition\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., \u0026amp; Meier, B. (2010). The concurrent validity of the \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e -back task as a working memory measure. \u003cem\u003eMemory (Hove, England)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(4), 394\u0026ndash;412. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/09658211003702171\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/09658211003702171\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJaiswal, S., Muggleton, N. G., Juan, C. H., \u0026amp; Liang, W. K. (2019). Indices of association between anxiety and mindfulness: A guide for future mindfulness studies. \u003cem\u003ePersonality Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e, e9. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2019.12\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/pen.2019.12\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJohannes, N., Veling, H., Dora, J., Meier, A., Reinecke, L., \u0026amp; Buijzen, M. (2018). Mind-wandering and mindfulness as mediators of the relationship between online vigilance and well-being. \u003cem\u003eCyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(12), 761\u0026ndash;767. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0373\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1089/cyber.2018.0373\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJosefsson, T., \u0026amp; Broberg, A. (2011). Meditators and non-meditators on sustained and executive attentional performance. \u003cem\u003eMental Health Religion \u0026amp; Culture\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(3), 291\u0026ndash;309. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/13674670903578621\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/13674670903578621\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKabat-Zinn, J. (2003a). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. \u003cem\u003eClinical Psychology: Science and Practice\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(2), 144\u0026ndash;156. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/clipsy.bpg016\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKabat-Zinn, J. (2003b). \u003cem\u003eMindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(9), 73. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.proquest.com/openview/fef538e3ed2210c1201ef2a946faed43/1?pq-origsite=gscholar\u0026amp;cbl=29080\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.proquest.com/openview/fef538e3ed2210c1201ef2a946faed43/1?pq-origsite=gscholar\u0026amp;cbl=29080\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKeng, S. L., Robins, C. J., Smoski, M. J., Dagenbach, J., \u0026amp; Leary, M. R. (2013). Reappraisal and mindfulness: A comparison of subjective effects and cognitive costs. \u003cem\u003eBehaviour Research and Therapy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e51\u003c/em\u003e(12), 899\u0026ndash;904. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.10.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.brat.2013.10.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKeng, S. L., Seah, S. T. H., Tong, E. M. W., \u0026amp; Smoski, M. (2016). Effects of brief mindful acceptance induction on implicit dysfunctional attitudes and concordance between implicit and explicit dysfunctional attitudes. \u003cem\u003eBehaviour Research and Therapy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e83\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;10. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.05.004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.brat.2016.05.004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhatri, R. A., Baumgartner, N. W., Noh, K., Ullrich-French, S., Schmitt, S., Wang, C., \u0026amp; Kao, S. (2024). Mindfulness induction and executive function after high‐intensity interval training with and without mindful recovery intervals. \u003cem\u003eScandinavian Journal of Medicine \u0026amp; Science in Sports\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(1), e14558. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14558\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/sms.14558\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhoury, B., Sharma, M., Rush, S. E., \u0026amp; Fournier, C. (2015). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Psychosomatic Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e78\u003c/em\u003e(6), 519\u0026ndash;528. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKiken, L. G., Garland, E. L., Bluth, K., Palsson, O. S., \u0026amp; Gaylord, S. A. (2015). From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Individual Differences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e81\u003c/em\u003e, 41\u0026ndash;46. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKillingsworth, M. A., \u0026amp; Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e330\u003c/em\u003e(6006), 932\u0026ndash;932. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.1192439\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1126/science.1192439\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKrick, A., \u0026amp; Felfe, J. (2020). Who benefits from mindfulness? The moderating role of personality and social norms for the effectiveness on psychological and physiological outcomes among police officers. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Occupational Health Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e(2), 99\u0026ndash;112. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000159\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/ocp0000159\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLaurent, H. K., Laurent, S. M., Nelson, B., Wright, D. B., \u0026amp; De Araujo Sanchez, M. A. (2015). Dispositional mindfulness moderates the effect of a brief mindfulness induction on physiological stress responses. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1192\u0026ndash;1200. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0377-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-014-0377-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeyland, A., Emerson, L. M., \u0026amp; Rowse, G. (2018). Testing for an effect of a mindfulness induction on child executive functions. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(6), 1807\u0026ndash;1815. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0923-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-018-0923-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeyland, A., Rowse, G., \u0026amp; Emerson, L. M. (2019). Experimental effects of mindfulness inductions on self-regulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eEmotion\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(1), 108\u0026ndash;122. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000425\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/emo0000425\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, Y., Yang, N., Zhang, Y., Xu, W., \u0026amp; Cai, L. (2021). The Relationship Among Trait Mindfulness, Attention, and Working Memory in Junior School Students Under Different Stressful Situations. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558690\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558690\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLilja, J. L., Lundh, L. G., Josefsson, T., \u0026amp; Falkenstr\u0026ouml;m, F. (2013). Observing as an Essential Facet of Mindfulness: A Comparison of FFMQ Patterns in Meditating and Non-Meditating Individuals. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(3), 203\u0026ndash;212. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0111-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-012-0111-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLin, Y., Fisher, M. E., \u0026amp; Moser, J. S. (2019). Clarifying the relationship between mindfulness and executive attention: A combined behavioral and neurophysiological study. \u003cem\u003eSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(2), 205\u0026ndash;215. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsy113\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/scan/nsy113\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuchetti, M., Terracciano, A., Stephan, Y., Aschwanden, D., \u0026amp; Sutin, A. R. (2021). Personality traits and memory: A multilevel analysis across 27 countries from the survey of health, ageing and retirement in europe. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e32\u003c/em\u003e(7), 1047\u0026ndash;1057. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0956797621993101\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0956797621993101\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., \u0026amp; Davidson, R. J. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. \u003cem\u003eTrends in Cognitive Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(4), 163\u0026ndash;169. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMatko, K., Bergh\u0026ouml;fer, A., Jeitler, M., Sedlmeier, P., \u0026amp; Bringmann, H. C. (2022). Who benefits most? Interactions between personality traits and outcomes of four incremental meditation and yoga treatments. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Clinical Medicine\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(15), 4553. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11154553\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/jcm11154553\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMiyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., \u0026amp; Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex Frontal Lobe Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. \u003cem\u003eCognitive Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e41\u003c/em\u003e(1), 49\u0026ndash;100. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1006/cogp.1999.0734\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMolnar-Szakacs, I., \u0026amp; Uddin, L. Q. (2022). Anterior insula as a gatekeeper of executive control. \u003cem\u003eNeuroscience \u0026amp; Biobehavioral Reviews\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e139\u003c/em\u003e, 104736. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104736\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104736\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., \u0026amp; Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e(5), 776\u0026ndash;781. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612459659\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0956797612459659\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMrazek, M. D., Phillips, D. T., Franklin, M. S., Broadway, J. M., \u0026amp; Schooler, J. W. (2013). Young and restless: Validation of the mind-wandering questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind-wandering for youth. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00560\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00560\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., \u0026amp; Schooler, J. W. (2012). Mindfulness and mind-wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. \u003cem\u003eEmotion\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(3), 442\u0026ndash;448. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0026678\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/a0026678\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNagy, T., Sik, K., T\u0026ouml;r\u0026ouml;k, L., Bőthe, B., Takacs, Z. K., \u0026amp; Orosz, G. (2023). Brief Growth Mindset and Mindfulness Inductions to Facilitate Task Persistence After Negative Feedback. \u003cem\u003eCollabra: Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(1), 74253. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.74253\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1525/collabra.74253\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNoone, C., \u0026amp; Hogan, M. J. (2018). 012_Improvements in critical thinking performance following mindfulness meditation depend on thinking dispositions. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(2), 461\u0026ndash;473. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0789-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-017-0789-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNorris, C. J., Creem, D., Hendler, R., \u0026amp; Kober, H. (2018). 004_Brief mindfulness meditation improves attention in novices: Evidence from ERPs and moderation by neuroticism. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Human Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 315. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00315\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fnhum.2018.00315\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOberauer, K. (2019). Working Memory and Attention \u0026ndash; A Conceptual Analysis and Review. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Cognition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e(1), 36. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5334/joc.58\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5334/joc.58\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOberleiter, S., Wainig, H., Voracek, M., \u0026amp; Tran, U. S. (2022). No effects of a brief mindfulness intervention on controlled motivation and amotivation, but effect moderation through trait mindfulness: A randomized controlled trial. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(10), 2434\u0026ndash;2447. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01968-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-022-01968-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOrosz, G., T\u0026ouml;r\u0026ouml;k, L., Takacs, Z. K., Evans, K. M., Sik, K., Rigaud, K., G\u0026aacute;l, \u0026Eacute;., \u0026amp; Bőthe, B. (2024). Mindfulset\u0026mdash;Harnessing or unleashing learning potential through mindfulness mindset. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Educational Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e116\u003c/em\u003e(3), 466\u0026ndash;488. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000839\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/edu0000839\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePacheco-Unguetti, A. P., Acosta, A., Callejas, A., \u0026amp; Lupi\u0026aacute;\u0026ntilde;ez, J. (2010). Attention and anxiety: Different attentional functioning under state and trait anxiety. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(2), 298\u0026ndash;304. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609359624\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0956797609359624\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePalmer, R., Roos, C., Vafaie, N., \u0026amp; Kober, H. (2023). \u003cem\u003eThe effect of ten vs. Twenty minutes of mindfulness meditation on state mindfulness and affect\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2570008/v1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2570008/v1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePeng, P. (2023). The role of executive function in reading development and reading intervention. \u003cem\u003eMind Brain and Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(4), 246\u0026ndash;256. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12375\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/mbe.12375\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQuatrics (2024). Version (2024). [Computer software]. Qualtrics. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.qualtrics.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.qualtrics.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahl, H. A., Lindsay, E. K., Pacilio, L. E., Brown, K. W., \u0026amp; Creswell, J. D. (2017). Brief mindfulness meditation training reduces mind wandering: The critical role of acceptance. \u003cem\u003eEmotion\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(2), 224\u0026ndash;230. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000250\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/emo0000250\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eReed, P. (2019). 010_Previous mindfulness experience interacts with brief mindfulness induction when reducing stimulus overselectivity. \u003cem\u003eApplied Cognitive Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e33\u003c/em\u003e(2), 265\u0026ndash;271. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3474\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/acp.3474\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRemmers, C., Topolinski, S., \u0026amp; Koole, S. L. (2016). Why being mindful may have more benefits than you realize: Mindfulness improves both explicit and implicit mood regulation. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e(4), 829\u0026ndash;837. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0520-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-016-0520-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRodrigues, M. F., Nardi, A. E., \u0026amp; Levitan, M. (2017). Mindfulness in mood and anxiety disorders: A review of the literature. \u003cem\u003eTrends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e39\u003c/em\u003e(3), 207\u0026ndash;215. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2016-0051\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1590/2237-6089-2016-0051\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoemer, A., Cervin, M., Medvedeva, A., Bravo, A. J., \u0026amp; Medvedev, O. N. (2024). Big Five of Mindfulness and Personality: Cross-Cultural Network Analysis. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(1), 37\u0026ndash;47. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02293-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-023-02293-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRogers, R. D., \u0026amp; Monsell, S. (1995). Costs of a predictible switch between simple cognitive tasks. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Experimental Psychology: General\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e124\u003c/em\u003e(2), 207\u0026ndash;231. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.207\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.207\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRothman, K. J. (1990). No Adjustments Are Needed for Multiple Comparisons. \u003cem\u003eEpidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(1), 43\u0026ndash;46. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199001000-00010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1097/00001648-199001000-00010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSalavera, C., Urcola-Pardo, F., Us\u0026aacute;n, P., \u0026amp; Jarie, L. (2017). Translation and validation of the mind-wandering test for spanish adolescents. \u003cem\u003ePsicologia: Reflex\u0026atilde;o e Cr\u0026iacute;tica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(1), 12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-017-0066-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s41155-017-0066-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSassenberg, T. A., Condon, D. M., Christensen, A. P., \u0026amp; DeYoung, C. G. (2023). Imagination as a Facet of Openness/Intellect: A New Scale Differentiating Experiential Simulation and Conceptual Innovation. \u003cem\u003eCreativity Research Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e35\u003c/em\u003e(4), 583\u0026ndash;595. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2023.2177810\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/10400419.2023.2177810\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eScheps, M. H., \u0026amp; Walsh, J. (2020). The moderating effect of trait mindfulness on implicit racial bias following a brief mindfulness induction: A pilot study. \u003cem\u003eTranspersonal Psychology Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e22\u003c/em\u003e(1), Article 1. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://shop.bps.org.uk/transpersonal-psychology-review-vol-22-no-1-2020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://shop.bps.org.uk/transpersonal-psychology-review-vol-22-no-1-2020\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSesker, A. A., S\u0026uacute;illeabh\u0026aacute;in, P. \u0026Oacute;., Howard, S., \u0026amp; Hughes, B. M. (2016). Conscientiousness and mindfulness in midlife coping: An assessment based on MIDUS II: Anxiety stress and coping. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Mental Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(1), 29\u0026ndash;42. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1323\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/pmh.1323\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., \u0026amp; Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Clinical Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e62\u003c/em\u003e(3), 373\u0026ndash;386. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20237\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/jclp.20237\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSharp, E. S., Reynolds, C. A., Pedersen, N. L., \u0026amp; Gatz, M. (2010). Cognitive engagement and cognitive aging: Is openness protective? \u003cem\u003ePsychology and Aging\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e(1), 60\u0026ndash;73. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0018748\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/a0018748\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmallwood, J., \u0026amp; Schooler, J. W. (2015). The science of mind wandering: Empirically navigating the stream of consciousness. \u003cem\u003eAnnual Review of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e66\u003c/em\u003e(1), 487\u0026ndash;518. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmillie, L. D., Varsavsky, V., Avery, R. E., \u0026amp; Perry, R. (2016). Trait Intellect Predicts Cognitive Engagement: Evidence from a Resource Allocation Perspective. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Personality\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(3), 215\u0026ndash;226. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/per.2059\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/per.2059\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSoemer, A., \u0026amp; Schiefele, U. (2019). Text difficulty, topic interest, and mind wandering during reading. \u003cem\u003eLearning and Instruction\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e61\u003c/em\u003e, 12\u0026ndash;22. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.12.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.12.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ede Sousa, G. M., de Lima-Ara\u0026uacute;jo, G. L., de Ara\u0026uacute;jo, D. B., \u0026amp; de Sousa, M. B. C. (2021). Brief mindfulness-based training and mindfulness trait attenuate psychological stress in university students: A randomized controlled trial. \u003cem\u003eBMC Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(1), 21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00520-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s40359-021-00520-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P., \u0026amp; Jacobs, G. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y1 \u0026ndash; Y2). In \u003cem\u003ePalo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; Vol. IV\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStoet, G. (2010). PsyToolkit: A software package for programming psychological experiments using Linux. \u003cem\u003eBehavior Research Methods\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1096\u0026ndash;1104. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.4.1096\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3758/BRM.42.4.1096\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStoet, G. (2017). PsyToolkit: A Novel Web-Based Method for Running Online Questionnaires and Reaction-Time Experiments. \u003cem\u003eTeaching of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e(1), 24\u0026ndash;31. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316677643\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0098628316677643\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStrohmaier, S. (2020). The relationship between doses of mindfulness-based programs and depression, anxiety, stress, and mindfulness: A dose-response meta-regression of randomized controlled trials. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(6), 1315\u0026ndash;1335. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01319-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-020-01319-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSuelmann, H., Brouwers, A., \u0026amp; Snippe, E. (2018). Explaining variations in mindfulness levels in daily life. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(6), 1895\u0026ndash;1906. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0932-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-018-0932-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSwift, V., Wilson, K. E., \u0026amp; Peterson, J. B. (2020). Zooming in on the attentional foundations of the Big Five. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Individual Differences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e164\u003c/em\u003e, 110000. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110000\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.paid.2020.110000\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTanaka, M., Nakashima, R., Hiromitsu, K., \u0026amp; Imamizu, H. (2021). Individual differences in the change of attentional functions with brief one-time focused attention and open monitoring meditations. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 716138. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716138\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716138\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTanay, G., \u0026amp; Bernstein, A. (2013). State Mindfulness Scale (SMS): Development and initial validation. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Assessment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1286\u0026ndash;1299. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0034044\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/a0034044\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTang, R., \u0026amp; Braver, T. S. (2020a). Predicting individual preferences in mindfulness techniques using personality traits. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e, 1163. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01163\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01163\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTang, R., \u0026amp; Braver, T. S. (2020b). Towards an individual differences perspective in mindfulness training research: Theoretical and empirical considerations. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e, 818. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00818\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00818\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTeng, S. C., \u0026amp; Lien, Y. W. (2022). 007_Propensity or diversity? Investigating how mind wandering influences the incubation effect of creativity. \u003cem\u003ePLOS ONE\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(4), e0267187. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267187\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0267187\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTeper, R., \u0026amp; Inzlicht, M. (2013). Meditation, mindfulness and executive control: The importance of emotional acceptance and brain-based performance monitoring. \u003cem\u003eSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(1), 85\u0026ndash;92. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss045\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/scan/nss045\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThompson, E. R. (2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable short-form of the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS). \u003cem\u003eJournal of Cross-Cultural Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e38\u003c/em\u003e(2), 227\u0026ndash;242. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0022022106297301\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTreves, I. N., Pichappan, K., Hammoud, J., Bauer, C. C. C., Ehmann, S., Sacchet, M. D., \u0026amp; Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2024). The Mindful Brain: A Systematic Review of the Neural Correlates of Trait Mindfulness. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Cognitive Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e(11), 2518\u0026ndash;2555. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_02230\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1162/jocn_a_02230\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan den Hurk, P. A. M., Wingens, T., Giommi, F., Barendregt, H. P., Speckens, A. E. M., \u0026amp; van Schie, H. T. (2011). On the Relationship Between the Practice of Mindfulness Meditation and Personality\u0026mdash;An Exploratory Analysis of the Mediating Role of Mindfulness Skills. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e(3), 194\u0026ndash;200. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0060-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-011-0060-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVandierendonck, A., Liefooghe, B., \u0026amp; Verbruggen, F. (2010). Task switching: Interplay of reconfiguration and interference control. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e136\u003c/em\u003e(4), 601. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0019791\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/a0019791\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang, T., \u0026amp; Lajoie, S. P. (2023). How Does Cognitive Load Interact with Self-Regulated Learning? A Dynamic and Integrative Model. \u003cem\u003eEducational Psychology Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e35\u003c/em\u003e(3), 69. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09794-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10648-023-09794-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWatier, N., \u0026amp; Dubois, M. (2016). 008_The effects of a brief mindfulness exercise on executive attention and recognition memory. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e(3), 745\u0026ndash;753. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0514-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-016-0514-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWhitfield, T., Barnhofer, T., Acabchuk, R., Cohen, A., Lee, M., Schlosser, M., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Bottcher, A., Britton, W., Coll-Padros, N., Collette, F., Chetelat, G., Dautricourt, S., Demnitz-King, H., Dumais, T., Klimecki, O., Meiberth, D., Moulinet, I., Muller, T., \u0026amp; Marchant, N. L. (2021). The effect of mindfulness-based programs on cognitive function in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eNeuropsychology Review\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-021-09519-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11065-021-09519-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWinning, A. P., \u0026amp; Boag, S. (2015). Does brief mindfulness training increase empathy? The role of personality. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Individual Differences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e86\u003c/em\u003e, 492\u0026ndash;498. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWoolley, J. D., Bunce, L., \u0026amp; Boerger, E. A. (2020). Chapter 8\u0026mdash;Relations between imagination and creativity. In D. D. Preiss, D. Cosmelli, \u0026amp; J. C. Kaufman (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eCreativity and the Wandering Mind\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 181\u0026ndash;203). Academic Press. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128164006000080\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128164006000080\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu, M., Purdon, C., Seli, P., \u0026amp; Smilek, D. (2017). Mindfulness and mind wandering: The protective effects of brief meditation in anxious individuals. \u003cem\u003eConsciousness and Cognition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e51\u003c/em\u003e, 157\u0026ndash;165. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.03.009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.concog.2017.03.009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYakobi, O., Smilek, D., \u0026amp; Danckert, J. (2021). The effects of mindfulness meditation on attention, executive control and working memory in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. \u003cem\u003eCognitive Therapy and Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e(4), 543\u0026ndash;560. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10177-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10608-020-10177-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYang, H., Li, J., \u0026amp; Zheng, X. (2021). Different Influences of Negative and Neutral Emotional Interference on Working Memory in Trait Anxiety. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 570552. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570552\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570552\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYang, K., Zeng, Y., Tong, L., Hu, Y., Zhang, R., Li, Z., \u0026amp; Yan, B. (2023). Extremely negative emotion interferes with cognition: Evidence from ERPs and time-varying brain network. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Neuroscience Methods\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e396\u003c/em\u003e, 109922. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2023.109922\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jneumeth.2023.109922\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZabelina, D. L., Robinson, M. D., Ostafin, B. D., \u0026amp; Council, J. R. (2011). Manipulating Mindfulness Benefits Creative Elaboration at High Levels of Neuroticism. \u003cem\u003eEmpirical Studies of the Arts\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e29\u003c/em\u003e(2), 243\u0026ndash;255. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2190/EM.29.2.g\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2190/EM.29.2.g\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., \u0026amp; Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. \u003cem\u003eConsciousness and Cognition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(2), 597\u0026ndash;605. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang, J., Ding, W., Li, Y., \u0026amp; Wu, C. (2013). Task complexity matters: The influence of trait mindfulness on task and safety performance of nuclear power plant operators. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Individual Differences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e55\u003c/em\u003e(4), 433\u0026ndash;439. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mindfulness induction, individual differences, executive functions, mind-wandering","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7100595/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7100595/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eShort mindfulness inductions might be expected to have beneficial effects on executive functions and mind-wandering; however, the empirical results are mixed. This might be explained by individual differences in the effect. This study aims to examine the impact of a 10-minute-long mindfulness induction on executive functions and mind-wandering to assess whether the effects are moderated by individual differences, including trait mindfulness, Big Five personality traits, trait anxiety, trait mind-wandering, mindfulness mindset and baseline mood state in addition to previous mindfulness meditation experience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants were randomly assigned to either a brief mindfulness exercise condition or an audio book listening control condition. Executive functions were assessed using cognitive tasks, while mind-wandering was measured through a reading task with probe-caught questions. Moderator variables included various dispositional traits and baseline mood state.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mindfulness induction successfully induced a temporary state of mindfulness but did not yield overall improvements in executive functions or mind-wandering. However, moderation analyses revealed that mindfulness traits such as description and observation, the personality trait of imagination and baseline negative mood state moderated the effects on working memory and cognitive inhibition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of mindfulness inductions on cognitive performance do depend on individual differences. This underscores the importance of considering personal traits when evaluating the cognitive effects of mindfulness inductions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"For Whom Does a Brief Mindfulness Induction Work? An exploration of the moderating role of individual differences in the effect of mindfulness induction on executive functioning and mind-wandering","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-23 02:27:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7100595/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c1baf82e-0739-4f25-a4f8-80076d80bcf7","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-28T17:59:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-23 02:27:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7100595","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7100595","identity":"rs-7100595","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}