Genotypic Characterization of Virulence and Antibiotic–Heavy Metal Resistance in Enterococcus Strains from Vladivostok’s Water Bodies

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ABSTRACT Background Enterococcus species are Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic bacteria commonly found in soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. Their ability to acquire antibiotic resistance has made them significant opportunistic pathogens in both clinical and environmental settings. The presence of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus strains in aquatic environments reflects contamination from human activities and poses a potential risk of horizontal gene transfer to other bacterial species. Aims This study aims to assess the antibiotic and heavy metal resistance patterns of Enterococcus strains isolated from water bodies in Vladivostok and evaluate their potential environmental risks. Study design Experimental study. Methods Water samples were collected from the Vtoraya Rechka River and Zolotoy Rog Bay in Vladivostok. 30 enterococcus strains were identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The presence of antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes was determined using specific primers. Results Genetic analysis of the isolated Enterococcus strains revealed that 23% of strains carried the tetL gene, 33% harbored the ermB gene, and the heavy metal resistance genes tcrB and cadA were detected in 40% and 27% of strains, respectively. Notably, the ermB and tcrB genes co-occurred in 13.3% of strains, while none of the tetL -positive strains exhibited simultaneous presence of ermB, tcrB , and cadA . Conclusion Enterococcus strains isolated from Vladivostok’s water bodies exhibit resistance to multiple antibiotics and heavy metals, with a notable co-occurrence of copper and antibiotic resistance genes. These findings contribute to understanding microbial contamination in aquatic environments and its public health implications, providing valuable insights for future research in clinical and environmental microbiology. IMPORTANCE The dissemination of antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes in environmental reservoirs poses a serious public health threat, as these genes may be transferred to clinically relevant pathogens. Enterococcus species, widely present in aquatic ecosystems, serve as both reservoirs and indicators of such resistance. This study identifies patterns of co-occurrence among resistance genes and highlights a potential genetic linkage between macrolide ( ermB ) and copper ( tcrB ) resistance in environmental Enterococcus strains. Notably, none of the tetL -positive strains carried all three of ermB, tcrB , and cadA , suggesting a mutually exclusive distribution pattern and a potentially distinct mechanism of acquisition for tetL . These findings reveal novel gene distribution dynamics in environmental Enterococcus populations and underscore the importance of integrated surveillance of antimicrobial and metal resistance in human-impacted ecosystems. 3. INTRODUCTION Enterococcus species are Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic bacteria that inhabit a wide range of environments, including soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. While many species are commensal, certain strains have emerged as significant opportunistic pathogens due to their ability to acquire and disseminate antibiotic resistance genes. This has led to the increased prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Enterococcus strains, posing major challenges in both clinical and environmental settings. Aquatic ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to contamination by antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to anthropogenic activities such as wastewater discharge, agricultural runoff, and industrial pollution. The presence of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus strains in water bodies raises concerns about their potential role in the dissemination of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. Additionally, heavy metals such as copper and cadmium, commonly found in polluted environments, have been implicated in co-selection for antibiotic resistance due to shared resistance mechanisms. Given the rising prevalence of MDR Enterococcus strains in aquatic environments, this study aims to assess their antibiotic and heavy metal resistance patterns in water bodies of Vladivostok. By analyzing resistance profiles and identifying associated genetic determinants, we seek to enhance our understanding of microbial contamination in water sources and its broader implications for environmental and public health. 4. MATERIAL AND METHODS 4.1. Sample Collection and Bacterial Isolation Water samples were collected from two locations subject to strong anthropogenic impact: the estuary of the Vtoraya Rechka River (43.160456° N, 131.905963 ° E) and Zolotoy Rog Bay (43.112913° N, 131.890369° E) in Vladivostok ( Figure 1 ). A total of 20 samples were obtained, yielding 740 bacterial colonies. Among these, 130 morphologically distinct strains were selected for further study. All isolates were confirmed as Gram-positive and catalase-negative. Of the 130 strains, 70 tested positive for the reductase test, suggesting that they might belong to the genus Enterococcus . Download figure Open in new tab Figure 1 Zolotoy Rog Bay and Vtoraya Rechka River as sample collection sites 4.2. PCR and Electrophoresis Gene-specific PCR primers were used to amplify fragments of the following target genes: 16S1/16S2, ermB, tetL, tcrB , and cadA ( Table 1 ). Each gene was amplified using tailored thermal cycling conditions adapted from previous studies ( Table 2 ). View this table: View inline View popup Table 1 Primers View this table: View inline View popup Download powerpoint Table 2 Thermal cycling conditions View this table: View inline View popup Table 3 Electrophoresis results 5. RESULTS 5.1. Identification of the genus Enterococcus Of the 70 strains tested positive for the reductase test, 30 strains were confirmed as the genus Enterococcus by 16S rRNA sequencing. These 30 strains were selected for further genotypic analysis. Species-level identification based on morphological and biochemical characteristics indicated that the majority were E. faecalis and E. faecium , with a minority of E. durans and E. casseliflavus . 5.2. Genotypic characteristics of virulence and antibiotic-heavy metal resistance Among the 30 confirmed Enterococcus strains, the gelE gene, which encodes the virulence factor gelatinase, was detected in 57% ( n = 17). However, only 13% ( n = 4) of strains exhibited actual gelatin degradation activity, as determined by the gelatin liquefaction assay. This indicates that not all gelE -positive strains demonstrated phenotypic expression of gelatinase, suggesting possible post-transcriptional regulation or gene silencing. The distribution of gelE did not appear to correlate with species identity. The tetL gene, associated with tetracycline resistance, was detected in 23% ( n = 7) of the strains. The ermB gene, which confers resistance to macrolides such as erythromycin, was detected in 33% ( n = 10). The tcrB gene (copper resistance) was identified in 40% ( n = 12) of strains. The cadA gene (cadmium resistance) was detected in 27% ( n = 9) ( Figure 2 ). Download figure Open in new tab Figure 2 Prevalence of the gelE, tetL, ermB, tcrB , and cadA genes 5.3. Co-occurrence of genes responsible for resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals Out of the 30 Enterococcus strains, 76.7% ( n = 23) tested positive for at least one resistance gene related to antibiotics or heavy metals. Among these, 46.7% ( n = 14) carried more than one resistance gene. Notably, 13.3% ( n = 4) of strains carried both the ermB and tcrB genes, suggesting a potential genetic association between copper resistance and macrolide resistance ( Figure 3 ). In addition, a pattern was observed in which strains harboring multiple resistance genes tended to carry a combination of ermB, tcrB , and cadA . In contrast, the tetL gene was frequently absent from these multiresistant strains. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 3 Co-occurrence of the tetL, ermB, tcrB , and cadA genes Among the tetL -positive strains ( n = 7), most were associated with no additional resistance genes ( n = 2), or with only one ( n = 3) or two ( n = 2) resistance genes. Importantly, none of the tetL -positive strains carried all three of ermB, tcrB , and cadA , which may indicate a mutually exclusive distribution pattern between tetL and the co-occurrence of other resistance genes ( Figure 4 ). This suggests that tetL may be acquired or maintained independently, while the other resistance determinants may be co-selected or genetically linked. Download figure Open in new tab Figure 4 Co-occurrence of the ermB and tcrB genes Download figure Open in new tab Figure 5 Co-occurrence of the ermB, tcrB , and cadA genes in tetL -positive strains 6. DISCUSSION Genomic analyses of Enterococcus strains isolated from Vladivostok’s water bodies revealed that the resistance genes tetL, ermB, tcrB , and cadA —conferring resistance to tetracycline, erythromycin, copper, and cadmium, respectively. Notably, the co-occurrence of the ermB and tcrB genes in 13.3% of strains suggests a potential association between antibiotic and heavy metal resistance. While many strains demonstrated multigene resistance—most commonly involving ermB, tcrB , and cadA — tetL -positive strains tended to appear in genetic isolation. Specifically, none of the tetL -positive strains exhibited simultaneous presence of ermB, tcrB , and cadA , which suggests a mutually exclusive relationship between tetL and this multiresistance pattern. This may imply that tetL is acquired or maintained independently of other resistance determinants, while ermB, tcrB , and cadA may be part of a co-selected or physically linked resistance cluster. This distribution pattern reinforces the importance of considering gene linkage and selection dynamics when assessing resistance dissemination in environmental Enterococcus populations. The intrinsic and acquired resistance mechanisms of Enterococcus species enable them to withstand multiple classes of antibiotics, including β-lactams, aminoglycosides, and glycopeptides, which complicate infection management. The widespread resistance, particularly to aminoglycosides such as streptomycin, raises concerns about the possible emergence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) in the future. 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