Severe PTSD symptoms magnify episodic memory-encoding deficits and amygdala–ACC attenuation during unpredictable threat

Severe PTSD symptoms magnify episodic memory-encoding deficits and amygdala–ACC attenuation during unpredictable threat | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Severe PTSD symptoms magnify episodic memory-encoding deficits and amygdala–ACC attenuation during unpredictable threat Kristoffer Aberg, Shai Efrati, Sagi Idan, Rachel Merzbach, Rony Paz, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8762666/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract PTSD is marked by atypical coupling between emotion and learning, yet it remains unclear how threat that is situational (the presence of potential danger) shapes episodic memory. We investigated whether unpredictability-driven threat alters incidental memory formation as a function of PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss). Sixty male combat veterans underwent fMRI scanning during incidental encoding of everyday objects presented under unpredictable threat (U), predictable threat (P), or no threat (N). Threat was operationalized as potential exposure to a highly aversive sound. An unexpected recognition test followed 90 minutes later. We related memory (hit rates), subjective anxiety, and encoding-related BOLD activity to PTSDss assessed with CAPS-5. Greater PTSDss predicted heightened anxiety and poorer memory for items specifically presented under unpredictable threat. While amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate activity during encoding tracked overall memory success, these responses were attenuated with increasing PTSDss in the U condition. By linking unpredictable threat to both behavioral and neural markers of disrupted episodic memory encoding, the study helps explain how memory-related symptoms may develop and persist in PTSD. Health sciences/Diseases/Psychiatric disorders Biological sciences/Neuroscience Biological sciences/Psychology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental health disorder that can develop after exposure to extreme trauma (e.g., war, interpersonal violence, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse). PTSD symptoms include heightened psychological and physiological distress when exposed to trauma reminders, hyperarousal, avoidance of trauma-related cues, dissociation, and memory-related symptoms such as intrusive trauma memories and peritraumatic amnesia 1 . The formation of maladaptive trauma memories in PTSD is often attributed to abnormal interactions between memory processes and intense negative emotions, feelings, and bodily sensations experienced during trauma (e.g., fear, anxiety, pain) 2 , 3 . Laboratory studies provide substantial support for this view. In fear conditioning, a neutral cue (e.g., picture, sound) is repeatedly paired with an aversive event (e.g., electric shock, monetary loss), and the now ‘fear-conditioned’ cue comes to elicit defensive responses and behavioral avoidance 4 . PTSD is associated with enhanced fear learning and impaired fear extinction (for a review, see 5 ). In “one-shot” learning paradigms, stimuli (e.g., pictures, words) are encoded once and later assessed in a memory test phase 6 , 7 . Such designs suggest that PTSD is associated with enhanced memory for negative information (for a review, see 8 ). A limitation shared by these paradigms is that emotional responses are tightly linked to discrete stimuli or events: the fear-conditioned cue, the shock, or a negative image. In real life, however, emotions can also arise from broader contexts and situations. For example, threatening environments can produce sustained anxiety even in the absence of a specific aversive event 9 , 10 . Because many traumatic experiences are preceded and followed by prolonged negative affect (e.g., anxiety upon entering a combat zone) 11 , sustained, contextually induced emotional states may interact with episodic memory processes. Individuals with PTSD may be particularly vulnerable to such effects. Yet, despite its ecological plausibility, no study has directly tested whether and how contextually evoked emotions influence memory encoding as a function of PTSD symptom severity. A powerful approach for studying contextual effects of threat on behavior and cognition is the threat-of-shock paradigm. Participants are exposed to contexts in which an aversive stimulus (e.g., electric shock or uncomfortable sound) is either (P)redictable (delivered only following a cue/event), (U)npredictable (delivered at any time), or will (N)ot occur 9 , 10 . Because threat is manipulated at the contextual level, neurobehavioral differences between conditions reflect different threat states rather than emotional responses tied to specific stimuli. Threat-of-shock paradigms are particularly relevant for PTSD because PTSD and related fear-based internalizing disorders show modulations that are often strongest in U conditions 12 (for a review, see 13 ). For example, startle eye-blink potentiation, a physiological marker of defensive responding and anxiety, was elevated in PTSD during unpredictable threat (relative to predictable or safe contexts), whereas this pattern was not observed in healthy controls or patients with generalized anxiety disorder 14 . Notably, studies report both positive and negative associations between PTSD symptoms and startle responses in U conditions 14 – 17 , and this directionality may depend on trauma type. One study found that PTSD related to interpersonal trauma was associated with increased startle in unpredictable threat, whereas PTSD related to other trauma types was associated with attenuated startle 16 . These findings highlight that PTSD-related responses to unpredictability may not be uniform across trauma exposures. Threat-of-shock manipulations impact cognitive performance across a range of tasks (for a review, see 9 ), but relatively few studies have examined episodic memory. A robust finding is reduced recognition memory for faces encoded under unpredictable threat 18 – 20 . This raises a central question: is memory encoding under unpredictable threat further impaired in individuals who show heightened sensitivity to unpredictability, such as individuals with elevated PTSD symptoms? While inter-individual differences (e.g., trait anxiety) can modulate the effects of threat-of-shock on cognition 21 – 24 , comparable modulations have not been clearly demonstrated for episodic memory performance, and have not been tested as a function of PTSD symptom severity. However, neurobiological evidence supports the plausibility of such an interaction. Unpredictable threat engages regions including the anterior insula, dorsanterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and amygdala 25 – 31 . These regions, together with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and hippocampus—key nodes for episodic memory encoding 32 – 34 —form an emotion–memory circuitry that is dysregulated in PTSD (for reviews, see 35 – 42 ). Because the circuitry recruited by unpredictable threat overlaps with circuitry implicated in emotional memory and PTSD pathophysiology, episodic encoding in unpredictable threat contexts may be especially sensitive to PTSD symptom severity. In summary, PTSD is associated with memory dysfunction and altered responses to unpredictable threat, and threat-of-shock manipulations engage neural systems that overlap with PTSD-related emotion–memory circuitry. Yet, whether and how PTSD symptom severity modulates episodic memory encoding under unpredictable threat remains unexplored. To address this gap, sixty trauma-exposed combat veterans underwent fMRI scanning while performing a threat-of-shock task during incidental encoding of everyday objects. Participants categorized objects as natural or man-made while exposed to predictable threat, unpredictable threat, or no threat. The aversive stimulus was a three-second screeching noise, calibrated to be equally unpleasant across individuals. Based on evidence that recognition memory is reduced under unpredictable threat 19 , we administered a surprise recognition test 90 minutes after encoding. PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss) was quantified using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) 43 and modeled continuously to preserve variance and statistical power and to avoid diagnostic threshold issues 44 – 47 . Because interpersonal trauma increases sensitivity to unpredictable threat 16 and shares features with aspects of combat trauma (e.g., interpersonal violence, witnessing severe injury or death), we predicted that higher PTSDss would be associated with increased anxiety in the U condition particularly. We further predicted that higher PTSDss would be associated with reduced recognition memory for items encoded under U. Finally, we explored neural correlates within regions implicated in threat processing, emotional learning, episodic memory, and PTSD (dACC, amygdala, vmPFC, hippocampus, anterior insula). Consistent with these predictions, higher PTSDss was associated with increased anxiety and reduced recognition memory specifically under unpredictable threat. Moreover, encoding-related activity in the amygdala and dACC predicted subsequent memory success overall, yet these activations were negatively associated with PTSDss in the U condition. Together, these findings clarify how PTSD symptom severity interacts with episodic memory encoding in contexts characterized by unpredictable threat, and provide candidate neurocognitive mechanisms that may contribute to memory-related symptoms in PTSD. Methods and Materials Participants Pilot study Twenty participants (mean age = 27; range 21–38; nine males) were recruited for a behavioral pilot to validate the task and confirm that the aversive sound was sufficiently unpleasant to increase anxiety in threat conditions relative to no-threat. Data from 19 participants were analyzed due to a technical error in one case. All participants provided written informed consent. The study was approved by the Weizmann Institute of Science’s internal review board (code 2178-1). Pilot participants did not participate in the fMRI study. fMRI study Sixty male combat veterans (mean age = 37; range 22–53) were recruited. Inclusion criteria were age 20–60 years, > 2 years of combat service, at least one potentially life-threatening combat experience, and at least one year since the most recent combat exposure. Exclusion criteria included inability to comply with the study protocol, history of traumatic brain injury or other known pathology, substance use (except prescribed cannabis if withheld ≥ 24 hours prior to study evaluation), current psychiatric disorder other than PTSD, and inability to undergo awake MRI. Participants were recruited across the spectrum of PTSD symptom severity; thus, a formal PTSD diagnosis was not required for inclusion. PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss) was assessed using CAPS-5, a structured clinician-administered interview consisting of 30 items 43 . Twenty symptom items are summed to yield a severity score ranging from 0 to 80, with higher scores indicating higher PTSDss. CAPS-5 was administered by experienced clinicians trained in the instrument. PTSDss was analyzed as a continuous covariate to preserve variance and power, reduce arbitrary thresholding and misclassification, and capture contributions of subthreshold symptoms to behavior and brain function 44 – 47 . All participants provided written informed consent. The study was approved by the Shamir Institutional Review Board (code 178/21). All data were collected prior to October 7, 2023. Participant characteristics are reported in Supplementary Table 1. Power calculation Because no prior study has directly examined incidental episodic encoding during threat-of-shock with delayed recognition memory as a function of PTSDss, we used a recent meta-analysis of episodic memory impairments in PTSD to estimate effect size 48 . This meta-analysis reports medium range effect sizes comparing PTSD to control groups across memory domains (e.g., Cohen’s d approximately − 0.4 to − 0.5). To detect a small-to-medium effect size for a correlation (two-tailed Pearson’s r = 0.4) with α = 0.05 and power = 0.80, 46 participants are required. We increased the sample to 60 to account for the lower signal-to-noise ratio typical of fMRI. Calculations were performed using G*Power 3.1 49 . Incidental memory encoding during threat of shock task The task comprised an encoding phase followed by a surprise recognition test approximately 90 minutes later. Encoding phase Encoding comprised three conditions: Predictable threat (P), Unpredictable threat (U), and No threat (N) (Fig. 1 A–C). Participants were informed that an aversive noise could occur in U and P conditions, but not in the N condition. Following established protocols 10 , participants were instructed that in P the noise could occur only directly after an object (predictable), whereas in U it could occur at any time (unpredictable). The noise occurred 1–3 times per block, counterbalanced across blocks, resulting in 12 noise presentations across the experiment (six during U blocks, six during P blocks, none during N blocks). Participants were continuously informed of the current condition by Hebrew text at the top of the screen indicating “No noise,” “Noise after object,” or “Noise at any time.” This explicit instruction ensures that neurocognitive effects reflect contextual threat type rather than learning which context is threatening, and therefore minimizes learning-related confounds. The aversive stimulus was a three-second screeching sound. To equate perceived unpleasantness across individuals, volume was titrated via a standardized work-up procedure 10 : volume was increased gradually from a low level until participants reported a discomfort level of four out of five. Because of differences in setups and background noise-levels, calibration was conducted both outside (training environment) and inside the MRI scanning environment. Calibration is especially important given evidence that PTSD is associated with increased sensitivity to aversive sounds 50 . To probe incidental encoding, participants viewed pictures of familiar neutral everyday objects presented sequentially for six seconds each 51 . During each presentation, participants categorized the object as natural or artificial using two response buttons with the right hand (Fig. 1 A). After a response, the chosen option was highlighted while the object remained on screen for the full duration. To avoid unintended emotional salience, objects judged bizarre, abstract, or overtly aversive (e.g., weapons) were removed. During the training session, participants completed a short practice block with P, U, and N conditions containing two objects each (not used in the main task), and the noise occurred once in P and once in U. During the fMRI session, the encoding task consisted of three blocks, each containing one P, one U, and one N condition with 9–10 objects each (28 objects per condition; 84 encoded objects total). Condition order within blocks followed a randomized Latin/roman-square approach such that each condition appeared equally often in each serial position (Fig. 1 D). Objects were randomly assigned to conditions. Post-encoding ratings To validate the threat manipulation, participants completed ratings either immediately after the task (pilot) or after exiting the scanner (fMRI). Ratings included: (1) “How anxious did you feel during the P/U/N condition?” (1–9 not at all to very much) accompanied by schematic representations of each condition; (2) “How did you experience the valence of the noise?” (1–9 very negative to very positive); and (3) “How anxious did you feel regarding the possibility of hearing the noise?” (1–9 very low to very high). Ratings were collected after scanning to minimize movement artifacts and transitional disruptions during fMRI acquisition. This may introduce potential retrospective biases, but prior work shows convergence between post-task self-reports and reflexive measures, such as startle, collected during threat contexts 52 – 56 . Importantly, this trade-off ensures the best possible neural data for the memory encoding task, which is the main focus of the study. The pilot additionally included intensity and pain ratings for the noise: “How did you experience the intensity of the noise?” (1–9 very low to very high), and “How painful was the experience of the noise?” (1–9 very low to very high). Test phase Approximately 90 minutes after encoding finished, participants performed a surprise recognition task. The 84 encoded objects were presented along with 84 novel objects (168 trials total). In each trial, participants made an Old/New judgment with confidence (Certain/Maybe) (Fig. 1 E). Responses were self-paced and presentation order was randomized (Fig. 1 F). For items endorsed as “Old,” source memory was assessed by asking participants to indicate in which context the item had been encoded (P/U/N). Statistical analysis Trials in which the aversive noise occurred during encoding were excluded from memory analyses. Recognition performance was quantified for each condition as the hit rate (proportion of old items judged “Old”), adjusted by overall false alarm rate (Old responses to new items). This approach is appropriate for comparing memory across conditions, in particular because objects were randomly assigned to conditions, such that identity-driven response biases were minimized compared to designs where stimulus categories are systematically paired with, for example, different reward outcomes 57 . Source memory was quantified as the proportion of correct context identifications for items correctly recognized as old in each condition. Mixed-effects ANCOVAs tested within-subject effects of Condition (P/U/N) and their interaction with CAPS scores (continuous covariate). Follow-up tests used paired t-tests for condition comparisons and Pearson’s r for correlations with PTSDss (with Spearman’s ρ to assess robustness). Primary analyses were corrected for multiple comparisons using false discovery rate (FDR) control via the Benjamini–Hochberg procedure 58 . Differences between correlation coefficients were tested using permutation procedures (n = 1,000): the observed difference between correlations (e.g., rAB − rAC) was compared to a null distribution generated by shuffling the covariate (vector A) and recomputing the correlation difference. MRI Image acquisition Images were acquired on a 3T Siemens Vida scanner with a 64-channel head coil. Structural T1 images were collected with MPRAGE (TR/TI/TE = 2000/920/1.91 ms; flip angle = 9 degrees; 1 mm isotropic; 176 slices). Functional images were acquired using multiband EPI (TR/TE = 2000/30 ms; flip angle = 75 degrees; 2.3 mm isotropic; 64 slices; AP phase encoding; multiband factor = 3). Data analysis Preprocessing Data were analyzed in SPM12 (Welcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience, London, UK; http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm ). Functional volumes were realigned, co-registered to T1, slice-time corrected, normalized using parameters derived from normalizing T1 images to IXI-549 tissue probability maps, and smoothed with an 8 mm FWHM Gaussian kernel. Event-related GLMs used a canonical HRF and high-pass filtering (0.008 Hz). Motion artifacts were modeled using a 24-parameter motion regression approach: 6 realignment parameters, their temporal derivatives, and squared terms) 59 . fMRI analysis 1: Threat condition effects To assess threat-related encoding activity, the model included three regressors for object presentations (6 s duration) separately for P, U, and N. Button presses were modeled as a stick function. The aversive noise was modeled as a 3 s regressor in P and U. Object presentations paired with noise were entered as regressors of no interest to maintain comparability with behavioral analyses. fMRI analysis 2: Subsequent memory effects To identify encoding-related activity predicting memory success, object presentations were modeled as Hits (subsequently remembered) and Misses (subsequently forgotten), each with 6 s duration. Button presses and aversive noises were modeled as above, and object trials paired with noise were modeled as no-interest regressors. Regions of interest (ROIs) A priori ROIs were selected due to their roles in threat processing, salience detection, emotional learning, episodic memory formation, and PTSD: amygdala, dorsal ACC (dACC), vmPFC, anterior insula, and hippocampus 40 , 42 , 60 – 63 . ROIs were obtained from the WFU PickAtlas toolbox 64 , except vmPFC, which was sourced from a published ROI definition 65 . Statistical analyses We tested how PTSDss modulated threat-related activation and subsequent-memory signals by relating ROI activations to CAPS scores 66 using ANCOVAs implemented in the MRM toolbox 67 . For analysis 1, the ANCOVA included Condition (P/U/N) and CAPS; for analysis 2, it included Accuracy (Hit/Miss) and CAPS. Significant ANCOVA effects were followed up by extracting beta estimates from peak voxel coordinates within significant clusters and performing targeted t-tests/correlations. Because peak-voxel extraction inflates apparent correlations 68 , 69 , these follow-up coefficients are reported for interpretability, but should not be treated as unbiased effect sizes. To account for multiple comparisons, p-values were corrected by FDR-correction 58 . This correction is applied both when assessing significant voxels within brain volumes (i.e. ROIs or the whole-brain), and when controlling for testing multiple ROIs. Accordingly, FDR correction is applied twice when testing multiple ROIs: first, when assessing significant voxels within an ROI, and second, when controlling for the number of ROIs tested. Results Overview Participants encoded neutral objects during predictable threat (P; noise only after object), unpredictable threat (U; noise at any time), and no threat (N; no noise) contexts (Fig. 1 A–C), presented in pseudorandom order (Fig. 1 D). Encoding was incidental via natural/man-made categorization. Post-task ratings assessed subjective experiences. Memory was tested after ~ 90 minutes via a surprise recognition memory test (Fig. 1 E,F). Pilot study Pilot data, displayed in Fig. 1 G, confirmed that the noise was experienced as negative [mean valence rating = 3.105 ± 0.458], anxiety-inducing [mean anxiety rating = 7.263 ± 0.470], intense [mean intensity rating = 7.211 ± 0.311], and painful [mean pain rating = 6.263 ± 0.529]. Anxiety ratings were higher in P and U than N [Fig. 1 H; mean anxiety rating U = 5.737 ± 0.438, P = 5.263 ± 0.458, N = 2.160 ± 0.0.175; P vs. N: t(18) = 7.306, pFDR < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.676; U vs. N: t(18) = 8.795, pFDR < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.018; U vs. P: t(18) = 1.634, pFDR = 0.120, Cohen’s d = 0.375]. Finally, a repeated measures ANOVA with factor Condition (P, U, N) and Hit-False alarm rates revealed a significant intercept term [Fig. 1 I; F(1, 18) = 354.95, p < 0.001], indicating that overall performance was above chance-level performance (a value of 0 indicates that the hit rate is equal to the false alarm rate). There was no main effect of Condition [F(2, 18) = 0.216, p = 0.807, \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\) =0.012]. In summary, the pilot study confirmed that the aversive noise was perceived as negative, anxiety-inducing, intense, and painful. More anxiety was induced in threatening contexts, and overall memory performance was above chance. fMRI study PTSDss increases anxiety most during unpredictable threat Although noise unpleasantness was individually calibrated, CAPS scores correlated with more negative noise valence ratings [Fig. 2 A; r=-0.437, p < 0.001; ρ=-0.483, p < 0.001] and greater anxiety about the possibility of hearing the noise [Fig. 2 B; r = 0.529, p < 0.001; ρ = 0.573, p < 0.001]. Notably, these results occurred despite the fact that CAPS scores were actually negatively correlated with the estimated volume thresholds [outside the MRI scanner: r=-0.375, p = 0.003; ρ=-0.512, p < 0.001; inside the MRI scanner: r=-0.303, p = 0.022; ρ=-0.354, p = 0.007, data not shown]. Subjective anxiety ratings in the different conditions collapsed across participants is shown in Fig. 2 C. Anxiety was higher in the U (vs. N) condition [mean anxiety rating U: 3.483 ± 0.329, N: 2.433 ± 0.261; t(59) = 4.62, pFDR < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.695], in the P (vs. N) condition [mean anxiety rating P: 3.167 ± 0.322; t(59) = 3.519, pFDR < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.454], but not in the U (vs. P) condition [t(59) = 1.634, pFDR = 0.108, Cohen’s d = 0.211]. While CAPS scores were positively correlated with subjective anxiety ratings in all conditions [U: Fig. 2 D; r = 0.830, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.729, p < 0.001; P: Fig. 2 E; r = 0.492, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.553, p < 0.001; N: Fig. 2 F; r = 0.632, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.639, p < 0.001], importantly, the correlation was strongest in the U condition, as compared to both the P condition [Fig. 2 G; actual mean difference: r/ρ = 0.198(pFDR = 0.003)/0.090(p = 0.043)] and the N condition [Fig. 2 H; actual mean difference: r/ρ = 0.338(pFDR < 0.001)/0.176(p = 0.017)], with no difference between P and N conditions (Fig. 2 I; r/ρ = 0.140(p = 0.074)/0.086(p = 0.148)). Similar results were obtained using traditional ANCOVA, which showed a significant Condition x CAPS interaction [F(2, 116) = 18.003, p < 0.001, \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\) =0.23], as well as significant correlations between CAPS scores and the difference in subjective anxiety ratings between conditions (see Table 1). These results indicate that unpredictable threat most strongly amplified anxiety among individuals with higher PTSDss. PTSDss impairs memory for items encoded during unpredictable threat Memory performance was tested via a repeated measures ANCOVA with factor Condition (P/U/N), covariate CAPS, and memory performance as dependent variable (each condition’s hit rate minus overall false alarm rate). Table 2 displays the full ANOVA results. Recognition performance was above chance across conditions [Fig. 3 A; ANCOVA intercept vs. 0: F(1, 59) = 322.47, p < 0.001]. The significant Condition × CAPS interaction [F(2, 116) = 3.183, p = 0.045, \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\) =0.051], was caused by relatively reduced memory with higher CAPS in the U condition compared to P [Fig. 3 B, r=-0.327, pFDR = 0.033; ρ=-0.275, p = 0.034] and U versus N [Fig. 3 C, r=-0.286, pFDR = 0.041; ρ=-0.219, p = 0.093]. CAPS did not interact with the difference between N and P [Fig. 3 D, r = 0.195, pFDR = 0.135; ρ = 0.120, p = 0.363]. Higher CAPS predicted reduced memory in U [Fig. 3 E, r=-0.364, pFDR = 0.012; ρ=-0.330, p = 0.010], but not in P [Fig. 3 F, r=-0.090, pFDR = 0.494; ρ=-0.123, p = 0.349], nor in N [Fig. 3 G, r=-0.260, pFDR = 0.068; ρ=-0.225, p = 0.085]. CAPS did not relate to false alarm rate [Fig. 2 H; r=-0.125, p = 0.343; ρ=-0.131, p = 0.318], and no reliable CAPS effects emerged for source memory [Table 3]. Thus, increased PTSDss was associated with a specific recognition memory impairment for items encoded during unpredictable threat. PTSDss reduces dACC and amygdala engagement during unpredictable threat ROI analyses of threat-condition activation identified Condition × CAPS interactions in dACC and amygdala (Table 4). A Condition x CAPS interaction were observed in the dACC ROI [Fig. 4 A; MNI=-2 23 18, F(2, 58) = 14.300, pFDR = 0.010, pUNC < 0.001], caused by significantly reduced dACC activation in U versus P [Fig. 4 C; r=-0.423, pFDR < 0.001; ρ=-0.300, p = 0.020], and in U versus N [Fig. 4 D; r=-0.576, pFDR < 0.001; ρ=-0.484, p < 0.001], while no correlation was observed for P versus N [Fig. 4 E; r=-0.189, pFDR = 0.148; ρ=-0.197, p = 0.131]. Further, CAPS scores correlated negatively with the dACC activation in U [Fig. 4 F; r=-0.341, pFDR = 0.024; ρ=-0.304, p = 0.018], with no significant correlation in P [Fig. 4 G; r = 0.267, pFDR = 0.059; ρ = 0.129, p = 0.326], but with a significantly positive correlation in N [Fig. 4 H; r = 0.459, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.325, p = 0.011]. The amygdala ROI also showed a Condition x CAPS interaction [Fig. 4 I; MNI=-27 -2 -28, F(2, 58) = 15.947, pFDR = 0.001, pUNC < 0.001], caused by significantly reduced amygdala activation in U versus P [Fig. 4 K; r=-0.595, pFDR < 0.001; ρ=-0.448, p < 0.001], in U versus N [Fig. 4 L; r=-0.356, pFDR = 0.008; ρ=-0.300, p = 0.020], but no correlation was observed for P versus N [Fig. 4 M; r = 0.230, pFDR = 0.078; ρ = 0.087, p = 0.511]. Further, CAPS scores correlated negatively with amygdala activation in U [Fig. 4 N; r=-0.438, pFDR < 0.001; ρ=-0.382, p = 0.003], with some evidence for a positive correlation in P [Fig. 4 O; r = 0.332, pFDR = 0.015; ρ = 0.229, p = 0.079], but no correlation in N [Fig. 4 P; r = 0.014, pFDR = 0.918; ρ=-0.014, p = 0.914]. No other main effects or interactions were significant, including the other ROIs or the whole-brain (see Table 4). We also assessed neural responses to the aversive noise, to test whether the reduction in amygdala responses also extended to salient stimuli 70 , 71 . To enable a comparison with the N condition, we compared all N trials with U and P noise trials (which were discarded from the main analyses). The same ANOVA as above revealed that the amygdala ROI showed a Condition x CAPS interaction [Fig. 5 A; MNI=-23 3–19, F(2, 58) = 11.559, pFDR = 0.020, pUNC < 0.001], with no main effect of Condition [Fig. 5 A] nor CAPS [data not shown]. The Condition x CAPS interaction was caused by significantly reduced amygdala activation in U versus P [Fig. 5 B; r=-0.331, pFDR = 0.015; ρ=-0.071, p = 592], in U versus N [Fig. 5 C; r=-0.523, pFDR < 0.001; ρ=-0.337, p = 0.008], but no correlation was observed for P versus N [Fig. 5 D; r = 0.042, pFDR = 0.752; ρ = 0.051, p = 0.701]. Further, CAPS scores correlated negatively with amygdala activation in U [Fig. 5 E; r=-0.451, pFDR < 0.001; ρ=-0.274, p = 0.035], with no significant correlations in P [Fig. 5 F; r = 0.118, pFDR = 0.371; ρ=-0.043, p = 0.743] or N [Fig. 5 G; r = 0.211, pFDR = 0.212; ρ = 0.026, p = 0.843]. These results suggest reduced engagement of the dACC and the amygdala under unpredictable threat by higher PTSDss, an effect which in the amygdala extended to salient aversive stimulation. Subsequent memory effects in high PTSDss ANCOVA with factor Accuracy (Hit, Miss) and covariate CAPS revealed Accuracy x CAPS interactions in the dACC [Fig. 6 A; MNI = 7 35 18, F(1, 58) = 25.497, pFDR = 0.001, pUNC < 0.001], the amygdala [Fig. 6 D; MNI=-20 -2 -26, F(1, 58) = 13.9, pFDR = 0.020, pUNC < 0.001], the hippocampus [Fig. 6 G; MNI = 26 − 16 -15, F(1, 58) = 18.416, pFDR = 0.023, pUNC < 0.001], in the anterior insula [Fig. 6 J; MNI=-39 7–12, F(1, 58) = 27.298, pFDR = 0.004, pUNC < 0.001], and in the vmPFC [Fig. 6 M; MNI=-39 7–12, F(1, 58) = 27.298, pFDR = 0.004, pUNC < 0.001]. In all cases, CAPS showed a positive correlation with the differential activation between hits and misses [i.e. dACC: Fig. 6 B, r = 0.553, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.330, p = 0.010; amygdala: Fig. 6 E, r = 0.440, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.267, p = 0.039; hippocampus: Fig. 6 H, r = 0.491, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.262, p = 0.043; insula: Fig. 6 K, r = 0.566, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.376, p = 0.003; vmPFC: Fig. 6 N, r = 0.507, pFDR < 0.001; ρ = 0.374, p = 0.003]. In general, these ROIs showed increased activation for subsequent hits but decreased activation for misses (Fig. 6 C,F,I,L,O). Across the whole-brain we observed significant activation for the main effect of Accuracy in the bilateral occipital/fusiform gyrus [L FFG: Fig. 6 P, MNI=-34 -46 -21, F(1, 58) = 18.075, pFDR = 0.022, pUNC < 0.001; R FFG: Fig. 6 Q, MNI = 35–46 -21, F(1, 58) = 31.640, pFDR = 0.009, pUNC < 0.001], as well as in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex [L vlPFC: Fig. 6 P, MNI=-39 42 − 10, F(1, 58) = 19.741, pFDR = 0.016, pUNC < 0.001]. Across the whole-brain we also observed significant voxels for the Accuracy x CAPS interaction, with peak-voxels within each cluster reported in Table 5. These results suggest that successful memory encoding in higher levels of PTSDss engages the dACC, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the vmPFC, and the insula. Discussion This study tested whether and how PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss) modulates episodic memory encoding under predictable, unpredictable, and safe contexts. Supporting our predictions, higher PTSDss was associated with increased anxiety and reduced recognition memory specifically for items encoded during unpredictable threat. Correspondingly, encoding-related dACC and amygdala activity predicted overall memory success but was negatively associated with PTSDss in the unpredictable condition. Higher PTSDss showed the strongest association with anxiety in unpredictable threat, consistent with prior reports using physiological measures (e.g., startle potentiation) indicating heightened defensive responding in PTSD under unpredictable threat 14 , 15 . Extending these findings, we observed reduced engagement of dACC and amygdala with increasing PTSDss during the U condition. These regions are prominent nodes of the salience network, implicated in detecting and integrating affective and sensory signals to enable adaptive responding 72 . PTSD is frequently associated with elevated salience-network reactivity to emotional stimuli and events 40 , 73 , which aligns with hyperarousal and re-experiencing symptoms 74 , 75 and may appear inconsistent with the present findings. However, prior work also reports reduced amygdala activation with greater PTSD severity in specific contexts, such as arousing movies in combat veterans 76 or unmasked fearful faces 77 . Such results suggest that PTSD involves context-dependent dysfunction of amygdala responses rather than uniformly increased amygdala reactivity 78 , potentially also varying across subnuclei 35 . One potential account for reduced amygdala activation to neutral objects during unpredictable threat is the Arousal-Biased Competition model, which proposes that arousal amplifies competition for limited processing resources, enhancing processing of highly salient or goal-relevant stimuli while suppressing less salient information 79 . Under this framework, unpredictable threat may bias attention away from neutral objects, weakening encoding signals. However, this interpretation is challenged by our additional finding that amygdala responses to the aversive noise itself were also reduced with higher PTSDss in the U condition. Moreover, reduced dACC engagement may indicate diminished recruitment of cognitive control and/or emotion regulation systems 80 , 81 , which might be expected to increase under uncertainty. Together, these points suggest that additional mechanisms may be involved. An alternative explanation is that unpredictable threat triggers dissociative or emotional numbing responses in individuals with high PTSDss, reducing engagement of affective salience circuitry. Dissociation has been proposed as a protective response against overwhelming distress and pain in threatening or traumatic circumstances 82 – 84 and is positively associated with PTSD severity 85 . Uncertainty and unpredictability reliably induce stress and anxiety 86 , 87 , and some trauma types show heightened sensitivity to unpredictable threat 14 – 16 . Individuals with emotional numbing may also transition more rapidly between affective states 88 . Within this framework, elevated anxiety under unpredictable threat could provoke a compensatory “shutdown” response, producing attenuated amygdala engagement. This interpretation is consistent with recent reports linking emotional numbing symptoms to reduced amygdala responses to both negative (pain) 71 and positive (happy faces) 70 stimuli in PTSD. Because we did not measure emotional numbing directly, this hypothesis should be tested in future work. Relatedly, seemingly contradictory findings in the literature may reflect trauma-type dependencies. In one study, PTSD symptoms following interpersonal trauma increased startle in unpredictable threat, whereas symptoms following other trauma types showed the opposite relationship 16 . This suggests that PTSD is heterogeneous and that neurocognitive findings may not generalize across trauma exposures. Future work should explicitly characterize trauma type and consider continuous expression of hyper- and hypo-reactive phenotypes. Behaviorally, PTSDss was associated with reduced recognition memory for objects encoded under unpredictable threat, extending episodic memory research in PTSD that has typically emphasized enhanced memory for negative items 8 or heightened associative fear learning 61 , 62 , 89 – 91 . While broad episodic memory impairments have been reported in PTSD 48 , 92 , the present findings demonstrate a context-dependent memory reduction linked to unpredictable threat. This is particularly relevant because unpredictable threat is common in real-world trauma contexts and may influence memory for peri-traumatic or contextual details. Neurally, subsequent memory analyses indicated that successful encoding in participants with higher PTSDss engaged the vmPFC and hippocampus as well as salience-network structures (dACC, insula, amygdala ) 72 . Yet dACC and amygdala activity was attenuated under unpredictable threat with increasing PTSDss. Increased hippocampal engagement during successful encoding in PTSD has been interpreted as compensatory recruitment in the presence of deficient hippocampal functioning 93 . The amygdala modulates hippocampal encoding, particularly for emotionally relevant information 42 , 94 , and while the dACC does not have a simple direct pathway to hippocampus, both dACC and hippocampus are strongly connected to the amygdala 95 , potentially allowing the amygdala to mediate influences of salience and control systems on episodic encoding. Our findings also resonate with the Dual Representation Theory (DRT), which posits parallel memory systems during trauma: a verbally accessible system and a situationally accessible system 96 , 97 . The DRT suggests that during trauma, attention is captured by threat-relevant information, impairing verbally accessible encoding while leaving vivid situational/sensory representations. Disrupted integration between these systems may contribute to intrusive symptoms. Laboratory studies link intrusive memory formation to heightened salience network activity including amygdala, dACC, and anterior insula 98 – 101 , but less is known about neural mechanisms underlying peri-traumatic amnesia. A dissociative response has been proposed as one trigger for impaired verbally accessible encoding 96 , aligning with the possibility that unpredictable threat elicits emotional numbing and reduced engagement of salience circuitry, thereby impairing encoding. While speculative, this provides a mechanistic hypothesis for future work connecting unpredictable threat sensitivity, dissociation, and memory disruption. More broadly, the present findings suggest that PTSD may modulate how contextually evoked emotions shape encoding, offering alternative interpretations of classic PTSD phenomena. For example, in fear conditioning, some studies report that both conditioned and “safe” cues acquire aversive properties in PTSD 102 – 105 , typically attributed to stimulus generalization 106 , 107 . Our results raise the possibility that threatening contexts themselves may broadly influence stimulus processing, causing even nominally safe stimuli to be encoded under a negative affective state, potentially facilitating “contextual generalization.” Another possibility is that PTSD enables negative emotions to exert lingering effects on memory encoding, similar to what has been observed across individuals in the domain of positive emotions 6 , 108 . Future studies could test whether context-driven affect, lingering affect, and/or stimulus-driven generalization better explains such effects. Finally, although memory performance reflects multiple stages (encoding, consolidation, retrieval), several features of our design support an encoding-based interpretation. Retrieval occurred in a safe context for all items, minimizing retrieval-context confounds. Source memory was at chance, reducing the likelihood that participants used explicit context information to guide recognition responses. Objects were randomly assigned to conditions, limiting category-based response strategies that can bias hit rates in outcome-category designs 57 . Moreover, prior work reports PTSD-related memory differences both immediately and after delays 92 , suggesting that encoding-level mechanisms may be central. This emphasis aligns with proposals that encoding processes play a prominent role in maladaptive trauma memories compared with post-encoding processes such as consolidation or retrieval 109 – 111 . A key dissociation in our results is that PTSDss effects were specific to unpredictable threat and did not generalize to predictable threat. This underscores a particular sensitivity to unpredictability in PTSD rather than to threat per se. In line with this, self-report work shows robust associations between PTSD and intolerance of uncertainty 112 , which may represent more than anxiety alone 113 , and pre-trauma intolerance of uncertainty may predict post-trauma PTSD symptoms 114 . While we did not measure intolerance of uncertainty directly, our findings provide candidate neurobehavioral consequences: heightened anxiety and impaired episodic encoding in the face of unpredictable threat. Declarations Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the Shamir center PTSD department for help in recruiting participants, the Shamir center MRI unit (Fanny Attar, Yulia Kipnis, Asaf Brain) for help with acquiring neuroimaging data, Noa Lahat for instructing participants, as well as Edna Furman-Haran from the Weizmann Institute of Science for helpful discussions regarding fMRI acquisition. Most of all, we would like to thank all the participants for their motivation, effort, cooperation, and trust. The work was supported by ERC-2023-ADG #101142391 and ISF #1467/24 grants to Rony Paz. Kristoffer C. Aberg is the incumbent of the Sam and Frances Belzberg Research Fellow Chair in Memory and Learning. Disclosures SE is a shareholder at AVIV Scientific LTD. KCA, RM, RP, SI, and KDB declare no competing interests. References American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders . 5th edn, 2013. Iyadurai L, Visser RM, Lau-Zhu A, Porcheret K, Horsch A, Holmes EA et al. Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application. Clin Psychol Rev 2019; 69: 67-82. Maddox SA, Hartmann J, Ross RA, Ressler KJ. Deconstructing the Gestalt: Mechanisms of Fear, Threat, and Trauma Memory Encoding. Neuron 2019; 102 (1) : 60-74. Beckers T, Hermans D, Lange I, Luyten L, Scheveneels S, Vervliet B. Understanding clinical fear and anxiety through the lens of human fear conditioning. Nat Rev Psychol 2023; 2 (4) : 233-245. Bienvenu TCM, Dejean C, Jercog D, Aouizerate B, Lemoine M, Herry C. The advent of fear conditioning as an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder: Learning from the past to shape the future of PTSD research. Neuron 2021; 109 (15) : 2380-2397. Aberg KC, Müller J, Schwartz S. Trial-by-Trial Modulation of Associative Memory Formation by Reward Prediction Error and Reward Anticipationas Revealed by a Biologically Plausible Computational Model. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11 . Brohawn KH, Offringa R, Pfaff DL, Hughes KC, Shin LM. The Neural Correlates of Emotional Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Biol Psychiat 2010; 68 (11) : 1023-1030. Durand F, Isaac C, Januel D. Emotional Memory in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic PRISMA Review of Controlled Studies. Front Psychol 2019; 10 . Robinson OJ, Vytal K, Cornwell BR, Grillon C. The impact of anxiety upon cognition: perspectives from human threat of shock studies. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7 . Schmitz A, Grillon C. Assessing fear and anxiety in humans using the threat of predictable and unpredictable aversive events (the NPU-threat test). Nat Protoc 2012; 7 (3) : 527-532. Spence R, Kagan L, Bifulco A. A contextual approach to trauma experience: lessons from life events research. Psychol Med 2019; 49 (9) : 1409-1413. Gorka SM, Lieberman L, Shankman SA, Phan KL. Association between neural reactivity and startle reactivity to uncertain threat in two independent samples. Psychophysiology 2017; 54 (5) : 652-662. Gorka SM, Lieberman L, Klumpp H, Kinney KL, Kennedy AE, Ajilore O et al. Reactivity to unpredictable threat as a treatment target for fear-based anxiety disorders. Psychol Med 2017; 47 (14) : 2450-2460. Grillon C, Pine DS, Lissek S, Rabin S, Bonne O, Vythilingam M. Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable aversive stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder but not in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 66 (1) : 47-53. Gorka SM. Interpersonal trauma exposure and startle reactivity to uncertain threat in individuals with alcohol use disorder. Drug Alcohol Depen 2020; 206 . Kreutzer KA, Gorka SM. Impact of Trauma Type on Startle Reactivity to Predictable and Unpredictable Threats. J Nerv Ment Dis 2021; 209 (12) : 899-904. Lieberman L, Funkhouser CJ, Gorka SM, Liu H, Correa KA, Berenz EC et al. The Relation Between Posttraumatic Stress Symptom Severity and Startle Potentiation to Predictable and Unpredictable Threat. J Nerv Ment Dis 2020; 208 (5) : 397-402. Bolton S, Robinson OJ. The impact of threat of shock-induced anxiety on memory encoding and retrieval. Learn Memory 2017; 24 (10) : 532-542. Buehler SK, Lowther M, Lukow PB, Kirk PA, Pike AC, Yamamori Y et al. Independent replications reveal anterior and posterior cingulate cortex activation underlying state anxiety-attenuated face encoding. Commun Psychol 2024; 2 (1). Garibbo M, Aylward J, Robinson OJ. The impact of threat of shock-induced anxiety on the neural substrates of memory encoding and retrieval. Soc Cogn Affect Neur 2019; 14 (10) : 1087-1096. Aberg KC, Paz R. Stress-induced avoidance in mood disorders. Nat Hum Behav 2022; 6 (7) : 915-+. Li N, Lavalley CA, Chou KP, Chuning AE, Taylor S, Goldman CM et al. Directed exploration is reduced by an aversive interoceptive state induction in healthy individuals but not in those with affective disorders. Molecular psychiatry 2025; 30 (9) : 4029-4038. Qiao ZL, Pan DN, Hoid D, van Winkel R, Li XB. When the approaching threat is uncertain: Dynamics of defensive motivation and attention in trait anxiety. Psychophysiology 2022; 59 (9). Wilson KA, MacNamara A. Transdiagnostic Fear and Anxiety: Prospective Prediction Using the No-Threat, Predictable Threat, and Unpredictable Threat Task. Biol Psychiat-Glob O 2023; 3 (4) : 930-938. Cornwell BR, Didier PR, Grogans SE, Anderson AS, Islam S, Kim HC et al. A Shared Threat-Anticipation Circuit Is Dynamically Engaged at Different Moments by Certain and Uncertain Threat. J Neurosci 2025; 45 (16). Herrmann MJ, Boehme S, Becker MPI, Tupak SV, Guhn A, Schmidt B et al. Phasic and sustained brain responses in the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis during threat anticipation. Hum Brain Mapp 2016; 37 (3) : 1091-1102. Hur J, Smith JF, DeYoung KA, Anderson AS, Kuang JY, Kim HC et al. Anxiety and the Neurobiology of Temporally Uncertain Threat Anticipation. J Neurosci 2020; 40 (41) : 7949-7964. Liu XQ, Jiao GJ, Zhou F, Kendrick KM, Yao DZ, Gong QY et al. A neural signature for the subjective experience of threat anticipation under uncertainty. Nat Commun 2024; 15 (1). Radoman M, Lieberman L, Jimmy J, Gorka SM. Shared and unique neural circuitry underlying temporally unpredictable threat and reward processing. Soc Cogn Affect Neur 2021; 16 (4) : 370-382. Radoman M, Phan KL, Gorka SM. Neural correlates of predictable and unpredictable threat in internalizing psychopathology. Neurosci Lett 2019; 701: 193-201. Shankman SA, Gorka SM, Nelson BD, Fitzgerald DA, Phan KL, O'Daly O. Anterior insula responds to temporally unpredictable aversiveness: an fMRI study. Neuroreport 2014; 25 (8) : 596-600. Eichenbaum H. Memory: Organization and Control. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol 68 2017; 68: 19-45. Lisman J, Buzsáki G, Eichenbaum H, Nadel L, Rangananth C, Redish AD. Viewpoints: how the hippocampus contributes to memory, navigation and cognition. Nat Neurosci 2017; 20 (11) : 1434-1447. Squire LR. Memory and the Hippocampus - a Synthesis from Findings with Rats, Monkeys, and Humans. Psychol Rev 1992; 99 (2) : 195-231. Etkin A, Wager TD. Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. Am J Psychiat 2007; 164 (10) : 1476-1488. Fitzgerald JM, DiGangi JA, Phan KL. Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Its Regulation in PTSD. Harvard Rev Psychiat 2018; 26 (3) : 116-128. Harnett NG, Goodman AM, Knight DC. PTSD-related neuroimaging abnormalities in brain function, structure, and biochemistry. Exp Neurol 2020; 330 . Iqbal J, Huang GD, Xue YX, Yang M, Jia XJ. The neural circuits and molecular mechanisms underlying fear dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder. Front Neurosci-Switz 2023; 17 . Liberzon I, Sripada CS. The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: a critical review. Prog Brain Res 2007; 167: 151-169. Patel R, Spreng RN, Shin LM, Girard TA. Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and beyond: A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neurosci Biobehav R 2012; 36 (9) : 2130-2142. Pitman RK, Rasmusson AM, Koenen KC, Shin LM, Orr SP, Gilbertson MW et al. Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nat Rev Neurosci 2012; 13 (11) : 769-787. Richardson MP, Strange BA, Dolan RJ. Encoding of emotional memories depends on amygdala and hippocampus and their interactions. Nat Neurosci 2004; 7 (3) : 278-285. Weathers FW, Bovin MJ, Lee DJ, Sloan DM, Schnurr PP, Kaloupek DG et al. The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. Psychological assessment 2018; 30 (3) : 383-395. Ruscio AM. Normal Versus Pathological Mood: Implications for Diagnosis. Annu Rev Clin Psycho 2019; 15: 179-205. Measuring Mental Health Variables in Computational Research: Toward Validated, Dimensional, and Translational Approaches. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 10th Workshop on Computational Linguistic and Clinical Psychology 2025. Association for Computational Linguistics. Weathers FW, Keane TM, Davidson JRT. Clinician-administered PTSD scale: A review of the first ten years of research. Depress Anxiety 2001; 13 (3) : 132-156. Weathers FW, Ruscio AM, Keane TM. Psychometric properties of nine scoring rules for the clinician-administered posttraumatic stress disorder scale. Psychological assessment 1999; 11 (2) : 124-133. Petzold M, Bunzeck N. Impaired episodic memory in PTSD patients - A meta-analysis of 47 studies. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13 . Faul F, Erdfelder E, Lang AG, Buchner A. G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior research methods 2007; 39 (2) : 175-191. Shalev AY, Orr SP, Peri T, Schreiber S, Pitman RK. Physiologic responses to loud tones in Israeli patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of general psychiatry 1992; 49 (11) : 870-875. Rossion B, Pourtois G. Revisiting Snodgrass and Vanderwart's object pictorial set: The role of surface detail in basic-level object recognition. Perception 2004; 33 (2) : 217-236. Bennett KP, Dickmann JS, Larson CL. If or when? Uncertainty's role in anxious anticipation. Psychophysiology 2018; 55 (7). Vytal K, Cornwell B, Arkin N, Grillon C. Describing the interplay between anxiety and cognition: From impaired performance under low cognitive load to reduced anxiety under high load. Psychophysiology 2012; 49 (6) : 842-852. Carsten HP, Haerper K, Riesel A. A rare scare: The role of intolerance of uncertainty in startle responses and event-related potentials in anticipation of unpredictable threat. Int J Psychophysiol 2022; 179: 56-66. Balderston NL, Hale E, Hsiung A, Torrisi S, Holroyd T, Carver FW et al. Threat of shock increases excitability and connectivity of the intraparietal sulcus. Elife 2017; 6 . Lago TR, Hsiung A, Leitner BP, Duckworth CJ, Balderston NL, Chen KY et al. Exercise modulates the interaction between cognition and anxiety in humans. Cognition Emotion 2019; 33 (4) : 863-870. Bowen HJ, Marchesi ML, Kensinger EA. Reward motivation influences response bias on a recognition memory task. Cognition 2020; 203 . Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the False Discovery Rate - a Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing. J Roy Stat Soc B 1995; 57 (1) : 289-300. Friston KJ, Williams S, Howard R, Frackowiak RSJ, Turner R. Movement-related effects in fMRI time-series. Magnet Reson Med 1996; 35 (3) : 346-355. Perl O, Duek O, Kulkarni KR, Gordon C, Krystal JH, Levy I et al. Neural patterns differentiate traumatic from sad autobiographical memories in PTSD. Nat Neurosci 2023; 26 (12). VanElzakker MB, Dahlgren MK, Davis FC, Dubois S, Shin LM. From Pavlov to PTSD: The extinction of conditioned fear in rodents, humans, and anxiety disorders. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2014; 113: 3-18. Rauch SL, Shin LM, Phelps EA. Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research - Past, present, and future. Biol Psychiat 2006; 60 (4) : 376-382. Hayes JP, Vanelzakker MB, Shin LM. Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Frontiers in integrative neuroscience 2012; 6: 89. Maldjian JA, Laurienti PJ, Kraft RA, Burdette JH. An automated method for neuroanatomic and cytoarchitectonic atlas-based interrogation of fMRI data sets. Neuroimage 2003; 19 (3) : 1233-1239. Bhanji J, Smith DV, Delgado M. A brief anatomical sketch of human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. [preprint] PsyArXiv 2019. Lieberman MD, Berkman ET, Wager TD. Correlations in Social Neuroscience Aren't Voodoo: Commentary on Vul et al. (2009). Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science 2009; 4 (3) : 299-307. McFarquhar M, McKie S, Emsley R, Suckling J, Elliott R, Williams S. Multivariate and repeated measures (MRM): A new toolbox for dependent and multimodal group-level neuroimaging data. Neuroimage 2016; 132: 373-389. Kriegeskorte N, Simmons WK, Bellgowan PSF, Baker CI. Circular analysis in systems neuroscience: the dangers of double dipping. Nat Neurosci 2009; 12 (5) : 535-540. Vul E, Harris C, Winkielman P, Pashler H. Puzzlingly High Correlations in fMRI Studies of Emotion, Personality, and Social Cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2009; 4 (3) : 274-290. Felmingham KL, Falconer EM, Williams L, Kemp AH, Allen A, Peduto A et al. Reduced Amygdala and Ventral Striatal Activity to Happy Faces in PTSD Is Associated with Emotional Numbing. PloS one 2014; 9 (9). Korem N, Duek O, Ben-Zion Z, Kaczkurkin AN, Lissek S, Orederu T et al. Emotional numbing in PTSD is associated with lower amygdala reactivity to pain. Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47 (11) : 1913-1921. Menon V. Salience Network. In: Toga AW (ed). Brain Mapping: An Encyclopedic Reference , vol. 2. Academic Press: Elsevier2015, pp 597-611. Akiki TJ, Averill CL, Abdallah CG. A Network-Based Neurobiological Model of PTSD: Evidence From Structural and Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Curr Psychiat Rep 2017; 19 (11). Bryant RA. Post-traumatic stress disorder: a state-of-the-art review of evidence and challenges. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association 2019; 18 (3) : 259-269. Radell ML, Myers CE, Sheynin J, Moustafa AA. Computational Models of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In: Moustafa AA (ed). Computational Models of Brain and Behavior . John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.2018. Brashers-Krug T, Jorge R. Bi-Directional Tuning of Amygdala Sensitivity in Combat Veterans Investigated with fMRI. PloS one 2015; 10 (6) : e0130246. Armony JL, Corbo V, Clément MH, Brunet A. Amygdala response in patients with acute PTSD to masked and unmasked emotional facial expressions. Am J Psychiat 2005; 162 (10) : 1961-1963. Gina LF, Raluca MS, Lee AB. Revisiting the Role of the Amygdala in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In: Barbara F (ed). The Amygdala . IntechOpen: Rijeka, 2017, p Ch. 6. Mather M, Sutherland MR. Arousal-Biased Competition in Perception and Memory. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2011; 6 (2) : 114-133. Shackman AJ, Salomons TV, Slagter HA, Fox AS, Winter JJ, Davidson RJ. The integration of negative affect, pain and cognitive control in the cingulate cortex. Nat Rev Neurosci 2011; 12 (3) : 154-167. Stevens FL, Hurley RA, Taber KH. Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Unique Role in Cognition and Emotion. J Neuropsych Clin N 2011; 23 (2) : 120-125. Frewen PA, Lanius RA. Toward a psychobiology of posttraumatic self-dysregulation - Reexperiencing, hyperarousal, dissociation, and emotional numbing. Ann Ny Acad Sci 2006; 1071: 110-124. Lanius RA, Vermetten E, Loewenstein RJ, Brand B, Schmahl C, Bremner JD et al. Emotion Modulation in PTSD: Clinical and Neurobiological Evidence for a Dissociative Subtype. Am J Psychiat 2010; 167 (6) : 640-647. Schiavone FL, Frewen P, McKinnon M, Lanius RA. The dissociative subtype of PTSD: An update of the literature. PTSD Research Quarterly 2018; 29 (3) : 1-13. Duek O, Seidemann R, Pietrzak RH, Harpaz-Rotem I. Distinguishing emotional numbing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder from major depressive disorder. J Affect Disorders 2023; 324: 294-299. Mason JW. A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. Psychosomatic medicine 1968; 30 (5) : Suppl:576-607. Gagnon SA, Wagner AD. Acute stress and episodic memory retrieval: neurobiological mechanisms and behavioral consequences. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2016; 1369 (1) : 55-75. Korem N, Duek O, Spiller T, Ben-Zion Z, Levy I, Harpaz-Rotem I. Emotional State Transitions in Trauma-Exposed Individuals With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Jama Netw Open 2024; 7 (4). Kredlow MA, Fenster RJ, Laurent ES, Ressler KJ, Phelps EA. Prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and threat processing: implications for PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47 (1) : 247-259. Milad MR, Pitman RK, Ellis CB, Gold AL, Shin LM, Lasko NB et al. Neurobiological Basis of Failure to Recall Extinction Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Biol Psychiat 2009; 66 (12) : 1075-1082. Milad MR, Quirk GJ. Fear Extinction as a Model for Translational Neuroscience: Ten Years of Progress. Annu Rev Psychol 2012; 63: 129-151. Brewin CR, Kleiner JS, Vasterling JJ, Field AP. Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic investigation. J Abnorm Psychol 2007; 116 (3) : 448-463. Joshi SA, Duval ER, Kubat B, Liberzon I. A review of hippocampal activation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychophysiology 2020; 57 (1) : e13357. Phelps EA. Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2004; 14 (2) : 198-202. LeDoux J, Schiller D. The human amygdala: Insights from other animals. In: Whalen PJ, Phelps EA (eds). The human amygdala . Guilford Press2009. Brewin CR, Burgess N. Contextualisation in the revised dual representation theory of PTSD: A response to Pearson and colleagues. J Behav Ther Exp Psy 2014; 45 (1) : 217-219. Brewin CR, Dalgleish T, Joseph S. A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Rev 1996; 103 (4) : 670-686. Bourne C, Mackay CE, Holmes EA. The neural basis of flashback formation: the impact of viewing trauma. Psychol Med 2013; 43 (7) : 1521-1532. Battaglini E, Liddell B, Das P, Malhi G, Felmingham K, Bryant RA. Intrusive Memories of Distressing Information: An fMRI Study. PloS one 2016; 11 (9). Laposa JM, Rector NA. The prediction of intrusions following an analogue traumatic event: Peritraumatic cognitive processes and anxiety-focused rumination versus rumination in response to intrusions. J Behav Ther Exp Psy 2012; 43 (3) : 877-883. Rattel JA, Miedl SF, Franke LK, Grünberger LM, Blechert J, Kronbichler M et al. Peritraumatic Neural Processing and Intrusive Memories: The Role of Lifetime Adversity. Biol Psychiat-Cogn N 2019; 4 (4) : 381-389. Rabinak CA, Mori S, Lyons M, Milad MR, Phan KL. Acquisition of CS-US contingencies during Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction in social anxiety disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Affect Disorders 2017; 207: 76-85. Grillon C, Morgan CA. Fear-potentiated startle conditioning to explicit and contextual cues in gulf war veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 1999; 108 (1) : 134-142. Peri T, Ben-Shakhar G, Orr SP, Shalev AY. Psychophysiologic assessment of aversive conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiat 2000; 47 (6) : 512-519. Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Olin IW, Sands LA, Karapanou I, Bradley B et al. Fear Extinction in Traumatized Civilians with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Relation to Symptom Severity. Biol Psychiat 2011; 69 (6) : 556-563. Lis S, Thome J, Kleindienst N, Mueller-Engelmann M, Steil R, Priebe K et al. Generalization of fear in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychophysiology 2020; 57 (1) : e13422. Dunsmoor JE, Paz R. Fear Generalization and Anxiety: Behavioral and Neural Mechanisms. Biol Psychiat 2015; 78 (5) : 336-343. Aberg KC, Kramer EE, Schwartz S. Interplay between midbrain and dorsal anterior cingulate regions arbitrates lingering reward effects on memory encoding. Nat Commun 2020; 11 (1). Yehuda R, Golier JA, Halligan SL, Harvey PD. Learning and memory in holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiat 2004; 55 (3) : 291-295. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Tischler L, Stavitsky K, Harvey PD. Learning and memory in aging combat veterans with PTSD. J Clin Exp Neuropsyc 2005; 27 (4) : 504-515. Samuelson KW. Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: a review. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience 2011; 13 (3) : 346-351. Fetzner MG, Horswill SC, Boelen PA, Carleton RN. Intolerance of Uncertainty and PTSD Symptoms: Exploring the Construct Relationship in a Community Sample with a Heterogeneous Trauma History. Cognitive Ther Res 2013; 37 (4) : 725-734. Oglesby ME, Gibby BA, Mathes BM, Short NA, Schmidt NB. Intolerance of uncertainty and post-traumatic stress symptoms: An investigation within a treatment seeking trauma-exposed sample. Compr Psychiat 2017; 72: 34-40. Oglesby ME, Boffa JW, Short NA, Raines AM, Schmidt NB. Intolerance of uncertainty as a predictor of post-traumatic stress symptoms following a traumatic event. J Anxiety Disord 2016; 41: 82-87. Tables Table 1. Repeated measures ANCOVA for perceived anxiety-ratings with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS, and correlations between CAPS scores and differences in anxiety-ratings between conditions. Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p-value /r Intercept 1650.1 1 1650.1 238.07 <0.001 CAPS 431.5 1 431.5 62.253 <0.001 0.518 Error 402.02 58 6.932 Condition 34.81 2 17.406 16.903 <0.001 0.226 CAPS x Condition 37.08 2 18.538 18.003 <0.001 0.237 Error 119.45 116 1.030 CAPS vs U minus N <0.001 0.637 CAPS vs U minus P 0.005 0.360 CAPS vs P min N 0.005 0.359 df: Degrees of Freedom. F: F-statistic. : Partial eta-squared r: Pearson’s r. Significant effects are displayed in bold font. Table 2. Repeated measures ANCOVA for Hit rates – overall False alarm rates with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS. Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p-value Intercept 29.903 1 29.903 322.47 <0.001 CAPS 0.047 1 0.047 0.502 0.482 0.008 Error 5.471 59 0.093 Condition 0.064 2 0.032 3.410 0.036 0.055 CAPS x Condition 0.059 2 0.030 3.183 0.045 0.051 Error 1.098 116 0.009 df: Degrees of Freedom. F: F-statistic. : Partial eta-squared. Significant effects are displayed in bold font. Table 3 . Repeated measures ANCOVA for source memory performance with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS. Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p-value Intercept 0.074 1 0.074 2.179 0.145 CAPS <0.001 1 <0.001 <0.001 0.980 <0.001 Error 1.975 59 0.034 Condition 0.035 2 0.0175 0.408 0.666 0.007 CAPS x Condition 0.004 2 0.002 0.044 0.957 <0.001 Error 4.967 118 0.043 df: Degrees of Freedom. F: F-statistic. : Partial eta-squared. Significant effects are displayed in bold font. Table 4. ANCOVA with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS for BOLD signal in a priori regions-of-interest. The initial search threshold was set to p = 0.001, with k ≥ 5. FDR q-value is the corrected p-value for multiple comparisons. Effect A priori ROI Hemisphere MNI coordinates F-value FDR q-value x y z Condition (N, U, P) dACC No significant activation amygdala No significant activation insula No significant activation hippocampus No significant activation vmPFC No significant activation whole-brain No significant activation CAPS dACC No significant activation amygdala No significant activation insula No significant activation hippocampus No significant activation vmPFC No significant activation whole-brain No significant activation Condition x CAPS dACC L/R -2 23 18 14.3 0.020 amygdala L -27 -2 -28 15.95 0.002 insula No significant activation hippocampus No significant activation vmPFC No significant activation whole-brain No significant activation L/R = Left/Right. dACC=dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, vmPFC=ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Table 5. ANCOVA with factor Accuracy (Hit, Miss) and covariate CAPS for BOLD signal in a priori regions-of-interest. The initial search threshold was set to p = 0.001, with k ≥ 5. FDR q-value is the corrected p-value for multiple comparisons Effect A priori ROI Hemisphere MNI coordinates F-value FDR q-value x y z Accuracy dACC No significant activation amygdala No significant activation insula No significant activation hippocampus No significant activation vmPFC No significant activation whole-brain No significant activation CAPS dACC No significant activation amygdala No significant activation insula No significant activation hippocampus No significant activation vmPFC No significant activation whole-brain L -34 -46 -21 18.1 0.022 L -39 42 -10 19.7 0.016 R 35 -46 -21 31.6 0.009 Accuracy x CAPS dACC L/R 7 35 18 25.5 0.003 amygdala L -20 -2 -26 13.9 0.033 R 23 -2 -21 12.1 0.033 insula L -39 7 -12 27.3 0.029 R 42 -16 -3 14.7 0.029 hippocampus L -25 -27 -8 14.1 0.023 R 26 -16 -15 18.4 0.023 vmPFC L/R 12 49 -8 20.1 <0.001 whole-brain L -46 -48 -35 17.2 0.034 R 60 -16 -38 18.1 0.034 L -23 17 -38 17.6 0.034 R 23 5 -33 19.5 0.034 R 21 17 -26 17.9 0.034 R 16 -55 -17 23.9 0.034 R 10 -18 -10 17.2 0.034 R 33 -25 -1 24.4 0.034 L -39 7 -12 27.3 0.034 R 26 58 -15 15.0 0.036 L -59 -69 -8 12.8 0.041 R 60 21 -1 17.9 0.034 L -13 21 31 27.5 0.034 L -11 63 -3 21.2 0.034 R 67 -57 6 23.4 0.034 R 46 -87 4 15.5 0.035 L -32 -32 8 15.7 0.035 R 72 -36 8 16.6 0.034 R 19 7 15 15.9 0.035 R 5 -20 34 13.3 0.040 R 60 17 31 18.2 0.034 R 12 -52 43 11.7 0.046 L -30 -50 77 28.3 0.034 R 23 -27 64 21.0 0.034 R 7 -2 84 17.4 0.034 R 16 -50 91 24.0 0.034 L/R = Left/Right. Additional Declarations Yes Conflict of interest SE is a shareholder at AVIV Scientific LTD. KCA, RM, RP, SI, and KDB declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files pxsupptable1.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: revise 11 May, 2026 Review # 2 received at journal 27 Apr, 2026 Reviewer # 2 agreed at journal 28 Feb, 2026 Review # 1 received at journal 22 Feb, 2026 Reviewer # 1 agreed at journal 10 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 09 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 03 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 03 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 02 Feb, 2026 Unknown event 02 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8762666","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":588493663,"identity":"6369971b-daa4-40d4-988a-f9ce7b23203e","order_by":0,"name":"Kristoffer Aberg","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCSBmBjH4QURCASlaJBtAWgxI0WJwAEwSoUWy/QDj54KKe3abz69O/PDAgEGeX+wAfi3SPAnM0jPOFCdvu/F2swTQYYYzZyfg1yIHdJk0b1tCstmNsxtAWhIMbhPWwvyb919CsvGMs5t/EKVFWoKBTZq3IcHOgL93G3G2SPYktlnPOJaQIHGDd5tFgoEEYb9IHD98+HZBTYI9f//ZzTd/VNjI80sT0MLAwNgAIhMbJMAqJQgpRwB7Bv4DxKseBaNgFIyCkQUAzZE/62Lx2SgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0970-400X","institution":"Weizmann Institute of Science","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kristoffer","middleName":"","lastName":"Aberg","suffix":""},{"id":588493664,"identity":"36d94934-51fd-47d1-9309-cc699990ae9a","order_by":1,"name":"Shai Efrati","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shai","middleName":"","lastName":"Efrati","suffix":""},{"id":588493665,"identity":"922a1657-78c1-4eb6-a616-cb9d9752816f","order_by":2,"name":"Sagi Idan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sagi","middleName":"","lastName":"Idan","suffix":""},{"id":588493666,"identity":"871c163a-95b5-4d34-bdd9-106ca03f972d","order_by":3,"name":"Rachel Merzbach","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rachel","middleName":"","lastName":"Merzbach","suffix":""},{"id":588493667,"identity":"888db17f-ff69-488d-9815-2e6cc95718c7","order_by":4,"name":"Rony Paz","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8868-216X","institution":"Weizmann Institute of Science","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rony","middleName":"","lastName":"Paz","suffix":""},{"id":588493668,"identity":"27c3079a-dc50-439d-9deb-78c6695ef750","order_by":5,"name":"Keren Doenyas","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Keren","middleName":"","lastName":"Doenyas","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-02 08:57:46","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8762666/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8762666/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102504589,"identity":"4573298e-0297-441d-a2e3-720cce9b1d7d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:45","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":238673,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParadigm and behavioral results for the threat-of-shock manipulation in the pilot experiment. \u003cstrong\u003eA.\u003c/strong\u003e In the predictable threat condition (P), the aversive noise (denoted by the flash symbol) could only be presented directly after the offset of the object image. \u003cstrong\u003eB.\u003c/strong\u003eIn the unpredictable threat condition (U), the aversive noise could be presented at any time after the offset of the object image. \u003cstrong\u003eC.\u003c/strong\u003e During the no-threat condition (N), no aversive noise was presented. \u003cstrong\u003eD.\u003c/strong\u003e During encoding the P, U, and N trials were presented in a blockwise fashion. \u003cstrong\u003eE.\u003c/strong\u003eIn the surprise memory task performed ~90 minutes after the encoding phase, participants made Old/New decisions with confidence judgements for the 96 old and 96 new images. \u003cstrong\u003eF.\u003c/strong\u003e During testing, trials were presented randomly. \u003cstrong\u003eG.\u003c/strong\u003eThe perceived valence of, anxiety induced by, intensity of, and pain induced by, the aversive noise. \u003cstrong\u003eH.\u003c/strong\u003e Average perceived anxiety during the three conditions. \u003cstrong\u003eI.\u003c/strong\u003e Average difference in Hit minus False alarm rates for the three different conditions. ***p\u0026lt;0.001, **p\u0026lt;0.01, *p\u0026lt;0.05, •p\u0026lt;0.10, ns: not significant (p\u0026gt;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/2a40f7000f932af09f02bb4c.png"},{"id":102504605,"identity":"7192be4c-e4da-41b1-9f68-811bf167ba9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:51","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":240484,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBehavioral results for the threat-of-shock manipulation in the experiment proper. A. Correlation between CAPS scores and the perceived valence of the aversive noise. B. Correlation between CAPS scores and the perceived anxiety of being exposed to the aversive noise. C. Average perceived anxiety during the three conditions. D. Correlation between CAPS scores and the perceived anxiety during the unpredictable threat condition. E. Correlation between CAPS scores and the perceived anxiety during the predictable threat condition. F. Correlation between CAPS scores and the perceived anxiety during the no threat condition. G. Permutation distribution for the difference in correlation coefficients for the U and P conditions (shown in D,E this Figure). Red / Blue horizontal bars denote actual difference / 95% confidence interval. H. Permutation distribution for the difference in correlation coefficients for the U and N conditions (shown in D, F this Figure). Red / Blue horizontal bars denote actual difference / 95% confidence interval. O. Permutation distribution for the difference in correlation coefficients for the P and N conditions (shown in E, F this Figure). Red / Blue horizontal bars denote actual difference / 95% confidence interval. r: Pearson’s correlation coefficient, ρ=Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient, *** p\u0026lt;0.001, ** p\u0026lt;0.01, *p\u0026lt;0.05, ns: not significant (p\u0026gt;0.05). CAPS = Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. FDR-corrected / uncorrected p-values are displayed for Pearson / Spearman correlations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/877d9aa457a79be5ca934695.png"},{"id":102504580,"identity":"ccd765e7-5b7f-4e4e-ac48-e5aae573c9d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:37","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":192576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBehavioral results of the memory task. A. Average difference in Hit – False alarm rates for the three different conditions. B. Correlation between CAPS scores and the difference in hit rates between unpredictable (U) and no threat (N) conditions. C. Correlation between CAPS scores and the difference in hit rates between unpredictable (U) and predictable threat (N) conditions. D. Correlation between CAPS scores and the difference in hit rates between predictable (P) and no threat (N) conditions. E. Correlation between CAPS scores and hit rates for the unpredictable threat (U) condition. F. Correlation between CAPS scores and hit rates for the predictable threat (P) condition. G. Correlation between CAPS scores and hit rates for the no threat (N) condition. H. Correlation between CAPS scores and false alarm rates. r: Pearson’s correlation coefficient, ρ=Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient, *** p\u0026lt;0.001, ** p\u0026lt;0.01, *p\u0026lt;0.05, ns: not significant (p\u0026gt;0.05). CAPS = Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. FDR-corrected / uncorrected p-values are displayed for Pearson / Spearman correlations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/5fdb4019bca3346d4199828c.png"},{"id":102504581,"identity":"97fd2477-910f-4702-8a7a-9bce8d18cb6e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:39","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":478253,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003efMRI activation for images in threat-of-shock contexts. A. dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) cluster showing significant Condition x CAPS interaction. B. dACC beta values as a function of Condition. C. Difference in dACC beta values between the Unpredictable threat (U) and the Predictable threat (P) condition, as a function of PTSD severity (CAPS). D. Difference in dACC beta values between the U and the No threat (N) condition, as a function of CAPS. E. Difference in dACC beta values between the P and the N condition, as a function of CAPS.F. Correlation between CAPS and dACC beta values for the U condition. G. Correlation between CAPS and dACC beta values for the P condition. H. Correlation between CAPS and dACC beta values for the N condition. I. Amygdala cluster showing significant Condition x CAPS interaction. J. Amygdala beta values as a function of Condition. K. Difference in amygdala beta values between the U and the P condition as a function of CAPS. L. Difference in amygdala beta values between the U and the N condition as a function of CAPS. M. Difference in amygdala beta values between the P and the N condition as a function of CAPS. N. Correlation between CAPS and amygdala beta values for the U condition. O. Correlation between CAPS and amygdala beta values for the P condition. P. Correlation between CAPS and amygdala beta values for the N condition. r: Pearson’s correlation coefficient, ρ=Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient, ***p\u0026lt;0.001, **p\u0026lt;0.01, *p\u0026lt;0.05, •p\u0026lt;0.10, ns: not significant (p\u0026gt;0.05). CAPS = Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. FDR-corrected / uncorrected p-values are displayed for Pearson / Spearman correlations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/375402359d0e38e138079309.png"},{"id":102504553,"identity":"667e4465-4114-470b-a576-9fd4ef2cf81f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:28","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":214543,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003efMRI activation for the aversive sound in the amygdala in different threat-of-shock contexts. A. Amygdala cluster showing significant Condition x CAPS interaction. B. Amygdala beta values as a function of Condition. C. Difference in amygdala beta values between the U and the P condition as a function of CAPS. D. Difference in amygdala beta values between the U and the N condition as a function of CAPS. E. Difference in amygdala beta values between the P and the N condition as a function of CAPS. F. Correlation between CAPS and amygdala beta values for the U condition. G. Correlation between CAPS and amygdala beta values for the P condition. H. Correlation between CAPS and amygdala beta values for the N condition. r: Pearson’s correlation coefficient, ρ=Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient, ***p\u0026lt;0.001, **p\u0026lt;0.01, *p\u0026lt;0.05, •p\u0026lt;0.10, ns: not significant (p\u0026gt;0.05). CAPS = Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. FDR-corrected / uncorrected p-values are displayed for Pearson / Spearman correlations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/75a26365827a7c0bf620e866.png"},{"id":102504557,"identity":"0b52e70c-3119-4838-8953-e50d044009f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:33","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":648708,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSubsequent memory effects. A. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) cluster showing a significant subsequent memory effect (Hits minus Misses) as a function of PTSD scores (CAPS). B. Correlation between CAPS and Subsequent memory effect in the dACC. C. Correlation between CAPS and neural activation in the dACC by Hits (left panel) and Misses (right panel). D. Amygdala cluster showing a significant subsequent memory effect (Hits minus Misses) as a function of PTSD scores (CAPS). E. Correlation between CAPS and Subsequent memory effect in the amygdala. F. Correlation between CAPS and neural activation in the amygdala by Hits (left panel) and Misses (right panel). G. Hippocampus cluster showing a significant subsequent memory effect (Hits minus Misses) as a function of PTSD scores (CAPS). H. Correlation between CAPS and Subsequent memory effect in the hippocampus. I. Correlation between CAPS and neural activation in the hippocampus by Hits (left panel) and Misses (right panel). J. Insula cluster showing a significant subsequent memory effect (Hits minus Misses) as a function of PTSD scores (CAPS). K. Correlation between CAPS and Subsequent memory effect in the insula. L. Correlation between CAPS and neural activation in the insula by Hits (left panel) and Misses (right panel). M. Ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) cluster showing a significant subsequent memory effect (Hits minus Misses) as a function of PTSD scores (CAPS). N. Correlation between CAPS and Subsequent memory effect in the vmPFC. O. Correlation between CAPS and neural activation in the vmPFC by Hits (left panel) and Misses (right panel). P. Main effect of Hits versus Misses in the left fusiform gyrus (L FFG) and in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (L vlPFC). Q. Main effect of Hits versus Misses in the right fusiform gyrus (R FFG). r: Pearson’s correlation coefficient, ρ=Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient, *** p\u0026lt;0.001, ** p\u0026lt;0.01, *p\u0026lt;0.05, ns: not significant (p\u0026gt;0.05). CAPS = Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. FDR-corrected / uncorrected p-values are displayed for Pearson / Spearman correlations for Hit-Miss contrasts (e.g. B, E), while only uncorrected p-values are displayed for Hits and Misses separately (e.g. C, F).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/3efff9e252195bf9fd58a9f9.png"},{"id":102746560,"identity":"a6cc8112-79d3-400f-b28b-521674318515","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 08:58:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3365141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/b12e68af-4828-430d-acfc-d655c64fda4c.pdf"},{"id":102504594,"identity":"41dfa420-9920-4ca6-ba22-6be442f6fbe7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-12 11:11:46","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15118,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"pxsupptable1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8762666/v1/b40a313a53218afe0a4b5029.docx"}],"financialInterests":"\u003cb\u003eYes\u003c/b\u003e\nConflict of interest\r\nSE is a shareholder at AVIV Scientific LTD. KCA, RM, RP, SI, and KDB declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"Severe PTSD symptoms magnify episodic memory-encoding deficits and amygdala–ACC attenuation during unpredictable threat","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePost-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental health disorder that can develop after exposure to extreme trauma (e.g., war, interpersonal violence, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse). PTSD symptoms include heightened psychological and physiological distress when exposed to trauma reminders, hyperarousal, avoidance of trauma-related cues, dissociation, and memory-related symptoms such as intrusive trauma memories and peritraumatic amnesia\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe formation of maladaptive trauma memories in PTSD is often attributed to abnormal interactions between memory processes and intense negative emotions, feelings, and bodily sensations experienced during trauma (e.g., fear, anxiety, pain)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Laboratory studies provide substantial support for this view. In fear conditioning, a neutral cue (e.g., picture, sound) is repeatedly paired with an aversive event (e.g., electric shock, monetary loss), and the now \u0026lsquo;fear-conditioned\u0026rsquo; cue comes to elicit defensive responses and behavioral avoidance\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. PTSD is associated with enhanced fear learning and impaired fear extinction (for a review, see\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). In \u0026ldquo;one-shot\u0026rdquo; learning paradigms, stimuli (e.g., pictures, words) are encoded once and later assessed in a memory test phase\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Such designs suggest that PTSD is associated with enhanced memory for negative information (for a review, see \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA limitation shared by these paradigms is that emotional responses are tightly linked to discrete stimuli or events: the fear-conditioned cue, the shock, or a negative image. In real life, however, emotions can also arise from broader contexts and situations. For example, threatening environments can produce sustained anxiety even in the absence of a specific aversive event\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Because many traumatic experiences are preceded and followed by prolonged negative affect (e.g., anxiety upon entering a combat zone)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, sustained, contextually induced emotional states may interact with episodic memory processes. Individuals with PTSD may be particularly vulnerable to such effects. Yet, despite its ecological plausibility, no study has directly tested whether and how contextually evoked emotions influence memory encoding as a function of PTSD symptom severity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA powerful approach for studying contextual effects of threat on behavior and cognition is the threat-of-shock paradigm. Participants are exposed to contexts in which an aversive stimulus (e.g., electric shock or uncomfortable sound) is either (P)redictable (delivered only following a cue/event), (U)npredictable (delivered at any time), or will (N)ot occur\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Because threat is manipulated at the contextual level, neurobehavioral differences between conditions reflect different threat states rather than emotional responses tied to specific stimuli. Threat-of-shock paradigms are particularly relevant for PTSD because PTSD and related fear-based internalizing disorders show modulations that are often strongest in U conditions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (for a review, see \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). For example, startle eye-blink potentiation, a physiological marker of defensive responding and anxiety, was elevated in PTSD during unpredictable threat (relative to predictable or safe contexts), whereas this pattern was not observed in healthy controls or patients with generalized anxiety disorder\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Notably, studies report both positive and negative associations between PTSD symptoms and startle responses in U conditions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15 CR16\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and this directionality may depend on trauma type. One study found that PTSD related to interpersonal trauma was associated with increased startle in unpredictable threat, whereas PTSD related to other trauma types was associated with attenuated startle\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These findings highlight that PTSD-related responses to unpredictability may not be uniform across trauma exposures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreat-of-shock manipulations impact cognitive performance across a range of tasks (for a review, see \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), but relatively few studies have examined episodic memory. A robust finding is reduced recognition memory for faces encoded under unpredictable threat\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This raises a central question: is memory encoding under unpredictable threat further impaired in individuals who show heightened sensitivity to unpredictability, such as individuals with elevated PTSD symptoms? While inter-individual differences (e.g., trait anxiety) can modulate the effects of threat-of-shock on cognition\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22 CR23\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, comparable modulations have not been clearly demonstrated for episodic memory performance, and have not been tested as a function of PTSD symptom severity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, neurobiological evidence supports the plausibility of such an interaction. Unpredictable threat engages regions including the anterior insula, dorsanterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and amygdala\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29 CR30\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These regions, together with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and hippocampus\u0026mdash;key nodes for episodic memory encoding\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026mdash;form an emotion\u0026ndash;memory circuitry that is dysregulated in PTSD (for reviews, see \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR36 CR37 CR38 CR39 CR40 CR41\" citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). Because the circuitry recruited by unpredictable threat overlaps with circuitry implicated in emotional memory and PTSD pathophysiology, episodic encoding in unpredictable threat contexts may be especially sensitive to PTSD symptom severity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, PTSD is associated with memory dysfunction and altered responses to unpredictable threat, and threat-of-shock manipulations engage neural systems that overlap with PTSD-related emotion\u0026ndash;memory circuitry. Yet, whether and how PTSD symptom severity modulates episodic memory encoding under unpredictable threat remains unexplored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address this gap, sixty trauma-exposed combat veterans underwent fMRI scanning while performing a threat-of-shock task during incidental encoding of everyday objects. Participants categorized objects as natural or man-made while exposed to predictable threat, unpredictable threat, or no threat. The aversive stimulus was a three-second screeching noise, calibrated to be equally unpleasant across individuals. Based on evidence that recognition memory is reduced under unpredictable threat\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, we administered a surprise recognition test 90 minutes after encoding. PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss) was quantified using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5)\u003csup\u003e43\u003c/sup\u003e and modeled continuously to preserve variance and statistical power and to avoid diagnostic threshold issues\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45 CR46\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Because interpersonal trauma increases sensitivity to unpredictable threat\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and shares features with aspects of combat trauma (e.g., interpersonal violence, witnessing severe injury or death), we predicted that higher PTSDss would be associated with increased anxiety in the U condition particularly. We further predicted that higher PTSDss would be associated with reduced recognition memory for items encoded under U. Finally, we explored neural correlates within regions implicated in threat processing, emotional learning, episodic memory, and PTSD (dACC, amygdala, vmPFC, hippocampus, anterior insula).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with these predictions, higher PTSDss was associated with increased anxiety and reduced recognition memory specifically under unpredictable threat. Moreover, encoding-related activity in the amygdala and dACC predicted subsequent memory success overall, yet these activations were negatively associated with PTSDss in the U condition. Together, these findings clarify how PTSD symptom severity interacts with episodic memory encoding in contexts characterized by unpredictable threat, and provide candidate neurocognitive mechanisms that may contribute to memory-related symptoms in PTSD.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods and Materials","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePilot study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty participants (mean age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27; range 21\u0026ndash;38; nine males) were recruited for a behavioral pilot to validate the task and confirm that the aversive sound was sufficiently unpleasant to increase anxiety in threat conditions relative to no-threat. Data from 19 participants were analyzed due to a technical error in one case. All participants provided written informed consent. The study was approved by the Weizmann Institute of Science\u0026rsquo;s internal review board (code 2178-1). Pilot participants did not participate in the fMRI study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003efMRI study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSixty male combat veterans (mean age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37; range 22\u0026ndash;53) were recruited. Inclusion criteria were age 20\u0026ndash;60 years, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 years of combat service, at least one potentially life-threatening combat experience, and at least one year since the most recent combat exposure. Exclusion criteria included inability to comply with the study protocol, history of traumatic brain injury or other known pathology, substance use (except prescribed cannabis if withheld\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24 hours prior to study evaluation), current psychiatric disorder other than PTSD, and inability to undergo awake MRI. Participants were recruited across the spectrum of PTSD symptom severity; thus, a formal PTSD diagnosis was not required for inclusion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePTSD symptom severity (PTSDss) was assessed using CAPS-5, a structured clinician-administered interview consisting of 30 items\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Twenty symptom items are summed to yield a severity score ranging from 0 to 80, with higher scores indicating higher PTSDss. CAPS-5 was administered by experienced clinicians trained in the instrument. PTSDss was analyzed as a continuous covariate to preserve variance and power, reduce arbitrary thresholding and misclassification, and capture contributions of subthreshold symptoms to behavior and brain function\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45 CR46\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. All participants provided written informed consent. The study was approved by the Shamir Institutional Review Board (code 178/21). All data were collected prior to October 7, 2023. Participant characteristics are reported in Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePower calculation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBecause no prior study has directly examined incidental episodic encoding during threat-of-shock with delayed recognition memory as a function of PTSDss, we used a recent meta-analysis of episodic memory impairments in PTSD to estimate effect size\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This meta-analysis reports medium range effect sizes comparing PTSD to control groups across memory domains (e.g., Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d approximately\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.4 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.5). To detect a small-to-medium effect size for a correlation (two-tailed Pearson\u0026rsquo;s r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4) with α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 and power\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80, 46 participants are required. We increased the sample to 60 to account for the lower signal-to-noise ratio typical of fMRI. Calculations were performed using G*Power 3.1\u003csup\u003e49\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIncidental memory encoding during threat of shock task\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The task comprised an encoding phase followed by a surprise recognition test approximately 90 minutes later.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEncoding phase\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncoding comprised three conditions: Predictable threat (P), Unpredictable threat (U), and No threat (N) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA\u0026ndash;C). Participants were informed that an aversive noise could occur in U and P conditions, but not in the N condition. Following established protocols \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, participants were instructed that in P the noise could occur only directly after an object (predictable), whereas in U it could occur at any time (unpredictable). The noise occurred 1\u0026ndash;3 times per block, counterbalanced across blocks, resulting in 12 noise presentations across the experiment (six during U blocks, six during P blocks, none during N blocks). Participants were continuously informed of the current condition by Hebrew text at the top of the screen indicating \u0026ldquo;No noise,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Noise after object,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;Noise at any time.\u0026rdquo; This explicit instruction ensures that neurocognitive effects reflect contextual threat type rather than learning which context is threatening, and therefore minimizes learning-related confounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aversive stimulus was a three-second screeching sound. To equate perceived unpleasantness across individuals, volume was titrated via a standardized work-up procedure\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e: volume was increased gradually from a low level until participants reported a discomfort level of four out of five. Because of differences in setups and background noise-levels, calibration was conducted both outside (training environment) and inside the MRI scanning environment. Calibration is especially important given evidence that PTSD is associated with increased sensitivity to aversive sounds\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo probe incidental encoding, participants viewed pictures of familiar neutral everyday objects presented sequentially for six seconds each\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. During each presentation, participants categorized the object as natural or artificial using two response buttons with the right hand (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). After a response, the chosen option was highlighted while the object remained on screen for the full duration. To avoid unintended emotional salience, objects judged bizarre, abstract, or overtly aversive (e.g., weapons) were removed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e During the training session, participants completed a short practice block with P, U, and N conditions containing two objects each (not used in the main task), and the noise occurred once in P and once in U.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the fMRI session, the encoding task consisted of three blocks, each containing one P, one U, and one N condition with 9\u0026ndash;10 objects each (28 objects per condition; 84 encoded objects total). Condition order within blocks followed a randomized Latin/roman-square approach such that each condition appeared equally often in each serial position (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eD). Objects were randomly assigned to conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePost-encoding ratings\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo validate the threat manipulation, participants completed ratings either immediately after the task (pilot) or after exiting the scanner (fMRI). Ratings included: (1) \u0026ldquo;How anxious did you feel during the P/U/N condition?\u0026rdquo; (1\u0026ndash;9 not at all to very much) accompanied by schematic representations of each condition; (2) \u0026ldquo;How did you experience the valence of the noise?\u0026rdquo; (1\u0026ndash;9 very negative to very positive); and (3) \u0026ldquo;How anxious did you feel regarding the possibility of hearing the noise?\u0026rdquo; (1\u0026ndash;9 very low to very high). Ratings were collected after scanning to minimize movement artifacts and transitional disruptions during fMRI acquisition. This may introduce potential retrospective biases, but prior work shows convergence between post-task self-reports and reflexive measures, such as startle, collected during threat contexts\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR53 CR54 CR55\" citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Importantly, this trade-off ensures the best possible neural data for the memory encoding task, which is the main focus of the study. The pilot additionally included intensity and pain ratings for the noise: \u0026ldquo;How did you experience the intensity of the noise?\u0026rdquo; (1\u0026ndash;9 very low to very high), and \u0026ldquo;How painful was the experience of the noise?\u0026rdquo; (1\u0026ndash;9 very low to very high).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTest phase\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e Approximately 90 minutes after encoding finished, participants performed a surprise recognition task. The 84 encoded objects were presented along with 84 novel objects (168 trials total). In each trial, participants made an Old/New judgment with confidence (Certain/Maybe) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eE). Responses were self-paced and presentation order was randomized (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF). For items endorsed as \u0026ldquo;Old,\u0026rdquo; source memory was assessed by asking participants to indicate in which context the item had been encoded (P/U/N).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrials in which the aversive noise occurred during encoding were excluded from memory analyses. Recognition performance was quantified for each condition as the hit rate (proportion of old items judged \u0026ldquo;Old\u0026rdquo;), adjusted by overall false alarm rate (Old responses to new items). This approach is appropriate for comparing memory across conditions, in particular because objects were randomly assigned to conditions, such that identity-driven response biases were minimized compared to designs where stimulus categories are systematically paired with, for example, different reward outcomes \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Source memory was quantified as the proportion of correct context identifications for items correctly recognized as old in each condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed-effects ANCOVAs tested within-subject effects of Condition (P/U/N) and their interaction with CAPS scores (continuous covariate). Follow-up tests used paired t-tests for condition comparisons and Pearson\u0026rsquo;s r for correlations with PTSDss (with Spearman\u0026rsquo;s ρ to assess robustness). Primary analyses were corrected for multiple comparisons using false discovery rate (FDR) control via the Benjamini\u0026ndash;Hochberg procedure\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences between correlation coefficients were tested using permutation procedures (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1,000): the observed difference between correlations (e.g., rAB\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;rAC) was compared to a null distribution generated by shuffling the covariate (vector A) and recomputing the correlation difference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMRI\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImage acquisition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eImages were acquired on a 3T Siemens Vida scanner with a 64-channel head coil. Structural T1 images were collected with MPRAGE (TR/TI/TE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2000/920/1.91 ms; flip angle\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9 degrees; 1 mm isotropic; 176 slices). Functional images were acquired using multiband EPI (TR/TE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2000/30 ms; flip angle\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75 degrees; 2.3 mm isotropic; 64 slices; AP phase encoding; multiband factor\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreprocessing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were analyzed in SPM12 (Welcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience, London, UK; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Functional volumes were realigned, co-registered to T1, slice-time corrected, normalized using parameters derived from normalizing T1 images to IXI-549 tissue probability maps, and smoothed with an 8 mm FWHM Gaussian kernel. Event-related GLMs used a canonical HRF and high-pass filtering (0.008 Hz). Motion artifacts were modeled using a 24-parameter motion regression approach: 6 realignment parameters, their temporal derivatives, and squared terms)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003efMRI analysis 1: Threat condition effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess threat-related encoding activity, the model included three regressors for object presentations (6 s duration) separately for P, U, and N. Button presses were modeled as a stick function. The aversive noise was modeled as a 3 s regressor in P and U. Object presentations paired with noise were entered as regressors of no interest to maintain comparability with behavioral analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003efMRI analysis 2: Subsequent memory effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify encoding-related activity predicting memory success, object presentations were modeled as Hits (subsequently remembered) and Misses (subsequently forgotten), each with 6 s duration. Button presses and aversive noises were modeled as above, and object trials paired with noise were modeled as no-interest regressors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRegions of interest (ROIs)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA priori ROIs were selected due to their roles in threat processing, salience detection, emotional learning, episodic memory formation, and PTSD: amygdala, dorsal ACC (dACC), vmPFC, anterior insula, and hippocampus\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR61 CR62\" citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. ROIs were obtained from the WFU PickAtlas toolbox \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, except vmPFC, which was sourced from a published ROI definition\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe tested how PTSDss modulated threat-related activation and subsequent-memory signals by relating ROI activations to CAPS scores\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e using ANCOVAs implemented in the MRM toolbox\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For analysis 1, the ANCOVA included Condition (P/U/N) and CAPS; for analysis 2, it included Accuracy (Hit/Miss) and CAPS. Significant ANCOVA effects were followed up by extracting beta estimates from peak voxel coordinates within significant clusters and performing targeted t-tests/correlations. Because peak-voxel extraction inflates apparent correlations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, these follow-up coefficients are reported for interpretability, but should not be treated as unbiased effect sizes. To account for multiple comparisons, p-values were corrected by FDR-correction\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This correction is applied both when assessing significant voxels within brain volumes (i.e. ROIs or the whole-brain), and when controlling for testing multiple ROIs. Accordingly, FDR correction is applied twice when testing multiple ROIs: first, when assessing significant voxels within an ROI, and second, when controlling for the number of ROIs tested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOverview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants encoded neutral objects during predictable threat (P; noise only after object), unpredictable threat (U; noise at any time), and no threat (N; no noise) contexts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA\u0026ndash;C), presented in pseudorandom order (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eD). Encoding was incidental via natural/man-made categorization. Post-task ratings assessed subjective experiences. Memory was tested after ~\u0026thinsp;90 minutes via a surprise recognition memory test (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eE,F).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePilot study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePilot data, displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eG, confirmed that the noise was experienced as negative [mean valence rating\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.105\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.458], anxiety-inducing [mean anxiety rating\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.263\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.470], intense [mean intensity rating\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.211\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.311], and painful [mean pain rating\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.263\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.529]. Anxiety ratings were higher in P and U than N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eH; mean anxiety rating U\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.737\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.438, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.263\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.458, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.160\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0.175; P vs. N: t(18)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.306, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.676; U vs. N: t(18)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.795, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.018; U vs. P: t(18)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.634, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.120, Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.375]. Finally, a repeated measures ANOVA with factor Condition (P, U, N) and Hit-False alarm rates revealed a significant intercept term [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eI; F(1, 18)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354.95, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], indicating that overall performance was above chance-level performance (a value of 0 indicates that the hit rate is equal to the false alarm rate). There was no main effect of Condition [F(2, 18)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.216, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.807, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e=0.012].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the pilot study confirmed that the aversive noise was perceived as negative, anxiety-inducing, intense, and painful. More anxiety was induced in threatening contexts, and overall memory performance was above chance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003efMRI study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePTSDss increases anxiety most during unpredictable threat\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough noise unpleasantness was individually calibrated, CAPS scores correlated with more negative noise valence ratings [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA; r=-0.437, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.483, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001] and greater anxiety about the possibility of hearing the noise [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.529, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.573, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001]. Notably, these results occurred despite the fact that CAPS scores were actually negatively correlated with the estimated volume thresholds [outside the MRI scanner: r=-0.375, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003; ρ=-0.512, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; inside the MRI scanner: r=-0.303, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022; ρ=-0.354, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007, data not shown]. Subjective anxiety ratings in the different conditions collapsed across participants is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eC. Anxiety was higher in the U (vs. N) condition [mean anxiety rating U: 3.483\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.329, N: 2.433\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.261; t(59)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.62, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.695], in the P (vs. N) condition [mean anxiety rating P: 3.167\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.322; t(59)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.519, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.454], but not in the U (vs. P) condition [t(59)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.634, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.108, Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.211]. While CAPS scores were positively correlated with subjective anxiety ratings in all conditions [U: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eD; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.830, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.729, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; P: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eE; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.492, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.553, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; N: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eF; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.632, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.639, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], importantly, the correlation was strongest in the U condition, as compared to both the P condition [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eG; actual mean difference: r/ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.198(pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003)/0.090(p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.043)] and the N condition [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eH; actual mean difference: r/ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.338(pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001)/0.176(p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017)], with no difference between P and N conditions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eI; r/ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.140(p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.074)/0.086(p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.148)). Similar results were obtained using traditional ANCOVA, which showed a significant Condition x CAPS interaction [F(2, 116)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.003, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e=0.23], as well as significant correlations between CAPS scores and the difference in subjective anxiety ratings between conditions (see Table\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results indicate that unpredictable threat most strongly amplified anxiety among individuals with higher PTSDss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePTSDss impairs memory for items encoded during unpredictable threat\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMemory performance was tested via a repeated measures ANCOVA with factor Condition (P/U/N), covariate CAPS, and memory performance as dependent variable (each condition\u0026rsquo;s hit rate minus overall false alarm rate). Table\u0026nbsp;2 displays the full ANOVA results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition performance was above chance across conditions [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA; ANCOVA intercept vs. 0: F(1, 59)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;322.47, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001]. The significant Condition \u0026times; CAPS interaction [F(2, 116)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.183, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e=0.051], was caused by relatively reduced memory with higher CAPS in the U condition compared to P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB, r=-0.327, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.033; ρ=-0.275, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.034] and U versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC, r=-0.286, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.041; ρ=-0.219, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.093]. CAPS did not interact with the difference between N and P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eD, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.195, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.135; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.120, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.363]. Higher CAPS predicted reduced memory in U [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eE, r=-0.364, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012; ρ=-0.330, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010], but not in P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eF, r=-0.090, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.494; ρ=-0.123, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.349], nor in N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eG, r=-0.260, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.068; ρ=-0.225, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.085].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCAPS did not relate to false alarm rate [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eH; r=-0.125, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.343; ρ=-0.131, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.318], and no reliable CAPS effects emerged for source memory [Table\u0026nbsp;3].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, increased PTSDss was associated with a specific recognition memory impairment for items encoded during unpredictable threat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePTSDss reduces dACC and amygdala engagement during unpredictable threat\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eROI analyses of threat-condition activation identified Condition \u0026times; CAPS interactions in dACC and amygdala (Table\u0026nbsp;4). A Condition x CAPS interaction were observed in the dACC ROI [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA; MNI=-2 23 18, F(2, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.300, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], caused by significantly reduced dACC activation in U versus P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC; r=-0.423, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.300, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020], and in U versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD; r=-0.576, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.484, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], while no correlation was observed for P versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eE; r=-0.189, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.148; ρ=-0.197, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.131]. Further, CAPS scores correlated negatively with the dACC activation in U [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF; r=-0.341, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.024; ρ=-0.304, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018], with no significant correlation in P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eG; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.267, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.059; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.129, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.326], but with a significantly positive correlation in N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eH; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.459, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.325, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe amygdala ROI also showed a Condition x CAPS interaction [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eI; MNI=-27 -2 -28, F(2, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.947, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], caused by significantly reduced amygdala activation in U versus P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eK; r=-0.595, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.448, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], in U versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eL; r=-0.356, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008; ρ=-0.300, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020], but no correlation was observed for P versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eM; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.230, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.078; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.087, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.511]. Further, CAPS scores correlated negatively with amygdala activation in U [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eN; r=-0.438, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.382, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003], with some evidence for a positive correlation in P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eO; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.332, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.229, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.079], but no correlation in N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eP; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.918; ρ=-0.014, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.914]. No other main effects or interactions were significant, including the other ROIs or the whole-brain (see Table\u0026nbsp;4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also assessed neural responses to the aversive noise, to test whether the reduction in amygdala responses also extended to salient stimuli\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. To enable a comparison with the N condition, we compared all N trials with U and P noise trials (which were discarded from the main analyses). The same ANOVA as above revealed that the amygdala ROI showed a Condition x CAPS interaction [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA; MNI=-23 3\u0026ndash;19, F(2, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.559, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], with no main effect of Condition [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA] nor CAPS [data not shown]. The Condition x CAPS interaction was caused by significantly reduced amygdala activation in U versus P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB; r=-0.331, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015; ρ=-0.071, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;592], in U versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC; r=-0.523, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.337, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008], but no correlation was observed for P versus N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eD; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.042, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.752; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.051, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.701]. Further, CAPS scores correlated negatively with amygdala activation in U [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eE; r=-0.451, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ=-0.274, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.035], with no significant correlations in P [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eF; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.118, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.371; ρ=-0.043, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.743] or N [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eG; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.211, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.212; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.026, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.843].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results suggest reduced engagement of the dACC and the amygdala under unpredictable threat by higher PTSDss, an effect which in the amygdala extended to salient aversive stimulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubsequent memory effects in high PTSDss\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eANCOVA with factor Accuracy (Hit, Miss) and covariate CAPS revealed Accuracy x CAPS interactions in the dACC [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA; MNI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7 35 18, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25.497, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], the amygdala [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eD; MNI=-20 -2 -26, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.9, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], the hippocampus [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eG; MNI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16 -15, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.416, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.023, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], in the anterior insula [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eJ; MNI=-39 7\u0026ndash;12, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.298, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], and in the vmPFC [Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eM; MNI=-39 7\u0026ndash;12, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.298, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn all cases, CAPS showed a positive correlation with the differential activation between hits and misses [i.e. dACC: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eB, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.553, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.330, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010; amygdala: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eE, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.440, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.267, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.039; hippocampus: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eH, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.491, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.262, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.043; insula: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eK, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.566, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.376, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003; vmPFC: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eN, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.507, pFDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.374, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003]. In general, these ROIs showed increased activation for subsequent hits but decreased activation for misses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC,F,I,L,O). Across the whole-brain we observed significant activation for the main effect of Accuracy in the bilateral occipital/fusiform gyrus [L FFG: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eP, MNI=-34 -46 -21, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.075, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; R FFG: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eQ, MNI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35\u0026ndash;46 -21, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31.640, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001], as well as in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex [L vlPFC: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eP, MNI=-39 42\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10, F(1, 58)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.741, pFDR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.016, pUNC\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001]. Across the whole-brain we also observed significant voxels for the Accuracy x CAPS interaction, with peak-voxels within each cluster reported in Table\u0026nbsp;5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results suggest that successful memory encoding in higher levels of PTSDss engages the dACC, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the vmPFC, and the insula.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study tested whether and how PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss) modulates episodic memory encoding under predictable, unpredictable, and safe contexts. Supporting our predictions, higher PTSDss was associated with increased anxiety and reduced recognition memory specifically for items encoded during unpredictable threat. Correspondingly, encoding-related dACC and amygdala activity predicted overall memory success but was negatively associated with PTSDss in the unpredictable condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher PTSDss showed the strongest association with anxiety in unpredictable threat, consistent with prior reports using physiological measures (e.g., startle potentiation) indicating heightened defensive responding in PTSD under unpredictable threat\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Extending these findings, we observed reduced engagement of dACC and amygdala with increasing PTSDss during the U condition. These regions are prominent nodes of the salience network, implicated in detecting and integrating affective and sensory signals to enable adaptive responding\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. PTSD is frequently associated with elevated salience-network reactivity to emotional stimuli and events\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which aligns with hyperarousal and re-experiencing symptoms\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and may appear inconsistent with the present findings. However, prior work also reports reduced amygdala activation with greater PTSD severity in specific contexts, such as arousing movies in combat veterans\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or unmasked fearful faces\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Such results suggest that PTSD involves context-dependent dysfunction of amygdala responses rather than uniformly increased amygdala reactivity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, potentially also varying across subnuclei \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne potential account for reduced amygdala activation to neutral objects during unpredictable threat is the Arousal-Biased Competition model, which proposes that arousal amplifies competition for limited processing resources, enhancing processing of highly salient or goal-relevant stimuli while suppressing less salient information\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Under this framework, unpredictable threat may bias attention away from neutral objects, weakening encoding signals. However, this interpretation is challenged by our additional finding that amygdala responses to the aversive noise itself were also reduced with higher PTSDss in the U condition. Moreover, reduced dACC engagement may indicate diminished recruitment of cognitive control and/or emotion regulation systems\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which might be expected to increase under uncertainty. Together, these points suggest that additional mechanisms may be involved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn alternative explanation is that unpredictable threat triggers dissociative or emotional numbing responses in individuals with high PTSDss, reducing engagement of affective salience circuitry. Dissociation has been proposed as a protective response against overwhelming distress and pain in threatening or traumatic circumstances\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR83\" citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and is positively associated with PTSD severity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Uncertainty and unpredictability reliably induce stress and anxiety\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and some trauma types show heightened sensitivity to unpredictable threat\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Individuals with emotional numbing may also transition more rapidly between affective states\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Within this framework, elevated anxiety under unpredictable threat could provoke a compensatory \u0026ldquo;shutdown\u0026rdquo; response, producing attenuated amygdala engagement. This interpretation is consistent with recent reports linking emotional numbing symptoms to reduced amygdala responses to both negative (pain)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and positive (happy faces)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e stimuli in PTSD. Because we did not measure emotional numbing directly, this hypothesis should be tested in future work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelatedly, seemingly contradictory findings in the literature may reflect trauma-type dependencies. In one study, PTSD symptoms following interpersonal trauma increased startle in unpredictable threat, whereas symptoms following other trauma types showed the opposite relationship\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This suggests that PTSD is heterogeneous and that neurocognitive findings may not generalize across trauma exposures. Future work should explicitly characterize trauma type and consider continuous expression of hyper- and hypo-reactive phenotypes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBehaviorally, PTSDss was associated with reduced recognition memory for objects encoded under unpredictable threat, extending episodic memory research in PTSD that has typically emphasized enhanced memory for negative items\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or heightened associative fear learning\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR90\" citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e91\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. While broad episodic memory impairments have been reported in PTSD\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e92\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the present findings demonstrate a context-dependent memory reduction linked to unpredictable threat. This is particularly relevant because unpredictable threat is common in real-world trauma contexts and may influence memory for peri-traumatic or contextual details.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurally, subsequent memory analyses indicated that successful encoding in participants with higher PTSDss engaged the vmPFC and hippocampus as well as salience-network structures (dACC, insula, amygdala )\u003csup\u003e72\u003c/sup\u003e. Yet dACC and amygdala activity was attenuated under unpredictable threat with increasing PTSDss. Increased hippocampal engagement during successful encoding in PTSD has been interpreted as compensatory recruitment in the presence of deficient hippocampal functioning\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e93\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The amygdala modulates hippocampal encoding, particularly for emotionally relevant information\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e94\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and while the dACC does not have a simple direct pathway to hippocampus, both dACC and hippocampus are strongly connected to the amygdala\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e95\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, potentially allowing the amygdala to mediate influences of salience and control systems on episodic encoding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings also resonate with the Dual Representation Theory (DRT), which posits parallel memory systems during trauma: a verbally accessible system and a situationally accessible system\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e97\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The DRT suggests that during trauma, attention is captured by threat-relevant information, impairing verbally accessible encoding while leaving vivid situational/sensory representations. Disrupted integration between these systems may contribute to intrusive symptoms. Laboratory studies link intrusive memory formation to heightened salience network activity including amygdala, dACC, and anterior insula\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR99 CR100\" citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e98\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e101\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, but less is known about neural mechanisms underlying peri-traumatic amnesia. A dissociative response has been proposed as one trigger for impaired verbally accessible encoding\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, aligning with the possibility that unpredictable threat elicits emotional numbing and reduced engagement of salience circuitry, thereby impairing encoding. While speculative, this provides a mechanistic hypothesis for future work connecting unpredictable threat sensitivity, dissociation, and memory disruption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore broadly, the present findings suggest that PTSD may modulate how contextually evoked emotions shape encoding, offering alternative interpretations of classic PTSD phenomena. For example, in fear conditioning, some studies report that both conditioned and \u0026ldquo;safe\u0026rdquo; cues acquire aversive properties in PTSD\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR103 CR104\" citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e102\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e105\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, typically attributed to stimulus generalization\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e106\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e107\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our results raise the possibility that threatening contexts themselves may broadly influence stimulus processing, causing even nominally safe stimuli to be encoded under a negative affective state, potentially facilitating \u0026ldquo;contextual generalization.\u0026rdquo; Another possibility is that PTSD enables negative emotions to exert lingering effects on memory encoding, similar to what has been observed across individuals in the domain of positive emotions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e108\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Future studies could test whether context-driven affect, lingering affect, and/or stimulus-driven generalization better explains such effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, although memory performance reflects multiple stages (encoding, consolidation, retrieval), several features of our design support an encoding-based interpretation. Retrieval occurred in a safe context for all items, minimizing retrieval-context confounds. Source memory was at chance, reducing the likelihood that participants used explicit context information to guide recognition responses. Objects were randomly assigned to conditions, limiting category-based response strategies that can bias hit rates in outcome-category designs\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, prior work reports PTSD-related memory differences both immediately and after delays\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e92\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, suggesting that encoding-level mechanisms may be central. This emphasis aligns with proposals that encoding processes play a prominent role in maladaptive trauma memories compared with post-encoding processes such as consolidation or retrieval\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR110\" citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e109\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e111\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key dissociation in our results is that PTSDss effects were specific to unpredictable threat and did not generalize to predictable threat. This underscores a particular sensitivity to unpredictability in PTSD rather than to threat per se. In line with this, self-report work shows robust associations between PTSD and intolerance of uncertainty\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e112\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which may represent more than anxiety alone\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e113\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and pre-trauma intolerance of uncertainty may predict post-trauma PTSD symptoms\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR114\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e114\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. While we did not measure intolerance of uncertainty directly, our findings provide candidate neurobehavioral consequences: heightened anxiety and impaired episodic encoding in the face of unpredictable threat.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank the Shamir center PTSD department for help in recruiting participants, the Shamir center MRI unit (Fanny Attar, Yulia Kipnis, Asaf Brain) for help with acquiring neuroimaging data, Noa Lahat for instructing participants, as well as Edna Furman-Haran from the Weizmann Institute of Science for helpful discussions regarding fMRI acquisition. Most of all, we would like to thank all the participants for their motivation, effort, cooperation, and trust.\u0026nbsp;The work was supported by ERC-2023-ADG #101142391 and ISF #1467/24 grants to Rony Paz. Kristoffer C. Aberg is the incumbent of the Sam and Frances Belzberg Research Fellow Chair in Memory and Learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisclosures\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSE is a shareholder at AVIV Scientific LTD. KCA, RM, RP, SI, and KDB declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmerican Psychiatric Association. \u003cem\u003eDiagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders\u003c/em\u003e. 5th edn, 2013.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIyadurai L, Visser RM, Lau-Zhu A, Porcheret K, Horsch A, Holmes EA\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application. \u003cem\u003eClin Psychol Rev\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e69: \u003c/strong\u003e67-82.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaddox SA, Hartmann J, Ross RA, Ressler KJ. Deconstructing the Gestalt: Mechanisms of Fear, Threat, and Trauma Memory Encoding. \u003cem\u003eNeuron\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e102\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e60-74.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBeckers T, Hermans D, Lange I, Luyten L, Scheveneels S, Vervliet B. Understanding clinical fear and anxiety through the lens of human fear conditioning. \u003cem\u003eNat Rev Psychol\u003c/em\u003e 2023; \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e233-245.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBienvenu TCM, Dejean C, Jercog D, Aouizerate B, Lemoine M, Herry C. The advent of fear conditioning as an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder: Learning from the past to shape the future of PTSD research. \u003cem\u003eNeuron\u003c/em\u003e 2021; \u003cstrong\u003e109\u003c/strong\u003e(15)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e2380-2397.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAberg KC, M\u0026uuml;ller J, Schwartz S. Trial-by-Trial Modulation of Associative Memory Formation by Reward Prediction Error and Reward Anticipationas Revealed by a Biologically Plausible Computational Model. \u003cem\u003eFront Hum Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrohawn KH, Offringa R, Pfaff DL, Hughes KC, Shin LM. The Neural Correlates of Emotional Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2010; \u003cstrong\u003e68\u003c/strong\u003e(11)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1023-1030.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDurand F, Isaac C, Januel D. Emotional Memory in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic PRISMA Review of Controlled Studies. \u003cem\u003eFront Psychol\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRobinson OJ, Vytal K, Cornwell BR, Grillon C. The impact of anxiety upon cognition: perspectives from human threat of shock studies. \u003cem\u003eFront Hum Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2013; \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchmitz A, Grillon C. Assessing fear and anxiety in humans using the threat of predictable and unpredictable aversive events (the NPU-threat test). \u003cem\u003eNat Protoc\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e527-532.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSpence R, Kagan L, Bifulco A. A contextual approach to trauma experience: lessons from life events research. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Med\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e49\u003c/strong\u003e(9)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1409-1413.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGorka SM, Lieberman L, Shankman SA, Phan KL. Association between neural reactivity and startle reactivity to uncertain threat in two independent samples. \u003cem\u003ePsychophysiology\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e54\u003c/strong\u003e(5)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e652-662.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGorka SM, Lieberman L, Klumpp H, Kinney KL, Kennedy AE, Ajilore O\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Reactivity to unpredictable threat as a treatment target for fear-based anxiety disorders. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Med\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e47\u003c/strong\u003e(14)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e2450-2460.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrillon C, Pine DS, Lissek S, Rabin S, Bonne O, Vythilingam M. Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable aversive stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder but not in generalized anxiety disorder. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e 2009; \u003cstrong\u003e66\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e47-53.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGorka SM. Interpersonal trauma exposure and startle reactivity to uncertain threat in individuals with alcohol use disorder. \u003cem\u003eDrug Alcohol Depen\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e206\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKreutzer KA, Gorka SM. Impact of Trauma Type on Startle Reactivity to Predictable and Unpredictable Threats. \u003cem\u003eJ Nerv Ment Dis\u003c/em\u003e 2021; \u003cstrong\u003e209\u003c/strong\u003e(12)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e899-904.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLieberman L, Funkhouser CJ, Gorka SM, Liu H, Correa KA, Berenz EC\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e The Relation Between Posttraumatic Stress Symptom Severity and Startle Potentiation to Predictable and Unpredictable Threat. \u003cem\u003eJ Nerv Ment Dis\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e208\u003c/strong\u003e(5)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e397-402.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBolton S, Robinson OJ. The impact of threat of shock-induced anxiety on memory encoding and retrieval. \u003cem\u003eLearn Memory\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e24\u003c/strong\u003e(10)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e532-542.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBuehler SK, Lowther M, Lukow PB, Kirk PA, Pike AC, Yamamori Y\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Independent replications reveal anterior and posterior cingulate cortex activation underlying state anxiety-attenuated face encoding. \u003cem\u003eCommun Psychol\u003c/em\u003e 2024; \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGaribbo M, Aylward J, Robinson OJ. The impact of threat of shock-induced anxiety on the neural substrates of memory encoding and retrieval. \u003cem\u003eSoc Cogn Affect Neur\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e(10)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1087-1096.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAberg KC, Paz R. Stress-induced avoidance in mood disorders. \u003cem\u003eNat Hum Behav\u003c/em\u003e 2022; \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e(7)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e915-+.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi N, Lavalley CA, Chou KP, Chuning AE, Taylor S, Goldman CM\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Directed exploration is reduced by an aversive interoceptive state induction in healthy individuals but not in those with affective disorders. \u003cem\u003eMolecular psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e 2025; \u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e(9)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e4029-4038.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQiao ZL, Pan DN, Hoid D, van Winkel R, Li XB. When the approaching threat is uncertain: Dynamics of defensive motivation and attention in trait anxiety. \u003cem\u003ePsychophysiology\u003c/em\u003e 2022; \u003cstrong\u003e59\u003c/strong\u003e(9).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilson KA, MacNamara A. Transdiagnostic Fear and Anxiety: Prospective Prediction Using the No-Threat, Predictable Threat, and Unpredictable Threat Task. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat-Glob O\u003c/em\u003e 2023; \u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e930-938.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCornwell BR, Didier PR, Grogans SE, Anderson AS, Islam S, Kim HC\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e A Shared Threat-Anticipation Circuit Is Dynamically Engaged at Different Moments by Certain and Uncertain Threat. \u003cem\u003eJ Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2025; \u003cstrong\u003e45\u003c/strong\u003e(16).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHerrmann MJ, Boehme S, Becker MPI, Tupak SV, Guhn A, Schmidt B\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Phasic and sustained brain responses in the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis during threat anticipation. \u003cem\u003eHum Brain Mapp\u003c/em\u003e 2016; \u003cstrong\u003e37\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1091-1102.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHur J, Smith JF, DeYoung KA, Anderson AS, Kuang JY, Kim HC\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Anxiety and the Neurobiology of Temporally Uncertain Threat Anticipation. \u003cem\u003eJ Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e40\u003c/strong\u003e(41)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e7949-7964.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu XQ, Jiao GJ, Zhou F, Kendrick KM, Yao DZ, Gong QY\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e A neural signature for the subjective experience of threat anticipation under uncertainty. \u003cem\u003eNat Commun\u003c/em\u003e 2024; \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadoman M, Lieberman L, Jimmy J, Gorka SM. Shared and unique neural circuitry underlying temporally unpredictable threat and reward processing. \u003cem\u003eSoc Cogn Affect Neur\u003c/em\u003e 2021; \u003cstrong\u003e16\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e370-382.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadoman M, Phan KL, Gorka SM. Neural correlates of predictable and unpredictable threat in internalizing psychopathology. \u003cem\u003eNeurosci Lett\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e701: \u003c/strong\u003e193-201.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShankman SA, Gorka SM, Nelson BD, Fitzgerald DA, Phan KL, O\u0026apos;Daly O. Anterior insula responds to temporally unpredictable aversiveness: an fMRI study. \u003cem\u003eNeuroreport\u003c/em\u003e 2014; \u003cstrong\u003e25\u003c/strong\u003e(8)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e596-600.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEichenbaum H. Memory: Organization and Control. \u003cem\u003eAnnual Review of Psychology, Vol 68\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e68: \u003c/strong\u003e19-45.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLisman J, Buzs\u0026aacute;ki G, Eichenbaum H, Nadel L, Rangananth C, Redish AD. Viewpoints: how the hippocampus contributes to memory, navigation and cognition. \u003cem\u003eNat Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e(11)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1434-1447.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSquire LR. Memory and the Hippocampus - a Synthesis from Findings with Rats, Monkeys, and Humans. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Rev\u003c/em\u003e 1992; \u003cstrong\u003e99\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e195-231.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEtkin A, Wager TD. Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. \u003cem\u003eAm J Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2007; \u003cstrong\u003e164\u003c/strong\u003e(10)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1476-1488.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFitzgerald JM, DiGangi JA, Phan KL. Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Its Regulation in PTSD. \u003cem\u003eHarvard Rev Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2018; \u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e116-128.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHarnett NG, Goodman AM, Knight DC. PTSD-related neuroimaging abnormalities in brain function, structure, and biochemistry. \u003cem\u003eExp Neurol\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e330\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIqbal J, Huang GD, Xue YX, Yang M, Jia XJ. The neural circuits and molecular mechanisms underlying fear dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eFront Neurosci-Switz\u003c/em\u003e 2023; \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiberzon I, Sripada CS. The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: a critical review. \u003cem\u003eProg Brain Res\u003c/em\u003e 2007; \u003cstrong\u003e167: \u003c/strong\u003e151-169.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatel R, Spreng RN, Shin LM, Girard TA. Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and beyond: A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. \u003cem\u003eNeurosci Biobehav R\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e36\u003c/strong\u003e(9)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e2130-2142.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePitman RK, Rasmusson AM, Koenen KC, Shin LM, Orr SP, Gilbertson MW\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eNat Rev Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e(11)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e769-787.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRichardson MP, Strange BA, Dolan RJ. Encoding of emotional memories depends on amygdala and hippocampus and their interactions. \u003cem\u003eNat Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2004; \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e278-285.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWeathers FW, Bovin MJ, Lee DJ, Sloan DM, Schnurr PP, Kaloupek DG\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. \u003cem\u003ePsychological assessment\u003c/em\u003e 2018; \u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e383-395.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRuscio AM. Normal Versus Pathological Mood: Implications for Diagnosis. \u003cem\u003eAnnu Rev Clin Psycho\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e15: \u003c/strong\u003e179-205.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeasuring Mental Health Variables in Computational Research: Toward Validated, Dimensional, and Translational Approaches. \u003cem\u003eProceedings of the Proceedings of the 10th Workshop on Computational Linguistic and Clinical Psychology\u003c/em\u003e2025. Association for Computational Linguistics.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWeathers FW, Keane TM, Davidson JRT. Clinician-administered PTSD scale: A review of the first ten years of research. \u003cem\u003eDepress Anxiety\u003c/em\u003e 2001; \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e132-156.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWeathers FW, Ruscio AM, Keane TM. Psychometric properties of nine scoring rules for the clinician-administered posttraumatic stress disorder scale. \u003cem\u003ePsychological assessment\u003c/em\u003e 1999; \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e124-133.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePetzold M, Bunzeck N. Impaired episodic memory in PTSD patients - A meta-analysis of 47 studies. \u003cem\u003eFront Psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e 2022; \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFaul F, Erdfelder E, Lang AG, Buchner A. G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. \u003cem\u003eBehavior research methods\u003c/em\u003e 2007; \u003cstrong\u003e39\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e175-191.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShalev AY, Orr SP, Peri T, Schreiber S, Pitman RK. Physiologic responses to loud tones in Israeli patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eArchives of general psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e 1992; \u003cstrong\u003e49\u003c/strong\u003e(11)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e870-875.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRossion B, Pourtois G. Revisiting Snodgrass and Vanderwart\u0026apos;s object pictorial set: The role of surface detail in basic-level object recognition. \u003cem\u003ePerception\u003c/em\u003e 2004; \u003cstrong\u003e33\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e217-236.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBennett KP, Dickmann JS, Larson CL. If or when? Uncertainty\u0026apos;s role in anxious anticipation. \u003cem\u003ePsychophysiology\u003c/em\u003e 2018; \u003cstrong\u003e55\u003c/strong\u003e(7).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVytal K, Cornwell B, Arkin N, Grillon C. Describing the interplay between anxiety and cognition: From impaired performance under low cognitive load to reduced anxiety under high load. \u003cem\u003ePsychophysiology\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e49\u003c/strong\u003e(6)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e842-852.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCarsten HP, Haerper K, Riesel A. A rare scare: The role of intolerance of uncertainty in startle responses and event-related potentials in anticipation of unpredictable threat. \u003cem\u003eInt J Psychophysiol\u003c/em\u003e 2022; \u003cstrong\u003e179: \u003c/strong\u003e56-66.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBalderston NL, Hale E, Hsiung A, Torrisi S, Holroyd T, Carver FW\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Threat of shock increases excitability and connectivity of the intraparietal sulcus. \u003cem\u003eElife\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLago TR, Hsiung A, Leitner BP, Duckworth CJ, Balderston NL, Chen KY\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Exercise modulates the interaction between cognition and anxiety in humans. \u003cem\u003eCognition Emotion\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e33\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e863-870.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBowen HJ, Marchesi ML, Kensinger EA. Reward motivation influences response bias on a recognition memory task. \u003cem\u003eCognition\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e203\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBenjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the False Discovery Rate - a Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing. \u003cem\u003eJ Roy Stat Soc B\u003c/em\u003e 1995; \u003cstrong\u003e57\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e289-300.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFriston KJ, Williams S, Howard R, Frackowiak RSJ, Turner R. Movement-related effects in fMRI time-series. \u003cem\u003eMagnet Reson Med\u003c/em\u003e 1996; \u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e346-355.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePerl O, Duek O, Kulkarni KR, Gordon C, Krystal JH, Levy I\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Neural patterns differentiate traumatic from sad autobiographical memories in PTSD. \u003cem\u003eNat Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2023; \u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e(12).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVanElzakker MB, Dahlgren MK, Davis FC, Dubois S, Shin LM. From Pavlov to PTSD: The extinction of conditioned fear in rodents, humans, and anxiety disorders. \u003cem\u003eNeurobiol Learn Mem\u003c/em\u003e 2014; \u003cstrong\u003e113: \u003c/strong\u003e3-18.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRauch SL, Shin LM, Phelps EA. Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research - Past, present, and future. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2006; \u003cstrong\u003e60\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e376-382.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHayes JP, Vanelzakker MB, Shin LM. Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in integrative neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e6: \u003c/strong\u003e89.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaldjian JA, Laurienti PJ, Kraft RA, Burdette JH. An automated method for neuroanatomic and cytoarchitectonic atlas-based interrogation of fMRI data sets. \u003cem\u003eNeuroimage\u003c/em\u003e 2003; \u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1233-1239.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBhanji J, Smith DV, Delgado M. A brief anatomical sketch of human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. \u003cem\u003e[preprint] PsyArXiv\u003c/em\u003e 2019.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLieberman MD, Berkman ET, Wager TD. Correlations in Social Neuroscience Aren\u0026apos;t Voodoo: Commentary on Vul et al. (2009). \u003cem\u003ePerspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science\u003c/em\u003e 2009; \u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e299-307.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcFarquhar M, McKie S, Emsley R, Suckling J, Elliott R, Williams S. Multivariate and repeated measures (MRM): A new toolbox for dependent and multimodal group-level neuroimaging data. \u003cem\u003eNeuroimage\u003c/em\u003e 2016; \u003cstrong\u003e132: \u003c/strong\u003e373-389.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKriegeskorte N, Simmons WK, Bellgowan PSF, Baker CI. Circular analysis in systems neuroscience: the dangers of double dipping. \u003cem\u003eNat Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2009; \u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e(5)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e535-540.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVul E, Harris C, Winkielman P, Pashler H. Puzzlingly High Correlations in fMRI Studies of Emotion, Personality, and Social Cognition. \u003cem\u003ePerspectives on Psychological Science\u003c/em\u003e 2009; \u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e274-290.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFelmingham KL, Falconer EM, Williams L, Kemp AH, Allen A, Peduto A\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Reduced Amygdala and Ventral Striatal Activity to Happy Faces in PTSD Is Associated with Emotional Numbing. \u003cem\u003ePloS one\u003c/em\u003e 2014; \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e(9).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKorem N, Duek O, Ben-Zion Z, Kaczkurkin AN, Lissek S, Orederu T\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Emotional numbing in PTSD is associated with lower amygdala reactivity to pain. \u003cem\u003eNeuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology\u003c/em\u003e 2022; \u003cstrong\u003e47\u003c/strong\u003e(11)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1913-1921.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMenon V. Salience Network. In: Toga AW (ed). \u003cem\u003eBrain Mapping: An Encyclopedic Reference\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 2. Academic Press: Elsevier2015, pp 597-611.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkiki TJ, Averill CL, Abdallah CG. A Network-Based Neurobiological Model of PTSD: Evidence From Structural and Functional Neuroimaging Studies. \u003cem\u003eCurr Psychiat Rep\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e(11).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBryant RA. Post-traumatic stress disorder: a state-of-the-art review of evidence and challenges. \u003cem\u003eWorld psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e18\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e259-269.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadell ML, Myers CE, Sheynin J, Moustafa AA. Computational Models of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In: Moustafa AA (ed). \u003cem\u003eComputational Models of Brain and Behavior\u003c/em\u003e. John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons, Ltd.2018.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrashers-Krug T, Jorge R. Bi-Directional Tuning of Amygdala Sensitivity in Combat Veterans Investigated with fMRI. \u003cem\u003ePloS one\u003c/em\u003e 2015; \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e(6)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003ee0130246.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArmony JL, Corbo V, Cl\u0026eacute;ment MH, Brunet A. Amygdala response in patients with acute PTSD to masked and unmasked emotional facial expressions. \u003cem\u003eAm J Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2005; \u003cstrong\u003e162\u003c/strong\u003e(10)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1961-1963.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGina LF, Raluca MS, Lee AB. Revisiting the Role of the Amygdala in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In: Barbara F (ed). \u003cem\u003eThe Amygdala\u003c/em\u003e. IntechOpen: Rijeka, 2017, p Ch. 6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMather M, Sutherland MR. Arousal-Biased Competition in Perception and Memory. \u003cem\u003ePerspectives on Psychological Science\u003c/em\u003e 2011; \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e114-133.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShackman AJ, Salomons TV, Slagter HA, Fox AS, Winter JJ, Davidson RJ. The integration of negative affect, pain and cognitive control in the cingulate cortex. \u003cem\u003eNat Rev Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e 2011; \u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e154-167.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStevens FL, Hurley RA, Taber KH. Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Unique Role in Cognition and Emotion. \u003cem\u003eJ Neuropsych Clin N\u003c/em\u003e 2011; \u003cstrong\u003e23\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e120-125.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrewen PA, Lanius RA. Toward a psychobiology of posttraumatic self-dysregulation - Reexperiencing, hyperarousal, dissociation, and emotional numbing. \u003cem\u003eAnn Ny Acad Sci\u003c/em\u003e 2006; \u003cstrong\u003e1071: \u003c/strong\u003e110-124.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLanius RA, Vermetten E, Loewenstein RJ, Brand B, Schmahl C, Bremner JD\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Emotion Modulation in PTSD: Clinical and Neurobiological Evidence for a Dissociative Subtype. \u003cem\u003eAm J Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2010; \u003cstrong\u003e167\u003c/strong\u003e(6)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e640-647.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchiavone FL, Frewen P, McKinnon M, Lanius RA. The dissociative subtype of PTSD: An update of the literature. \u003cem\u003ePTSD Research Quarterly\u003c/em\u003e 2018; \u003cstrong\u003e29\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1-13.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDuek O, Seidemann R, Pietrzak RH, Harpaz-Rotem I. Distinguishing emotional numbing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder from major depressive disorder. \u003cem\u003eJ Affect Disorders\u003c/em\u003e 2023; \u003cstrong\u003e324: \u003c/strong\u003e294-299.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMason JW. A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. \u003cem\u003ePsychosomatic medicine\u003c/em\u003e 1968; \u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e(5)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003eSuppl:576-607.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGagnon SA, Wagner AD. Acute stress and episodic memory retrieval: neurobiological mechanisms and behavioral consequences. \u003cem\u003eAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 2016; \u003cstrong\u003e1369\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e55-75.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKorem N, Duek O, Spiller T, Ben-Zion Z, Levy I, Harpaz-Rotem I. Emotional State Transitions in Trauma-Exposed Individuals With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. \u003cem\u003eJama Netw Open\u003c/em\u003e 2024; \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(4).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKredlow MA, Fenster RJ, Laurent ES, Ressler KJ, Phelps EA. Prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and threat processing: implications for PTSD. \u003cem\u003eNeuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology\u003c/em\u003e 2022; \u003cstrong\u003e47\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e247-259.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMilad MR, Pitman RK, Ellis CB, Gold AL, Shin LM, Lasko NB\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Neurobiological Basis of Failure to Recall Extinction Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2009; \u003cstrong\u003e66\u003c/strong\u003e(12)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1075-1082.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMilad MR, Quirk GJ. Fear Extinction as a Model for Translational Neuroscience: Ten Years of Progress. \u003cem\u003eAnnu Rev Psychol\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e63: \u003c/strong\u003e129-151.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrewin CR, Kleiner JS, Vasterling JJ, Field AP. Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic investigation. \u003cem\u003eJ Abnorm Psychol\u003c/em\u003e 2007; \u003cstrong\u003e116\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e448-463.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJoshi SA, Duval ER, Kubat B, Liberzon I. A review of hippocampal activation in post-traumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003ePsychophysiology\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e57\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003ee13357.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePhelps EA. Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. \u003cem\u003eCurr Opin Neurobiol\u003c/em\u003e 2004; \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e(2)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e198-202.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeDoux J, Schiller D. The human amygdala: Insights from other animals. In: Whalen PJ, Phelps EA (eds). \u003cem\u003eThe human amygdala\u003c/em\u003e. Guilford Press2009.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrewin CR, Burgess N. Contextualisation in the revised dual representation theory of PTSD: A response to Pearson and colleagues. \u003cem\u003eJ Behav Ther Exp Psy\u003c/em\u003e 2014; \u003cstrong\u003e45\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e217-219.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrewin CR, Dalgleish T, Joseph S. A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Rev\u003c/em\u003e 1996; \u003cstrong\u003e103\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e670-686.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBourne C, Mackay CE, Holmes EA. The neural basis of flashback formation: the impact of viewing trauma. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Med\u003c/em\u003e 2013; \u003cstrong\u003e43\u003c/strong\u003e(7)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e1521-1532.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBattaglini E, Liddell B, Das P, Malhi G, Felmingham K, Bryant RA. Intrusive Memories of Distressing Information: An fMRI Study. \u003cem\u003ePloS one\u003c/em\u003e 2016; \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e(9).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaposa JM, Rector NA. The prediction of intrusions following an analogue traumatic event: Peritraumatic cognitive processes and anxiety-focused rumination versus rumination in response to intrusions. \u003cem\u003eJ Behav Ther Exp Psy\u003c/em\u003e 2012; \u003cstrong\u003e43\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e877-883.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRattel JA, Miedl SF, Franke LK, Gr\u0026uuml;nberger LM, Blechert J, Kronbichler M\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Peritraumatic Neural Processing and Intrusive Memories: The Role of Lifetime Adversity. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat-Cogn N\u003c/em\u003e 2019; \u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e381-389.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRabinak CA, Mori S, Lyons M, Milad MR, Phan KL. Acquisition of CS-US contingencies during Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction in social anxiety disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eJ Affect Disorders\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e207: \u003c/strong\u003e76-85.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrillon C, Morgan CA. Fear-potentiated startle conditioning to explicit and contextual cues in gulf war veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eJ Abnorm Psychol\u003c/em\u003e 1999; \u003cstrong\u003e108\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e134-142.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePeri T, Ben-Shakhar G, Orr SP, Shalev AY. Psychophysiologic assessment of aversive conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2000; \u003cstrong\u003e47\u003c/strong\u003e(6)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e512-519.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNorrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Olin IW, Sands LA, Karapanou I, Bradley B\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Fear Extinction in Traumatized Civilians with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Relation to Symptom Severity. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2011; \u003cstrong\u003e69\u003c/strong\u003e(6)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e556-563.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLis S, Thome J, Kleindienst N, Mueller-Engelmann M, Steil R, Priebe K\u003cem\u003e et al.\u003c/em\u003e Generalization of fear in post-traumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003ePsychophysiology\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e57\u003c/strong\u003e(1)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003ee13422.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDunsmoor JE, Paz R. Fear Generalization and Anxiety: Behavioral and Neural Mechanisms. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2015; \u003cstrong\u003e78\u003c/strong\u003e(5)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e336-343.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAberg KC, Kramer EE, Schwartz S. Interplay between midbrain and dorsal anterior cingulate regions arbitrates lingering reward effects on memory encoding. \u003cem\u003eNat Commun\u003c/em\u003e 2020; \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYehuda R, Golier JA, Halligan SL, Harvey PD. Learning and memory in holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. \u003cem\u003eBiol Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2004; \u003cstrong\u003e55\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e291-295.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYehuda R, Golier JA, Tischler L, Stavitsky K, Harvey PD. Learning and memory in aging combat veterans with PTSD. \u003cem\u003eJ Clin Exp Neuropsyc\u003c/em\u003e 2005; \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e504-515.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSamuelson KW. Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: a review. \u003cem\u003eDialogues in clinical neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e 2011; \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e(3)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e346-351.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFetzner MG, Horswill SC, Boelen PA, Carleton RN. Intolerance of Uncertainty and PTSD Symptoms: Exploring the Construct Relationship in a Community Sample with a Heterogeneous Trauma History. \u003cem\u003eCognitive Ther Res\u003c/em\u003e 2013; \u003cstrong\u003e37\u003c/strong\u003e(4)\u003cstrong\u003e: \u003c/strong\u003e725-734.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOglesby ME, Gibby BA, Mathes BM, Short NA, Schmidt NB. Intolerance of uncertainty and post-traumatic stress symptoms: An investigation within a treatment seeking trauma-exposed sample. \u003cem\u003eCompr Psychiat\u003c/em\u003e 2017; \u003cstrong\u003e72: \u003c/strong\u003e34-40.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOglesby ME, Boffa JW, Short NA, Raines AM, Schmidt NB. Intolerance of uncertainty as a predictor of post-traumatic stress symptoms following a traumatic event. \u003cem\u003eJ Anxiety Disord\u003c/em\u003e 2016; \u003cstrong\u003e41: \u003c/strong\u003e82-87.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u003c/strong\u003e Repeated measures ANCOVA for perceived anxiety-ratings with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS, and correlations between CAPS scores and differences in anxiety-ratings between conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Square\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg width=\"17\" height=\"39\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e/r\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1650.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1650.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e238.07\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCAPS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e431.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e431.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e62.253\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.518\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e402.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.932\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCondition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e34.81\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e17.406\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e16.903\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.226\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCAPS x Condition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e37.08\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e18.538\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e18.003\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.237\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e119.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCAPS vs U minus N\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.637\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCAPS vs U minus P\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.005\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.360\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCAPS vs P min N\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.005\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.359\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003edf: Degrees of Freedom. F: F-statistic. \u003cimg width=\"19\" height=\"21\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e: Partial eta-squared r: Pearson\u0026rsquo;s r. Significant effects are displayed in bold font.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u003c/strong\u003e Repeated measures ANCOVA for Hit rates \u0026ndash; overall False alarm rates with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Square\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg width=\"17\" height=\"39\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e29.903\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e29.903\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e322.47\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.502\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.482\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.471\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCondition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.064\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.032\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.410\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.036\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.055\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCAPS x Condition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.059\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.030\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.183\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.045\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.051\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.098\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003edf: Degrees of Freedom. F: F-statistic. \u003cimg width=\"19\" height=\"21\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e: Partial eta-squared. Significant effects are displayed in bold font.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e. Repeated measures ANCOVA for source memory performance with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Square\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg width=\"17\" height=\"39\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntercept\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.145\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.980\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.975\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCondition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0175\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.408\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAPS x Condition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.957\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.967\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003edf: Degrees of Freedom. F: F-statistic. \u003cimg width=\"19\" height=\"21\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e: Partial eta-squared. Significant effects are displayed in bold font.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eANCOVA with factor Condition (U, P, N) and covariate CAPS for BOLD signal in a priori regions-of-interest. The initial search threshold was set to p = 0.001, with k \u0026ge; 5. FDR q-value is the corrected p-value for multiple comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"552\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA priori ROI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHemisphere\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMNI coordinates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFDR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eq-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ez\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCondition (N, U, P)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edACC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eamygdala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einsula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehippocampus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evmPFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhole-brain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edACC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eamygdala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einsula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehippocampus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evmPFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhole-brain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 276px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCondition x CAPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edACC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL/R\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eamygdala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einsula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehippocampus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evmPFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhole-brain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eL/R\u0026nbsp;=\u0026nbsp;Left/Right. dACC=dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, vmPFC=ventromedial prefrontal cortex.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eANCOVA with factor Accuracy (Hit, Miss) and covariate CAPS for BOLD signal in a priori regions-of-interest. The initial search threshold was set to p = 0.001, with k \u0026ge; 5. FDR q-value is the corrected p-value for multiple comparisons\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"552\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA priori ROI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHemisphere\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMNI coordinates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFDR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eq-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ez\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccuracy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edACC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eamygdala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einsula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehippocampus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evmPFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhole-brain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edACC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eamygdala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einsula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehippocampus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evmPFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 366px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo significant activation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhole-brain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccuracy x CAPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edACC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL/R\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eamygdala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einsula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehippocampus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evmPFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL/R\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhole-brain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eL/R = Left/Right.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"molecular-psychiatry","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"mp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Molecular Psychiatry](http://www.nature.com/mp/)","snPcode":"41380","submissionUrl":"https://mts-mp.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"Molecular Psychiatry","twitterHandle":"@molpsychiatry","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8762666/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8762666/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePTSD is marked by atypical coupling between emotion and learning, yet it remains unclear how threat that is situational (the presence of potential danger) shapes episodic memory. We investigated whether unpredictability-driven threat alters incidental memory formation as a function of PTSD symptom severity (PTSDss).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSixty male combat veterans underwent fMRI scanning during incidental encoding of everyday objects presented under unpredictable threat (U), predictable threat (P), or no threat (N). Threat was operationalized as potential exposure to a highly aversive sound. An unexpected recognition test followed 90 minutes later. We related memory (hit rates), subjective anxiety, and encoding-related BOLD activity to PTSDss assessed with CAPS-5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreater PTSDss predicted heightened anxiety and poorer memory for items specifically presented under unpredictable threat. While amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate activity during encoding tracked overall memory success, these responses were attenuated with increasing PTSDss in the U condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy linking unpredictable threat to both behavioral and neural markers of disrupted episodic memory encoding, the study helps explain how memory-related symptoms may develop and persist in PTSD.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Severe PTSD symptoms magnify episodic memory-encoding deficits and amygdala–ACC attenuation during unpredictable threat","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-12 11:10:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8762666/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"revise","date":"2026-05-11T14:51:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2026-04-27T21:05:17+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2026-02-28T14:15:59+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2026-02-23T01:11:23+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2026-02-10T16:04:45+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-09T17:58:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-03T18:27:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-03T18:11:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Molecular Psychiatry","date":"2026-02-02T18:04:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksFailed","content":"","date":"2026-02-02T13:07:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"molecular-psychiatry","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"mp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Molecular Psychiatry](http://www.nature.com/mp/)","snPcode":"41380","submissionUrl":"https://mts-mp.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"Molecular Psychiatry","twitterHandle":"@molpsychiatry","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ec23a802-4a6c-4ae1-8e02-85a0842fd2cf","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 12th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"revise","date":"2026-05-11T14:51:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[{"id":62610768,"name":"Health sciences/Diseases/Psychiatric disorders"},{"id":62610769,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience"},{"id":62610770,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-11T15:01:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-12 11:10:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8762666","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8762666","identity":"rs-8762666","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}