Synergistic Mechanisms of Green Equisetum-Synthesized Silica Nanocomposite, Gemini Surfactant and Low Salinity Water from Interfacial Modifications to Spontaneous Imbibition Driven Enhanced Oil Recovery

Synergistic Mechanisms of Green Equisetum-Synthesized Silica Nanocomposite, Gemini Surfactant and Low Salinity Water from Interfacial Modifications to Spontaneous Imbibition Driven Enhanced Oil Recovery | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Synergistic Mechanisms of Green Equisetum-Synthesized Silica Nanocomposite, Gemini Surfactant and Low Salinity Water from Interfacial Modifications to Spontaneous Imbibition Driven Enhanced Oil Recovery Ali Yarahmadi, Ghasem Zargar, Siavash Ashoori, Abbas Khaksar Manshad This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7697137/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 03 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Developing environmentally benign yet high-performance enhanced oil recovery (EOR) strategies for carbonate reservoirs remains a pressing challenge due to their oil‐wet nature and complex brine chemistry. In this study, we introduce a mechanistically designed ternary system comprising plant‐derived Equisetum arvense nanosilica (NS), a novel cationic Gemini surfactant (T14S3), and sulfate‐enriched low‐salinity brine (Na₂SO₄) to achieve multi‐scale interfacial control. Comprehensive physicochemical analyses confirmed the amorphous, silanol‐rich morphology of the nanosilica and the bis‐quaternary architecture of T14S3, exhibiting complementary electrostatic tendencies. Zeta potential measurements revealed tunable surface charge from ≈ − 70 mV to + 30 mV via sulfate‐mediated adsorption and double‐layer compression. The ternary formulation achieved ultralow interfacial tension (IFT) (0.51 mN/m at 5500 ppm Na₂SO₄) and pronounced wettability alteration (contact angle reduction from ≈ 138° to 34° at 2000 ppm Na₂SO₄). Langmuir modeling confirmed enhanced cooperative adsorption of NS and T14S3 under optimal salinity. Spontaneous imbibition tests demonstrated that the 2000 ppm Na₂SO₄ blend recovered 25.4% OOIP, more than twice the baseline brine, highlighting wettability alteration as the dominant mechanism once IFT entered the sub 1 mN/m domain. By integrating green nanomaterials, advanced surfactant architecture, and targeted ionic tuning, this work establishes a low‐carbon, scalable framework for sustainable EOR, aligning with circular economy and reservoir management goals. Physical sciences/Chemistry Physical sciences/Engineering Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Materials science Enhanced Oil Recovery Gemini Surfactants Green Nanocomposite Wettability Alteration Interfacial Tension Reduction Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 03 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 16 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 14 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 06 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 05 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 30 Sep, 2025 Editor invited by journal 30 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7697137","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":529910970,"identity":"2af9e1e8-1930-4447-ba61-e69f8c657c72","order_by":0,"name":"Ali Yarahmadi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Petroleum University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Yarahmadi","suffix":""},{"id":529910971,"identity":"2929dcef-257d-48f2-b123-3f24e80499ba","order_by":1,"name":"Ghasem 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