Impact of War Conflicts on Memory Function Among Lebanese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study

Impact of War Conflicts on Memory Function Among Lebanese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Impact of War Conflicts on Memory Function Among Lebanese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study Rawad Affan, Georges Jarrouge, Khalil Darwich, Theresia Hannouch, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6377595/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Memory loss and cognitive dysfunction have been increasingly linked to exposure to war and conflict, with both immediate and long-term effects on mental health. Cognitive impairment, including memory loss, is a growing public health concern, with studies highlighting associations between arterial stiffness, lifestyle factors, and cognitive function. Lebanon has a high prevalence of memory-related disorders, yet research on memory impairment in this population remains limited. Objectives This study aims to assess memory loss among Lebanese university students exposed to war conflicts, identify associated factors, and evaluate the extent of cognitive decline in this population. It seeks to determine whether memory impairment differs based on gender. Materials and Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 504 Lebanese university students using a structured questionnaire. Participants were recruited through random sampling, and data on demographic characteristics, war exposure history, and self-reported memory impairments were collected via the Everyday Memomry Questionnaire – Revised (EMQ-R) which consists of 13 items, with a total score ranging from 0 to 52. Two subscale scores were calculated: the retrieval subscale, which ranged from 0 to 28 with a cutoff score of 13, and the attentional subscale, which ranged from 0 to 16 with a cutoff score of 7. Statistical analyses were performed to determine significant associations. Results This study assessed memory performance in Lebanese university students (N = 504) using the EMQ-R. The mean total score was 19.63 (SD = 12.73), with retrieval and attentional subscale means of 11.51 (SD = 7.26) and 5.87 (SD = 4.33). The most common difficulties were checking task completion (15.9% daily) and word-finding issues (15.5% daily). Based on cutoff scores, 37% of males and 63% of females had high retrieval difficulties, while 37.6% of males and 62.4% of females had high attentional difficulties. No significant gender differences were found in retrieval (p = 0.915) or attentional (p = 0.903) memory impairments. Conclusion This study highlights the impact of war-related stress on memory function among Lebanese university students, with impairments in retrieval and attention. Findings align with global and regional research, emphasizing the need for early screening and interventions. Given Lebanon’s socio-economic challenges, prioritizing cognitive health in post-conflict settings is crucial. Memory loss attention impairment retrieval impairment war conflicts University students EMQ-R questionnaire Lebanon Introduction Background Cognitive impairment and memory loss are now recognized as significant public health problems (Alvarez-Bueno et al., 2020 ). Research shows that war and conflict exposure results in memory loss and cognitive dysfunction, which affects mental health instantly and through long-term impacts (Raza et al., 2023 ). War-related stress produces epigenetic changes that result in DNA methylation alterations in genes controlling the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis which regulates both memory processing and stress response (Raza et al., 2023 ). Research from 2023 demonstrates that chronic stress disrupts the processes of intentional forgetting which leads to challenges in retaining and dismissing information that is essential for successful learning and memory management (Qi et al., 2023 ). Adults who report subjective memory complaints (SMCs) face a higher risk of developing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia as they age (Mitchell et al., 2014 ). Research shows that people suffering from SMCs experience a significantly greater progression to dementia with an annual conversion rate standing at 2.33% and a relative risk factor of 2.07 when compared to those without SMCs (Mitchell et al., 2014 ). Studies predict that cognitive decline and dementia will impact more than 150 million individuals by 2050 because of aging populations and environmental stressors (GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators, 2022 ). Around 40% of dementia cases could be avoided through changes in risk factors like hypertension and obesity along with depression, physical inactivity and social isolation which are causing cognitive impairment and memory loss to become major global health problems (Livingston et al., 2020 ). Physical inactivity and cognitive impairment are significantly correlated among U.S. adults aged 18 and older, according to a cross-sectional analysis of data from the 2020 National Health Interview Survey. Compared to respondents who participated in both aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities, those who did not meet physical activity guidelines were almost three times as likely to experience memory loss and concentration problems (Buchwald et al., 2024 ). In the Arab world, a significant portion of people suffer from cognitive impairment and memory loss (Qassem et al., 2023 ). According to a 2021 prevalence and cost estimate, over 1.3 million people in Arab nations suffered from dementia, with Lebanon, Tunisia, and Algeria having the highest rates among those 60 and older. These findings underscore the urgency of addressing memory-related disorders as a public health priority (Qassem et al., 2023 ). A major long-term symptom of COVID-19 survivors is memory loss, which frequently lasts beyond one year following infection (Aldhawyan et al., 2024 ). A study done in Saudi Arabia revealed that memory loss gradually rose over time, impacting 9.1% of participants after 12 months in contrast to just 0.4% within the first three months. The study also highlighted that individuals with a higher number of acute COVID-19 symptoms were at an increased risk of developing long-term memory issues (Aldhawyan et al., 2024 ). Emphasizing the influence of lifestyle and health variables on cognitive function, a study including 483 Lebanese adults aged 18 to 60 revealed that memory problems were linked to female gender, lower education levels, physical inactivity, and several comorbid diseases. (Taleb et al., 2024 ). Among older adults, memory loss is one of the most prevalent symptoms; it also contributes to dementia's growing public health concern in Lebanon (Phung et al., 2017 ). A pilot study on dementia prevalence in Beirut and Mount Lebanon found an age-standardized prevalence of 9.0%; 7.4% of those over 65 years old were diagnosed with dementia, placing Lebanon among the nations with the highest dementia rates globally (Phung et al., 2017 ). With significant memory, attention, and processing speed deficits, a cross-sectional study conducted in Lebanon found that 68% of diabetic patients exhibited probable cognitive impairment (Mechref et al., 2024 ). Among the main risk factors for cognitive decline the study found were older age, female gender, low educational level, and uncontrolled blood sugar levels. (Mechref et al., 2024 ). The impact of war conflicts on cognitive function, particularly memory, remains a critical yet underexplored area of research, especially among young adults. Aims and Objectives Aiming to assess the degree of cognitive decline and find contributing elements, this study looks at how war conflicts affect memory function among Lebanese university students. Moreover, it looks at possible gender-based variations in memory loss to see whether men and women suffer different levels of cognitive problems, providing insights into its cognitive impact to inform future research and public health interventions. Materials and Methods Study Design and Participants This cross-sectional study involved 504 students from different university students in Lebanon during the 2024–2025 academic year. Data was collected through a self-reported recall survey designed to assess memory function following war conflicts. The english version of the questionnaire was used. A convenience sampling method was employed, with participants recruited via an online questionnaire distributed through university networks and social media platforms. The questionnaire gathered socio-demographic details such as gender and age. Additionally, information on parental and household characteristics was gathered, including parental employment status (employed, unemployed, self-employed, retired), parental education level, number of children in the family, and household income. Assessment of Memory Function Memory function was evaluated using the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R), a validated instrument designed to measure everyday memory failures across different cognitive domains (Royle et al., 2008). Participants rated the frequency of memory difficulties over the past month on a five-point Likert scale, where 0 indicated the event occurred once or less in the last month, 1 indicated more than once a month but less than once a week, 2 indicated about once a week, 3 indicated more than once a week but less than once a day, and 4 indicated once or more in a day. The EMQ-R consists of 13 items, with a total score ranging from 0 to 52, where a high overall EMQ-R score can indicate significant memory or attention problems affecting daily life. Additionally, two subscale scores were calculated: the retrieval subscale (items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10), which ranged from 0 to 28, and the attentional subscale (items 8, 9, 11, and 13), which ranged from 0 to 16. Items 4 and 12 are categorized separately and not included in the subscale scores (Royle et al., 2008). Findings revealed that the optimal cut-off point for the attentional subscale was 7, where participants scoring above 7 showed poorer performance in working memory tasks, particularly digit span backward, which measures higher-level attention and executive functioning. For the retrieval subscale the cut-off point was 13, where participants scoring above 13 performed significantly worse on verbal episodic memory (immediate recall) and word fluency tasks. (Zhu et al., 2025 ). Ethical Considerations The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Ethical Committee at the Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (approval number: HCR/EC 2025-024). The research adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013 ). Participants were fully informed about the study’s objectives and methodology before providing electronic informed consent. Participation was voluntary, and data confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained. Data Collection and Analysis The survey was distributed among university students across Lebanon to ensure a diverse sample. Since participants were recruited through voluntary participation, the sample may not fully represent all students. All collected data were anonymized and securely stored. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 27). Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize demographic and behavioral characteristics. Statistical results were presented using frequencies, percentages, chi-square test results, and corresponding p-values. Results Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Lebanese University Students Characteristic Category Frequency Percent (%) Gender Male 188 37.3 Female 316 62.7 Age Mean (SD) 19.77 (1.878) - Median 19 - Minimum-Maximum 18–38 - War Presence Present in Lebanon during 2023–2024 war 504 100 The following table displays the sample's demographic characteristics (N = 504). Female students make up nearly two-thirds of the sample (62.7%) and all participants reported being located in Lebanon during the war time frame of 2023–2024. The age distribution is centered around a mean of 19.77 years (SD = 1.878) pointing to mostly young adult undergraduates as the sample population. The median age of the sample is 19 years of age, with an age range of 18 to 38 years. Table 2 Parental Marital Status and Educational Background Characteristic Category Frequency Percent (%) Marital Status of Father Married 458 90.9 Divorced 20 4 Deceased 16 3.2 Widower 10 2 Marital Status of Mother Married 458 90.9 Divorced 20 4 Deceased 10 2 Widow 16 3.2 Highest Level of Parental Education Less Than High school 50 9.9 High School 138 27.4 Some college/Technical training 64 12.7 Diploma 38 7.5 Bachelor's degree 100 19.8 Graduate or professional degree 114 22.6 Most fathers and mothers were described as married (90.9%), while a minimal percentage were divorced (4.0%), widowed (2.0% fathers, 3.2% mothers), or deceased (3.2% fathers, 2.0% mothers). As for parent's education, the most common ideals were parents of a high school education (27.4%), and a graduate or professional degree (22.6%). Table 3 Socioeconomic and Employment Characteristics of Lebanese University Students and Their Families Category Subcategory Frequency Percent (%) Parental Occupation (Father) Employed 250 49.6 Self-employed 198 39.3 Retired 30 6.0 Unemployed 26 5.2 Parental Occupation (Mother) Employed 196 38.9 Self-employed 48 9.5 Retired 32 6.3 Unemployed 228 45.2 Student Employment Do not work 286 56.7 Part-time 178 35.3 Full-time 24 4.8 Night shift 12 2.4 Day shift 4 0.8 Household Income Less than $ 500 62 12.3 $ 500- $ 1000 116 23.0 $ 1000- $ 1500 76 15.1 $ 1500- $ 2000 72 14.3 $ 2000- $ 2500 62 12.3 More than $ 2500 116 23.0 Occupational information for parents underscores various employment rates differences between fathers and mothers. The overall employment for fathers is higher; with 49.6% employed and 39.3% self-employed, while only 5.2% report unemployment. Mothers have a comparatively lower employment rate, with 38.9% employed and 9.5% self-employed, leaving 45.2% unemployed. Student employment statistics demonstrate most (56.7%) students do not work while in school. However, 43.3% are employed and have work responsibilities, with the majority working in part-time jobs (35.3%). Lastly, the household income distribution demonstrates a diverse economic circumstance, with income levels exhibiting a bimodal distribution. Two of the largest groups of students (23.0% each) report their household income falls within the range of either "500- $ 1000" and "more than $ 2500" per month. Nearly 29.4% of students report household income in the lower-middle income category of $ 1000- $ 2000 per month, and 12.3% report household income of under $ 500, illustrating substantial financial variation in the student population. Table 4 Health-Related Behaviors of University Students in Lebanon Behavior Category Subcategory Frequency Percent (%) Smoking Status Yes 114 22.6 No 390 77.4 Physical Exercise Daily 48 9.5 Regularly (3–5 times a week) 122 24.2 Occasionally (1–2 times a week) 152 30.2 Rarely (once a month) 132 26.2 Never 50 9.9 Alcohol Consumption Daily 10 2.0 Regularly (3–5 times a week) 14 2.8 Occasionally (1–2 times a week) 86 17.1 Rarely (once a month) 262 52.0 Never 132 26.2 This table presents information on smoking habits, exercise frequency, and alcohol drinking behaviors of university students in Lebanon. The largest percentages of individuals are non-smokers (77.4%) and a sizeable percentage of individuals are current smokers (22.6%). For exercise, the largest percentage of individuals report exercising infrequently (30.2% doing 1–2 times a week). About a quarter of the individuals examine (24.2%) exercise regularly; nearly one in ten students never exercise. In terms of alcohol use, over half of respondents (52%) drink alcohol infrequently (one time a month). Notable percentages of individuals abstain from alcohol consumption completely (26.2%); only small percentages of drink regularly or daily. Table 5.1 Everyday Memory Questionnaire - Revised (EMQ-R) Results EMQ Items Once or less in the last month More than once a month but less than once a week About once a week More than once a week or less than once a day Once or more in a day EMQ-R 1: Having to check whether you have done something that you should have done. 24.2% (122) 20.6% (104) 23.8% (120) 15.5% (78) 15.9% (80) EMQ-R 2: Forgetting when it was that something happened; for example, whether it was yesterday or last week. 27.8% (140) 21.4% (108) 21.0% (106) 16.3% (82) 13.5% (68) EMQ-R 3: Forgetting that you were told something yesterday or a few days ago, and maybe having to be reminded about it. 26.6% (134) 21.8% (110) 21.8% (110) 15.9% (80) 13.9% (70) EMQ-R 4: Starting to read something (a book or an article in a newspaper, or a magazine) without realizing you have already read it before. 63.5% (320) 14.3% (72) 11.9% (60) 4.4% (22) 6.0% (30) EMQ-R 5: Finding that a word is 'on the tip of your tongue'. You know what it is but cannot quite find it. 19.8% (100) 22.6% (114) 23.0% (116) 19.0% (96) 15.5% (78) EMQ-R 6: Completely forgetting to do things you said you would do, and things you planned to do. 28.2% (142) 25.8% (130) 19.4% (98) 14.7% (74) 11.9% (60) EMQ-R 7: Forgetting important details of what you did or what happened to you the day before. 32.5% (164) 23.4% (118) 21.8% (110) 10.7% (54) 11.5% (58) EMQ-R 8: When talking to someone, forgetting what you have just said. Maybe saying 'what was I talking about?' 24.2% (122) 24.6% (124) 20.6% (104) 16.7% (84) 13.9% (70) EMQ-R 9: When reading a newspaper or magazine, being unable to follow the thread of a story; losing track of what it is about. 35.3% (178) 22.6% (114) 21.8% (110) 10.3% (52) 9.9% (50) EMQ-R 10: Forgetting to tell somebody something important, perhaps forgetting to pass on a message or remind someone of something. 29.0% (146) 26.6% (134) 22.2% (112) 11.5% (58) 10.7% (54) EMQ-R 11: Getting the details of what someone was told you mixed up and confused. 33.3% (168) 26.2% (132) 22.2% (112) 10.3% (52) 7.9% (40) EMQ-R 12: Forgetting where things are normally kept or looking for them in the wrong place. 29.0% (146) 24.6% (124) 23.4% (118) 12.3% (62) 10.7% (54) EMQ-R 13: Repeating to someone what you have just told them or asking someone the same question twice. 30.6% (154) 24.6% (124) 24.2% (122) 10.7% (54) 9.9% (50) Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics of Total EMQ-R Scores Among University Students N Mean Median Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum Total Memory Score 504 19.63 19.00 12.73 0.00 52.00 Students completed the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R) which asked about the frequency of memory problems that they experienced in everyday life over the previous month. The total number of valid student responses was N = 504 without missing data. The mean score on the EMQ-R was 19.63 (SD = 12.73), indicating that students experience moderate memory problems in everyday life, on average. The median was 19.00 (approximately equal to the mean) which suggests that the data are reasonably normally distributed amongst the students, with a range of 0–52 in scores. The memory problem that was most commonly endorsed involved needing to verify whether or not a task has been completed (daily, 15.9% of students). Second, needing to come up with words that are "on the tip of my tongue," was frequently endorsed (15.5%). Forgetting a conversation that happened recently and needing a reminder was in the top three memory problems occurring for 13.9% of students. For some memory problems, the frequency of occurrence was infrequent. For example, 63.5% recalled rarely rereading something, not remembering that it had already been read, with 6.0% occurring daily. Forgetting details of the previous day was reported as rare by 32.5% of students, but 11.5% struggle with this daily. Losing track of a story while reading was another relatively uncommon issue, with 35.3% experiencing it once or less in the last month, whereas 9.9% face this problem daily. Table 6.1 Gender Distribution of Participants Based on Retrieval Subscale Cutoff Score Male Female Total Chi-Square p-Value Lower than 12 108 (37.5%) 180 (62.5%) 288 0.011 0.915 Equal or Higher than 13 80 (37%) 136 (63%) 216 Table 6.2 Descriptive statstics of Retrieval Subscale of EMQ-R Scores Among University Students N Mean Median Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum Retrieval Subscale 504 11.51 11.00 7.26 0.00 28.00 This data shows the distribution of participants based on the cutoff score for the retrieval subscale (items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10) of the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R), which measures difficulties in episodic memory. The mean score was 11.51 (SD = 7.26), with a median score of 11.00. The range of scores went from 0 to 28, indicating different levels of memory difficulties with retrieval processes.The cutoff of 13 was indicated to discriminate the two groups of participants assessed as having lower or higher retrieval difficulties. Participants who scored below a 12 were placed into the group with fewer retrieval difficulties, and participants with score of 13 or higher were assessed with more retrieval difficulties with respect to recalling past events, retrieving information they had expeirienced or stored in memory, and remembering planned events or activities. Among the participants who scored below 12, 37.5% (n = 108) were males and 62.5% (n = 180) were females, for a total of 288 participants. Among participants who scored 13 or higher, 37.0% (n = 80) were males and 63.0% (n = 136) were females, for a total of 216 participants. The chi-square test was conducted to examine the association between gender and retrieval memory difficulties. The p-value of 0.915, which is greater than 0.05, indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in retrieval memory performance between male and female participants. This suggests that episodic memory difficulties, as measured by the EMQ-R retrieval subscale, are not significantly influenced by gender in this sample population. Table 7.1 Gender Distribution of Participants Based on Attentional Subscale Cutoff Score Male Female Total Chi-Square p-Value Lower than 6 112 (37.1%) 190 (62.9%) 302 0.015 0.903 Equal or Higher than 7 76 (37.6%) 126 (62.4%) 202 Table 7.2 Descriptive statstics of Attentional Subscale of EMQ-R Scores Among University Students N Mean Median Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum Attentional Subscale 504 5.87 5.00 4.33 0.00 16.00 This table illustrates participant distribution according to the cutoff score for the attentional subscale (items 8, 9, 11, and 13) of the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R), a measure of attentional control and working memory difficulties. The average score was 5.87 (SD = 4.33), with a median of 5.00. The range of scores (0–16) illustrates the variability in difficulties in attentional memory across participants. A cutoff score of 7 was implemented to analyze participant scores related to lower or higher levels of attentional memory deficits. Participants with scores below 6 were classified as having fewer attentional difficulties, while participants with scores of 7 or higher had considerably greater difficulties maintaining focus, sustaining attention, and carrying out cognitive tasks that require working memory. For participants with scores lower than 6, 37.1% were male (n = 112) and 62.9% were female (n = 190) out of a total of 302 participants; for the higher scoring participants, 37.6% were male (n = 76) and 62.4% were female (n = 126) out of 202 participants. A chi-square test was conducted to examine the association between gender and attentional memory difficulties. The p-value of 0.903, which is greater than 0.05, indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in attentional memory performance between male and female participants. This suggests that attentional difficulties, as measured by the EMQ-R attentional subscale, are not significantly influenced by gender in this sample population. Discussion Our investigation evaluated memory function among Lebanese university students with exposure to the war conflict, which revealed significant deficits within both retrieval and attentional memory functions. The study's findings were consistent with studies published in global literature indicating that exposure to war and ongoing stress resulted in cognitive dysfunction, specifically memory dysfunction (Raza et al., 2023 ). Research examining Syrian refugees in Jordan found similar results that suggest exposure to war and stress impacted cognitive function, most apparent with memory impairment found in both the younger and older samples (Bridi et al., 2023 ). The findings from our study indicate that Lebanese university students with exposure to the 2023–2024 war demonstrate moderate levels of everyday memory problems with an average EMQ-R score of 19.63. This is consistent with findings from Qi et al. ( 2023 ) who demonstrated that chronic academic stress can impair processes of intentional forgetting. Overall, both studies support that different forms of stress, impair the function of memory (Qi et al., 2023 ). These results are also similar with findings by Zhang et al. ( 2022 ), who found that neurocognitive deficits strongly predict psychosis in adolescents at clinical high risk. Although Zhang et al. focused on the clinical trajectories towards psychosis, both investigations indicate that high levels of stress during adolescence, whether war-related or clinical, can interfere with cognitive functioning (Zhang et al., 2022 ). Likewise, this complements the results of ElBarazi ( 2025 ), who documented extreme rates of childhood maltreatment (CM) with 55% PTSD prevalence rates among youth in Northern Syria. Whereas ElBarazi discussed the profound psychological tolls of war to memory and mental health, collectively, we draw attention to the cognitive and psychological impairments associated to war-related trauma in youth (ElBarazi, 2025 ). A gender difference at retrieval was noted, with 63% of females experiencing high difficulty levels compared to 37% of males, and 62.4% of females reporting high trouble paying attention compared to males at 37.6%. Research in the Arab world, including Qatar and Saudi Arabia, has documented women report more cognitive trouble, especially in memory and attention, around traumatic experiences (Paul et al., 2023 ; Aldhawyan et al., 2024 ). Both our study and Taleb et al. ( 2024 ), validating the EMQ-R in the Arab world in the context of the Lebanese population, indicate that impairments in memory were found to be significant contributors, with relationships established between gender, physical inactivity and difficulties with cognition. While our research is based on the context of war-related stress being a main contributor to memory dysfunction among university students, Taleb et al. ( 2024 ) have addressed lifestyle and health-related predictors of memory decline. The findings of both studies indicate the need for targeted interventions aimed at improving cognitive health (Taleb et al., 2024 ). Strengths The strength of the study is that it is the first study conducted in lebanon to assess memory function on university students from diverse backgrounds, using a validated instrument (EMQ-R). Limitations This study was a convenient cross-sectional study, which findings cannot be generalized. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, as participants may underreport or overreport memory difficulties. Conclusion The study demonstrates how war-related stress impacts memory function among Lebanese university students with significant deficits in retrieval and attentional memories. This research supports national and international studies that show exposure to trauma can affect cognitive function. The research highlights the importance of early screening and intervention awareness; early approaches may alleviate memory function based on understanding that memory complaints were very prevalent in this young adult sample.The rate of memory complaints among young adults suggests that cognitive impairment should become a priority in any post-conflict setting to support cognitive health and prevent long-term consequences to cognition. This is especially important given Lebanon's socio-economic and political challenges. The study demonstrates the relationship of war-related stress and memory impairments, contributing to the psychological evidence base and adds to the understanding of cognitive impairment related to memory and memory storage. In future research, it may be important to focus on follow-up studies to assess memory function over time and possibly develop interventions for a Lebanese context and monitor the effectiveness of these interventions as well. Declarations Acknowledgment: Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK). Ethics Approval: This research is approved by the university ethical committee and the Institutional Review Board (approval number: HCR/EC 2025-024). Informed Consent: All participants provided written informed consent prior to their enrollment in the study, and participation was completely voluntary. We ensured that data confidentiality and anonymity were rigorously maintained to safeguard participants’ privacy. Conflict of Interest: All the authors declare no competing interests. Funding Declaration: This research is not funded. Clinical trial number: not applicable. 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International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4535). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054535 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6377595","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":439822427,"identity":"f909874a-f642-4f64-86e8-bd1d6bbdfb86","order_by":0,"name":"Rawad Affan","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Holy Spirit University of Kaslik","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rawad","middleName":"","lastName":"Affan","suffix":""},{"id":439822428,"identity":"acdaa03c-1429-4657-afb8-7c38ffb65723","order_by":1,"name":"Georges Jarrouge","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Holy Spirit University of Kaslik","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Georges","middleName":"","lastName":"Jarrouge","suffix":""},{"id":439822429,"identity":"47c7870c-87b9-4318-a498-976089bb8f14","order_by":2,"name":"Khalil Darwich","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Holy Spirit University of Kaslik","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Khalil","middleName":"","lastName":"Darwich","suffix":""},{"id":439822430,"identity":"58fd7204-b0f3-4276-8279-9409c6ef1188","order_by":3,"name":"Theresia Hannouch","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Holy Spirit University of Kaslik","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Theresia","middleName":"","lastName":"Hannouch","suffix":""},{"id":439822431,"identity":"9c836218-3d48-40e7-8f28-617d2bac7f62","order_by":4,"name":"Shafika Assaad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Holy Spirit University of Kaslik","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shafika","middleName":"","lastName":"Assaad","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-04 16:08:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6377595/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6377595/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":95657599,"identity":"99e8e682-2e7c-4a8d-941b-89b0b6ef1bdf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:21:19","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1686907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6377595/v1/06b16bd0-fbcf-4587-a6b0-f521be2eb263.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Impact of War Conflicts on Memory Function Among Lebanese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\n\u003ch3\u003eBackground\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive impairment and memory loss are now recognized as significant public health problems (Alvarez-Bueno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Research shows that war and conflict exposure results in memory loss and cognitive dysfunction, which affects mental health instantly and through long-term impacts (Raza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). War-related stress produces epigenetic changes that result in DNA methylation alterations in genes controlling the hypothalamic\u0026ndash;pituitary\u0026ndash;adrenal (HPA) axis which regulates both memory processing and stress response (Raza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch from 2023 demonstrates that chronic stress disrupts the processes of intentional forgetting which leads to challenges in retaining and dismissing information that is essential for successful learning and memory management (Qi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdults who report subjective memory complaints (SMCs) face a higher risk of developing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia as they age (Mitchell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Research shows that people suffering from SMCs experience a significantly greater progression to dementia with an annual conversion rate standing at 2.33% and a relative risk factor of 2.07 when compared to those without SMCs (Mitchell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies predict that cognitive decline and dementia will impact more than 150\u0026nbsp;million individuals by 2050 because of aging populations and environmental stressors (GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAround 40% of dementia cases could be avoided through changes in risk factors like hypertension and obesity along with depression, physical inactivity and social isolation which are causing cognitive impairment and memory loss to become major global health problems (Livingston et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical inactivity and cognitive impairment are significantly correlated among U.S. adults aged 18 and older, according to a cross-sectional analysis of data from the 2020 National Health Interview Survey. Compared to respondents who participated in both aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities, those who did not meet physical activity guidelines were almost three times as likely to experience memory loss and concentration problems (Buchwald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Arab world, a significant portion of people suffer from cognitive impairment and memory loss (Qassem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). According to a 2021 prevalence and cost estimate, over 1.3\u0026nbsp;million people in Arab nations suffered from dementia, with Lebanon, Tunisia, and Algeria having the highest rates among those 60 and older. These findings underscore the urgency of addressing memory-related disorders as a public health priority (Qassem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA major long-term symptom of COVID-19 survivors is memory loss, which frequently lasts beyond one year following infection (Aldhawyan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A study done in Saudi Arabia revealed that memory loss gradually rose over time, impacting 9.1% of participants after 12 months in contrast to just 0.4% within the first three months. The study also highlighted that individuals with a higher number of acute COVID-19 symptoms were at an increased risk of developing long-term memory issues (Aldhawyan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmphasizing the influence of lifestyle and health variables on cognitive function, a study including 483 Lebanese adults aged 18 to 60 revealed that memory problems were linked to female gender, lower education levels, physical inactivity, and several comorbid diseases. (Taleb et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong older adults, memory loss is one of the most prevalent symptoms; it also contributes to dementia's growing public health concern in Lebanon (Phung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). A pilot study on dementia prevalence in Beirut and Mount Lebanon found an age-standardized prevalence of 9.0%; 7.4% of those over 65 years old were diagnosed with dementia, placing Lebanon among the nations with the highest dementia rates globally (Phung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith significant memory, attention, and processing speed deficits, a cross-sectional study conducted in Lebanon found that 68% of diabetic patients exhibited probable cognitive impairment (Mechref et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Among the main risk factors for cognitive decline the study found were older age, female gender, low educational level, and uncontrolled blood sugar levels. (Mechref et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impact of war conflicts on cognitive function, particularly memory, remains a critical yet underexplored area of research, especially among young adults.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAims and Objectives\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAiming to assess the degree of cognitive decline and find contributing elements, this study looks at how war conflicts affect memory function among Lebanese university students. Moreover, it looks at possible gender-based variations in memory loss to see whether men and women suffer different levels of cognitive problems, providing insights into its cognitive impact to inform future research and public health interventions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional study involved 504 students from different university students in Lebanon during the 2024\u0026ndash;2025 academic year. Data was collected through a self-reported recall survey designed to assess memory function following war conflicts. The english version of the questionnaire was used. A convenience sampling method was employed, with participants recruited via an online questionnaire distributed through university networks and social media platforms. The questionnaire gathered socio-demographic details such as gender and age. Additionally, information on parental and household characteristics was gathered, including parental employment status (employed, unemployed, self-employed, retired), parental education level, number of children in the family, and household income.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAssessment of Memory Function\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMemory function was evaluated using the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R), a validated instrument designed to measure everyday memory failures across different cognitive domains (Royle et al., 2008).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants rated the frequency of memory difficulties over the past month on a five-point Likert scale, where 0 indicated the event occurred once or less in the last month, 1 indicated more than once a month but less than once a week, 2 indicated about once a week, 3 indicated more than once a week but less than once a day, and 4 indicated once or more in a day. The EMQ-R consists of 13 items, with a total score ranging from 0 to 52, where a high overall EMQ-R score can indicate significant memory or attention problems affecting daily life. Additionally, two subscale scores were calculated: the retrieval subscale (items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10), which ranged from 0 to 28, and the attentional subscale (items 8, 9, 11, and 13), which ranged from 0 to 16. Items 4 and 12 are categorized separately and not included in the subscale scores (Royle et al., 2008).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings revealed that the optimal cut-off point for the attentional subscale was 7, where participants scoring above 7 showed poorer performance in working memory tasks, particularly digit span backward, which measures higher-level attention and executive functioning. For the retrieval subscale the cut-off point was 13, where participants scoring above 13 performed significantly worse on verbal episodic memory (immediate recall) and word fluency tasks. (Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Ethical Committee at the Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (approval number: HCR/EC 2025-024). The research adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Participants were fully informed about the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives and methodology before providing electronic informed consent. Participation was voluntary, and data confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection and Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey was distributed among university students across Lebanon to ensure a diverse sample. Since participants were recruited through voluntary participation, the sample may not fully represent all students. All collected data were anonymized and securely stored. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 27). Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize demographic and behavioral characteristics. Statistical results were presented using frequencies, percentages, chi-square test results, and corresponding p-values.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic Characteristics of Lebanese University Students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent\u0026nbsp;(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGender\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e316\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.77 (1.878)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum-Maximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWar Presence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent in Lebanon during 2023\u0026ndash;2024 war\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following table displays the sample's demographic characteristics (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;504). Female students make up nearly two-thirds of the sample (62.7%) and all participants reported being located in Lebanon during the war time frame of 2023\u0026ndash;2024. The age distribution is centered around a mean of 19.77 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.878) pointing to mostly young adult undergraduates as the sample population. The median age of the sample is 19 years of age, with an age range of 18 to 38 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental Marital Status and Educational Background\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent\u0026nbsp;(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital Status of Father\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDivorced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeceased\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital Status of Mother\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDivorced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeceased\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHighest Level of Parental Education\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess Than High school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome college/Technical training\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor's degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGraduate or professional degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost fathers and mothers were described as married (90.9%), while a minimal percentage were divorced (4.0%), widowed (2.0% fathers, 3.2% mothers), or deceased (3.2% fathers, 2.0% mothers).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e As for parent's education, the most common ideals were parents of a high school education (27.4%), and a graduate or professional degree (22.6%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocioeconomic and Employment Characteristics of Lebanese University Students and Their Families\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubcategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParental Occupation (Father)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-employed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetired\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParental Occupation (Mother)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-employed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetired\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudent Employment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDo not work\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart-time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFull-time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNight shift\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDay shift\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold Income\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e500-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1000-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1500-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2000-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupational information for parents underscores various employment rates differences between fathers and mothers. The overall employment for fathers is higher; with 49.6% employed and 39.3% self-employed, while only 5.2% report unemployment. Mothers have a comparatively lower employment rate, with 38.9% employed and 9.5% self-employed, leaving 45.2% unemployed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent employment statistics demonstrate most (56.7%) students do not work while in school. However, 43.3% are employed and have work responsibilities, with the majority working in part-time jobs (35.3%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLastly, the household income distribution demonstrates a diverse economic circumstance, with income levels exhibiting a bimodal distribution. Two of the largest groups of students (23.0% each) report their household income falls within the range of either \"500-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1000\" and \"more than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2500\" per month. Nearly 29.4% of students report household income in the lower-middle income category of \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1000-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2000 per month, and 12.3% report household income of under \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e500, illustrating substantial financial variation in the student population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth-Related Behaviors of University Students in Lebanon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBehavior Category\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubcategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSmoking Status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e390\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhysical Exercise\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegularly (3\u0026ndash;5 times a week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccasionally (1\u0026ndash;2 times a week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRarely (once a month)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAlcohol Consumption\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegularly (3\u0026ndash;5 times a week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccasionally (1\u0026ndash;2 times a week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRarely (once a month)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e262\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis table presents information on smoking habits, exercise frequency, and alcohol drinking behaviors of university students in Lebanon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe largest percentages of individuals are non-smokers (77.4%) and a sizeable percentage of individuals are current smokers (22.6%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor exercise, the largest percentage of individuals report exercising infrequently (30.2% doing 1\u0026ndash;2 times a week). About a quarter of the individuals examine (24.2%) exercise regularly; nearly one in ten students never exercise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of alcohol use, over half of respondents (52%) drink alcohol infrequently (one time a month). Notable percentages of individuals abstain from alcohol consumption completely (26.2%); only small percentages of drink regularly or daily.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5.1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEveryday Memory Questionnaire - Revised (EMQ-R) Results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMQ Items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce or less in the last month\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than once a month but less than once a week\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout once a week\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than once a week or less than once a day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce or more in a day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 1: Having to check whether you have done something that you should have done.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2% (122)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6% (104)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8% (120)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5% (78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9% (80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 2: Forgetting when it was that something happened; for example, whether it was yesterday or last week.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.8% (140)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4% (108)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.0% (106)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3% (82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5% (68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 3: Forgetting that you were told something yesterday or a few days ago, and maybe having to be reminded about it.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.6% (134)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8% (110)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8% (110)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9% (80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9% (70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 4: Starting to read something (a book or an article in a newspaper, or a magazine) without realizing you have already read it before.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.5% (320)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3% (72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9% (60)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4% (22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.0% (30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 5: Finding that a word is 'on the tip of your tongue'. You know what it is but cannot quite find it.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8% (100)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6% (114)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.0% (116)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.0% (96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5% (78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 6: Completely forgetting to do things you said you would do, and things you planned to do.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2% (142)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8% (130)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4% (98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7% (74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9% (60)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 7: Forgetting important details of what you did or what happened to you the day before.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.5% (164)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4% (118)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8% (110)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7% (54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5% (58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 8: When talking to someone, forgetting what you have just said. Maybe saying 'what was I talking about?'\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2% (122)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.6% (124)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6% (104)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7% (84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9% (70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 9: When reading a newspaper or magazine, being unable to follow the thread of a story; losing track of what it is about.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.3% (178)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6% (114)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8% (110)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3% (52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9% (50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 10: Forgetting to tell somebody something important, perhaps forgetting to pass on a message or remind someone of something.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.0% (146)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.6% (134)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2% (112)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5% (58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7% (54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 11: Getting the details of what someone was told you mixed up and confused.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.3% (168)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2% (132)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2% (112)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3% (52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9% (40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 12: Forgetting where things are normally kept or looking for them in the wrong place.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.0% (146)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.6% (124)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4% (118)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3% (62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7% (54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEMQ-R 13: Repeating to someone what you have just told them or asking someone the same question twice.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.6% (154)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.6% (124)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2% (122)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7% (54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9% (50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5.2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of Total EMQ-R Scores Among University Students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal Memory Score\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents completed the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R) which asked about the frequency of memory problems that they experienced in everyday life over the previous month.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total number of valid student responses was N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;504 without missing data. The mean score on the EMQ-R was 19.63 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.73), indicating that students experience moderate memory problems in everyday life, on average. The median was 19.00 (approximately equal to the mean) which suggests that the data are reasonably normally distributed amongst the students, with a range of 0\u0026ndash;52 in scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe memory problem that was most commonly endorsed involved needing to verify whether or not a task has been completed (daily, 15.9% of students). Second, needing to come up with words that are \"on the tip of my tongue,\" was frequently endorsed (15.5%). Forgetting a conversation that happened recently and needing a reminder was in the top three memory problems occurring for 13.9% of students. For some memory problems, the frequency of occurrence was infrequent. For example, 63.5% recalled rarely rereading something, not remembering that it had already been read, with 6.0% occurring daily. Forgetting details of the previous day was reported as rare by 32.5% of students, but 11.5% struggle with this daily. Losing track of a story while reading was another relatively uncommon issue, with 35.3% experiencing it once or less in the last month, whereas 9.9% face this problem daily.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6.1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender Distribution of Participants Based on Retrieval Subscale Cutoff Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-Square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLower than 12\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e288\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.915\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEqual or Higher than 13\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (37%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136 (63%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6.2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statstics of Retrieval Subscale of EMQ-R Scores Among University Students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRetrieval Subscale\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis data shows the distribution of participants based on the cutoff score for the retrieval subscale (items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10) of the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R), which measures difficulties in episodic memory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean score was 11.51 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.26), with a median score of 11.00. The range of scores went from 0 to 28, indicating different levels of memory difficulties with retrieval processes.The cutoff of 13 was indicated to discriminate the two groups of participants assessed as having lower or higher retrieval difficulties. Participants who scored below a 12 were placed into the group with fewer retrieval difficulties, and participants with score of 13 or higher were assessed with more retrieval difficulties with respect to recalling past events, retrieving information they had expeirienced or stored in memory, and remembering planned events or activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the participants who scored below 12, 37.5% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;108) were males and 62.5% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;180) were females, for a total of 288 participants. Among participants who scored 13 or higher, 37.0% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80) were males and 63.0% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;136) were females, for a total of 216 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chi-square test was conducted to examine the association between gender and retrieval memory difficulties. The p-value of 0.915, which is greater than 0.05, indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in retrieval memory performance between male and female participants. This suggests that episodic memory difficulties, as measured by the EMQ-R retrieval subscale, are not significantly influenced by gender in this sample population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7.1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender Distribution of Participants Based on Attentional Subscale Cutoff Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-Square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLower than 6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112 (37.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190 (62.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e302\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.903\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEqual or Higher than 7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (37.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126 (62.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7.2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statstics of Attentional Subscale of EMQ-R Scores Among University Students\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAttentional Subscale\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis table illustrates participant distribution according to the cutoff score for the attentional subscale (items 8, 9, 11, and 13) of the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R), a measure of attentional control and working memory difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average score was 5.87 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.33), with a median of 5.00. The range of scores (0\u0026ndash;16) illustrates the variability in difficulties in attentional memory across participants. A cutoff score of 7 was implemented to analyze participant scores related to lower or higher levels of attentional memory deficits. Participants with scores below 6 were classified as having fewer attentional difficulties, while participants with scores of 7 or higher had considerably greater difficulties maintaining focus, sustaining attention, and carrying out cognitive tasks that require working memory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor participants with scores lower than 6, 37.1% were male (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;112) and 62.9% were female (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;190) out of a total of 302 participants; for the higher scoring participants, 37.6% were male (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;76) and 62.4% were female (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;126) out of 202 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA chi-square test was conducted to examine the association between gender and attentional memory difficulties. The p-value of 0.903, which is greater than 0.05, indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in attentional memory performance between male and female participants. This suggests that attentional difficulties, as measured by the EMQ-R attentional subscale, are not significantly influenced by gender in this sample population.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur investigation evaluated memory function among Lebanese university students with exposure to the war conflict, which revealed significant deficits within both retrieval and attentional memory functions. The study's findings were consistent with studies published in global literature indicating that exposure to war and ongoing stress resulted in cognitive dysfunction, specifically memory dysfunction (Raza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Research examining Syrian refugees in Jordan found similar results that suggest exposure to war and stress impacted cognitive function, most apparent with memory impairment found in both the younger and older samples (Bridi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings from our study indicate that Lebanese university students with exposure to the 2023\u0026ndash;2024 war demonstrate moderate levels of everyday memory problems with an average EMQ-R score of 19.63. This is consistent with findings from Qi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) who demonstrated that chronic academic stress can impair processes of intentional forgetting. Overall, both studies support that different forms of stress, impair the function of memory (Qi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results are also similar with findings by Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who found that neurocognitive deficits strongly predict psychosis in adolescents at clinical high risk. Although Zhang et al. focused on the clinical trajectories towards psychosis, both investigations indicate that high levels of stress during adolescence, whether war-related or clinical, can interfere with cognitive functioning (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikewise, this complements the results of ElBarazi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), who documented extreme rates of childhood maltreatment (CM) with 55% PTSD prevalence rates among youth in Northern Syria. Whereas ElBarazi discussed the profound psychological tolls of war to memory and mental health, collectively, we draw attention to the cognitive and psychological impairments associated to war-related trauma in youth (ElBarazi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA gender difference at retrieval was noted, with 63% of females experiencing high difficulty levels compared to 37% of males, and 62.4% of females reporting high trouble paying attention compared to males at 37.6%. Research in the Arab world, including Qatar and Saudi Arabia, has documented women report more cognitive trouble, especially in memory and attention, around traumatic experiences (Paul et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Aldhawyan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth our study and Taleb et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), validating the EMQ-R in the Arab world in the context of the Lebanese population, indicate that impairments in memory were found to be significant contributors, with relationships established between gender, physical inactivity and difficulties with cognition. While our research is based on the context of war-related stress being a main contributor to memory dysfunction among university students, Taleb et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) have addressed lifestyle and health-related predictors of memory decline. The findings of both studies indicate the need for targeted interventions aimed at improving cognitive health (Taleb et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStrengths\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe strength of the study is that it is the first study conducted in lebanon to assess memory function on university students from diverse backgrounds, using a validated instrument (EMQ-R).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was a convenient cross-sectional study, which findings cannot be generalized. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, as participants may underreport or overreport memory difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study demonstrates how war-related stress impacts memory function among Lebanese university students with significant deficits in retrieval and attentional memories. This research supports national and international studies that show exposure to trauma can affect cognitive function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research highlights the importance of early screening and intervention awareness; early approaches may alleviate memory function based on understanding that memory complaints were very prevalent in this young adult sample.The rate of memory complaints among young adults suggests that cognitive impairment should become a priority in any post-conflict setting to support cognitive health and prevent long-term consequences to cognition. This is especially important given Lebanon's socio-economic and political challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study demonstrates the relationship of war-related stress and memory impairments, contributing to the psychological evidence base and adds to the understanding of cognitive impairment related to memory and memory storage. In future research, it may be important to focus on follow-up studies to assess memory function over time and possibly develop interventions for a Lebanese context and monitor the effectiveness of these interventions as well.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHoly Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research is approved by the university ethical committee and the Institutional Review Board (approval number: HCR/EC 2025-024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants provided written informed consent prior to their enrollment in the study, and participation was completely voluntary. We ensured that data confidentiality and anonymity were rigorously maintained to safeguard participants\u0026rsquo; privacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research is not funded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during the current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlvarez-Bueno, C., Cunha, P. G., et al. (2020). Arterial stiffness and cognition among adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational and longitudinal studies. Journal of the American Heart Association, 9(4), e014621. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.119.014621 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaza, Z., Hussain, S. F., et al. (2023). Exposure to war and conflict: The individual and inherited epigenetic effects on health, with a focus on post-traumatic stress disorder. Frontiers in Epidemiology, 3, 1066158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fepid.2023.1066158 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQi, M., Gai, R., \u0026amp; Gao, H. (2023). The effect of chronic academic stress on intentional forgetting. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77(2), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218231171481 (Original work published 2024) \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMitchell, A. J., Beaumont, H., et al. (2014). Risk of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in older people with subjective memory complaints: meta-analysis. Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 130(6), 439\u0026ndash;451. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12336 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators (2022). Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet. Public health, 7(2), e105\u0026ndash;e125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00249-8 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLivingston, G., Huntley, J., et al. (2020). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet (London, England), 396(10248), 413\u0026ndash;446. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBuchwald, S. C. L., Gitelman, et al. (2024). The Impact of Physical Activity on Memory Loss and Concentration in Adults Aged 18 or Older in the U.S. in 2020. International journal of environmental research and public health, 21(9), 1193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21091193 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQassem, T., Itani, L., et al. (2023). Prevalence and economic burden of dementia in the Arab world. BJPsych Open, 9(e126), 1\u0026ndash;8. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2023.517 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAldhawyan, A. F., BuSaad, et al. (2024). Evaluating the predictors of persistent long COVID symptoms and their severity in COVID-19 survivors 1 year after infection. Journal of Primary Care \u0026amp; Community Health, 15, 1\u0026ndash;13. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319241295686 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTaleb, A., Ismail, A., \u0026amp; Abou-Abbas, L. (2024). Psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Everyday Memory Questionnaire-Revised (EMQ-R) among the Lebanese population. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 38(8), 2009-2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2024.2343146\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePhung, K. T. T., Chaaya, et al. (2017). Dementia prevalence, care arrangement, and access to care in Lebanon: A pilot study. Alzheimer\u0026rsquo;s \u0026amp; Dementia, 13(12), 1317\u0026ndash;1326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2017.04.007 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMechref, S., Hatem, G., Nehme, H., et al. (2024). Factors affecting cognitive decline among patients with diabetes: A cross-sectional study in Lebanon. Atenci\u0026oacute;n Primaria Pr\u0026aacute;ctica, 6, 100188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appr.2023.100188 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoyle, J., \u0026amp; Lincoln, N. B. (2008). The Everyday Memory Questionnaire-revised: development of a 13-item scale. Disability and rehabilitation, 30(2), 114\u0026ndash;121. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280701223876 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhu, C., Thomas, et al. (2025). Cut-off point development for the Everyday Memory Questionnaire \u0026ndash; Revised in perimenopausal women. Climacteric, 28(1), 51-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/13697137.2024.2401369 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Medical Association. (2013). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. JAMA, 310(20), 2191\u0026ndash;2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBridi, L., Kaki, et al. Attitudes toward dementia and cognitive aging among Syrian refugees resettled in Jordan: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health 23, 2307 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17183-5 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, T., Cui, et al. (2022). Neurocognitive assessments are more important among adolescents than adults for predicting psychosis in clinical high risk. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 7(1), 56\u0026ndash;65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.06.015 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eElBarazi, A. S. (2025). The association between childhood maltreatment and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among young adults in Northern Syria. Journal of Child \u0026amp; Adolescent Trauma. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-025-00701-5 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaul, P., Mahfoud, et al. (2023). Knowledge, awareness, and attitude of healthcare stakeholders on Alzheimer\u0026rsquo;s disease and dementia in Qatar. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4535). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054535\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Memory loss, attention impairment, retrieval impairment, war conflicts, University students, EMQ-R questionnaire, Lebanon","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6377595/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6377595/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMemory loss and cognitive dysfunction have been increasingly linked to exposure to war and conflict, with both immediate and long-term effects on mental health. Cognitive impairment, including memory loss, is a growing public health concern, with studies highlighting associations between arterial stiffness, lifestyle factors, and cognitive function. Lebanon has a high prevalence of memory-related disorders, yet research on memory impairment in this population remains limited.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to assess memory loss among Lebanese university students exposed to war conflicts, identify associated factors, and evaluate the extent of cognitive decline in this population. It seeks to determine whether memory impairment differs based on gender.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMaterials and Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted among 504 Lebanese university students using a structured questionnaire. Participants were recruited through random sampling, and data on demographic characteristics, war exposure history, and self-reported memory impairments were collected via the Everyday Memomry Questionnaire \u0026ndash; Revised (EMQ-R) which consists of 13 items, with a total score ranging from 0 to 52. Two subscale scores were calculated: the retrieval subscale, which ranged from 0 to 28 with a cutoff score of 13, and the attentional subscale, which ranged from 0 to 16 with a cutoff score of 7. Statistical analyses were performed to determine significant associations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study assessed memory performance in Lebanese university students (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;504) using the EMQ-R. The mean total score was 19.63 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.73), with retrieval and attentional subscale means of 11.51 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.26) and 5.87 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.33). The most common difficulties were checking task completion (15.9% daily) and word-finding issues (15.5% daily). Based on cutoff scores, 37% of males and 63% of females had high retrieval difficulties, while 37.6% of males and 62.4% of females had high attentional difficulties. No significant gender differences were found in retrieval (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.915) or attentional (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.903) memory impairments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the impact of war-related stress on memory function among Lebanese university students, with impairments in retrieval and attention. Findings align with global and regional research, emphasizing the need for early screening and interventions. Given Lebanon\u0026rsquo;s socio-economic challenges, prioritizing cognitive health in post-conflict settings is crucial.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Impact of War Conflicts on Memory Function Among Lebanese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-08 05:37:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6377595/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0bea5ec5-f6b0-41d4-84c8-ad830aa6767a","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-11T04:23:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-08 05:37:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6377595","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6377595","identity":"rs-6377595","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}