Investigation of Recycled Geopolymer Bricks Made with Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash and Filter Cake Binders

Investigation of Recycled Geopolymer Bricks Made with Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash and Filter Cake Binders | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Investigation of Recycled Geopolymer Bricks Made with Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash and Filter Cake Binders Ehsan Farhang, Ehsan Darvishan, Ahmad Honarjoo, Vahed Ghiasi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8352823/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the incorporation of sugar beet bagasse ash as a partial binder in geopolymer bricks to enhance their microstructural and mechanical properties. Geopolymer brick samples were fabricated using varying proportions of sugar beet bagasse ash, granulated blast furnace slag, and brick fragments, activated by a sodium hydroxide–sodium silicate alkaline solution. After a 28-day curing period, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) was conducted to examine microstructural changes, while mechanical and durability performance was assessed through compressive strength, flexural strength, and water absorption tests. The results demonstrated that adding 10% sugar beet bagasse ash significantly improved compressive strength to 35.5 MPa and flexural strength to 8.2 MPa compared to the control mix, while also reducing permeability, shrinkage, and microcracking. Higher bagasse ash percentages negatively affected strength, confirming 10% as the optimal level for performance and durability. This research highlights the potential of sugar beet bagasse ash as a sustainable supplementary material for geopolymer bricks, promoting environmental sustainability and supporting eco-friendly construction practices. Geopolymer bricks Sugar beet bagasse ash Mechanical properties Microstructure analysis Sustainable construction materials Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. Introduction The growing demand for housing and infrastructure in developing countries has driven significant expansion in the brick industry. Bricks remain a fundamental construction material due to rapid urbanization and development worldwide( 1 , 2 ). However, cement shortages in many nations—stemming from production limitations or reliance on imports—have led to increased foreign currency expenditure and energy consumption, raising economic and environmental concerns. To address these challenges, the development of high-performance bricks with improved strength and durability has gained attention. Numerous studies have investigated alternative materials to enhance brick properties and reduce cement dependency. Additionally, reusing materials from deconstructed structures helps conserve natural aggregates and decreases landfill waste, contributing to more sustainable construction practices( 3 ). Geopolymers are inorganic polymeric materials formed through the alkaline activation of aluminosilicate sources ( 4 ) The term “geopolymer,” introduced by Davidovits in 1972, describes a class of amorphous aluminosilicate-based binders that have emerged as promising alternatives to Portland cement in construction. These materials are typically synthesized from industrial by-products such as fly ash, slag, kaolinite, and other aluminosilicate-rich wastes ( 5 ). The synthesis process, known as geopolymerization, involves the dissolution and polymerization of silicate and aluminate species in an alkaline environment, resulting in a three-dimensional aluminosilicate network with favorable mechanical and durability properties ( 6 )Geopolymer bricks, produced from similar aluminosilicate-rich raw materials, present a sustainable alternative to traditional clay-fired bricks. They can be manufactured using industrial by-products such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, and recycled brick aggregates( 7 ). Compared to conventional bricks, geopolymer bricks offer several advantages, including reduced carbon emissions, higher mechanical strength, improved thermal stability, and enhanced durability. Moreover, their production does not require high-temperature firing, significantly lowering energy consumption and environmental impact( 8 ). Construction and demolition waste, often used as a raw material, predominantly comprises inert mineral components such as brick, tile, and ceramics, along with smaller fractions of wood, glass, plastic, asphalt, and tar( 9 ). Over the past decade, global construction and demolition (C&D) waste generation has been estimated at billions of tons annually, much of which is disposed of in landfills, exacerbating environmental and land-use concerns( 10 ). The industrial production process contributes substantially to this waste stream, generating materials such as brick waste (BW), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and sugar beet bagasse ash (SBBA)( 11 , 12 ). Given the resource-intensive and pollutant-heavy nature of the Portland cement industry, geopolymers have emerged as promising sustainable alternatives. Davidovits (1994), a pioneer in geopolymer technology, demonstrated the potential of utilizing various aluminosilicate-rich materials—including kaolinite, feldspar, and industrial by-products such as fly ash, steel slag, and mining residues—in the synthesis of geopolymer binders( 13 ). Zhang et al. (2023) found that as the recycled brick replacement ratio increases (0% to 100%), the compressive and tensile strengths of geopolymer bricks decrease significantly. Specifically, at 50% and 100% replacement, compressive strength dropped by 32.25% and 57.49%, respectively, while tensile strength decreased by 33.11% and 53.20%. The study noted that aluminosilicate gel in geopolymer creates a denser structure than conventional brick, with weaknesses in the aggregate transition zone.( 14 ). Gavali et al. (2019) explored using stone dust waste in fly ash-based geopolymeric adhesive mortar, utilizing sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide as alkaline activators. Cured at 80°C, tests showed all samples met tensile adhesion strength standards, with a 33% silica sand addition enhancing some properties( 15 ). Li et al. (2023) studied flexible green polymeric composites using fine recycled brick aggregates. They found that increased slag content and decreased silicate modulus improved strength. Despite a slight reduction in strength from the aggregates, their roughness enhanced fiber-matrix bonding, achieving maximum tensile strength of 4.41 MPa and flexibility of 4.27%( 16 ). The primary objective of this research is to explore advancements in geopolymer bricks by utilizing recycled materials, specifically bagasse ash, brick waste, and blast furnace slag. By enhancing the mechanical properties, durability, and sustainability of these bricks, this study aims to contribute to waste reduction and decrease reliance on natural raw materials. A key novelty lies in the utilization of sugar beet bagasse ash as a recycled material in geopolymer brick production—a strategy not extensively explored in prior research. This innovative approach has yielded geopolymer bricks that not only meet but surpass standard construction requirements in terms of strength and durability. The findings of this research highlight significant potential for advancing sustainable and cost-effective construction practices, contributing to a more environmentally responsible building industry. 2. Materials and Methods This study examines the stability and durability of geopolymer bricks incorporating granulated blast furnace slag and sugar beet bagasse ash. Brick samples were synthesized with varying proportions of these materials and compared to control specimens. In the absence of a standardized mix design for geopolymer bricks, a target density of 2400 kg/m³ was adopted as the basis for calculations. The mixture comprised crushed sand as a filler, brick fragments as a pozzolanic substitute, and granulated blast furnace slag and bagasse ash as key binders. Distilled water facilitated mixing and chemical reactions, while alkaline activators—sodium hydroxide (at 5, 8, and 12 M concentrations) and sodium silicate—were employed to initiate geopolymerization and enhance mechanical strength. Superplasticizers were added to improve workability and adjust the fluidity of the mix, contributing to increased density and reduced water absorption to enhance the bricks’ durability and stability. 2.1. Sample Preparation and Curing mixing crushed sand, brick fragments, slag, and bagasse ash for 2–3 minutes. A sodium hydroxide alkaline solution was prepared and combined with sodium silicate. Water and superplasticizers were added for consistency. The mixture was poured into molds, compacted, and smoothed before setting at room temperature for 24 hours( 17 ) Fig. 1 showed Cube samples produced in different structures. 2.1.1. Initial Preparation sodium silicate, and distilled water were sourced locally. Slag was sourced from the Bio Technology Company in Hamedan. Beet pulp residue from the Karaj sugar factory was incinerated at 600°C for 3 hours in the Razi Metallurgical Lab to produce bagasse ash. The superplasticizer used was purchased from the Building Chemistry Company. Brick fragments, bagasse ash, and granulated furnace slag were separately sieved using a sieve shaker, with particles passing through a 200-mesh sieve (particles less than 0.075 mm) utilized. All molds were thoroughly cleaned with a trowel and wire brush to ensure smooth surfaces, which eased sample removal. 2.1.2. Preparing Test Samples An alkaline solution was prepared by dissolving 40 g of sodium hydroxide per liter of distilled water and allowing it to cool after the exothermic reaction. Dry materials (crushed sand, brick fragments, slag, bagasse ash) were weighed and mixed manually. Sodium silicate was added, and the mixtures were combined with the alkaline solution for uniformity, adjusting water for consistency. The geopolymer mix was cast into 4 × 4 × 4 cm cube molds, compacted, and set for 24 hours before curing for 14 days. Initial batches contained varying brick fragment percentages, followed by bagasse ash substitutions across different sodium hydroxide molarities( 18 ). 2.2.Brick Fabrication Steps The brick fabrication process involved manually Compressive strength tests on 10 × 10 × 10 cm cubic samples (3, 7, and 28 days curing) showed that 10% sugar beet bagasse ash provided the highest strength. A three-point flexural strength test on 4×4×16 cm prismatic samples also indicated maximum strength at 10% bagasse ash. Water absorptivity tests revealed that 28-day samples with 10% bagasse ash absorbed the least water, demonstrating superior durability compared to other mixes. 2.3.X-Ray Diffraction Test (XRD) X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis by the Razi Metallurgical Research Center identified the crystalline phases in granulated furnace slag and sugar beet bagasse ash, showing that 10% bagasse ash improved mechanical properties and durability. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tests indicated this mix had a balanced elemental composition. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed that the 10% bagasse ash sample had a denser microstructure with fewer pores than the 0% sample, correlating with its superior mechanical properties. Table 1 displays the chemical composition of sugar beet bagasse ash, detailing its key elemental constituents and their proportions. Table 1 Chemical Analysis of Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash Material Chart X-ray diffraction (XRD) test result calcium carbonate (Calcite CaCO3) Figure 5 bagasse ash chart Calcite and Akermanite Figure 6 Granular furnace slag Figure 2 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of sugar beet bagasse ash, used to identify its crystalline phases. The analysis indicates the presence of calcite (CaCO₃), known for its natural cementitious properties that enhance the mechanical characteristics of geopolymer bricks. The formation of calcite during the thermal processing of bagasse ash activates calcium carbonate, contributing to improved strength and adhesion in the final product. Figure 3 presents the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of granulated blast furnace slag, identifying crystalline compounds such as akermanite. This phase is crucial in alkaline materials and geopolymers, enhancing durability, reducing permeability, and minimizing cracks from temperature changes or shrinkage, thereby improving the material's resilience.Analysis and Calcite and akermanite significantly enhance geopolymer bricks through different mechanisms. Calcite improves compressive strength and adhesion, while akermanite increases heat resistance and reduces cracking. Their combined effects contribute to stronger, more durable bricks, demonstrating the importance of optimizing their proportions for sustainable construction materials. Table 2 presents the chemical analysis of Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash, revealing low percentages of key oxides: CaO (0.05%), SiO₂ (0.86%), Al₂O₃ (0.19%), and high Fe₂O₃ (53.8%). The limited CaO and SiO₂ indicate that bagasse ash is unsuitable as a standalone cementing material and requires supplementary materials like blast furnace slag for effective geopolymer production. While its high Fe₂O₃ content enhances compressive strength, the low levels of silica and alumina reduce reactivity. Thus, combining bagasse ash with silica and alumina-rich materials can promote sustainability by minimizing agricultural waste and carbon emissions. Table 2 Chemical analysis of sugar beet bagasse ash Oxide MgO AL2O3 SiO2 SO3 K2O CaO Fe2O3 L.O.I Weight percent 0.78 0.19 0.86 0.94 0.94 0.05 53.8 0.78 Table 3 details the chemical analysis of Granulated Furnace Slag, highlighting significant oxides: SiO₂ (39.5%), Al₂O₃ (9.5%), CaO (38.5%), Fe₂O₃ (1.5%), and MgO (11%). Its richness in SiO₂ and CaO is essential for geopolymeric reactions, forming aluminosilicate gels that enhance brick strength and durability. The calcium content facilitates alkaline conditions for effective geopolymerization, while magnesium oxide improves resistance to thermal shrinkage. Overall, Granulated Furnace Slag’s balanced composition makes it ideal for geopolymer bricks, reducing cement use and CO₂ emissions, and enhancing durability when combined with materials like bagasse ash. Table 3 Chemical Analysis of Granulated Furnace Slag Sample SIO2 (wt.%) Al2O3 (wt.%) CaO (wt.%) Fe2O3 (wt.%) MgO (wt.%) slag powder 39.5 9.5 38.5 1.5 11 3. Results and Discussion The results of this study, presented below, include XRD, XRF, and SEM analyses. The practical aim of this research is to create geopolymer brick with enhanced durability and stability by incorporating brick fragments, bagasse ash (from beet pulp), and granulated blast furnace slag. In other words, using waste materials from buildings, agricultural, and industrial residues reduce waste generation, minimizes pollution and environmental impact, and lowers CO₂ emissions from cement production through geopolymer brick. 3.1. Compressive Strength The compressive strength test results for 16 cube samples (40 × 40 × 40 mm) and their corresponding densities at 14 days of curing are presented in Table 4 and Fig. 4 . Additionally, the compressive strength results for the remaining samples are illustrated in Fig. 10 . The slag percentage was high in all samples, serving as the primary source of calcium and silica compounds in the geopolymer reaction. Detailed analysis shows that using brick waste as an active filler effectively fills voids in the brick matrix and increases density. Up to 30% brick waste, these particles help reduce cracks and enhance structural density, thereby increasing compressive strength. In contrast, a small amount of brick waste (10%) has little effect on filling voids. Slag, with its high CaO and SiO₂ content, plays a key role in forming aluminosilicate gel. The gradual reduction in slag percentage, while maintaining high compressive strength, indicates that brick waste can serve as an effective alternative to slag. Additionally, the medium concentration of sodium hydroxide (8M) optimized the geopolymer reaction and prevented the formation of shrinkage cracks. In the analysis of each sample's impact, the WB30G70BA0M8 sample, with the optimal combination of brick waste and slag, showed the highest compressive strength and is suitable for applications that require high compressive strength. Replacing part of the slag with brick waste not only maintains or increases compressive strength but also reduces production costs and improves the use of construction waste. This trend may reduce natural raw material consumption, lower costs, and enhance environmental sustainability. Figure 4 presents the compressive strength of the first four samples, with WB30G70BA0M8 showing superior strength and sustainability due to the effective use of brick waste and granulated blast furnace slag. Table 4 shows compressive strength and density results for various geopolymer brick samples, combining brick waste (WB), blast furnace slag (GGBS), and sugar beet bagasse ash (Bagasse) at different sodium hydroxide concentrations (5M, 8M, 12M). The highest compressive strength (45.17 MPa) occurred in WB30G70BA0M12 at 12M NaOH, while the lowest (14.71 MPa) was in WB30G40BA30M5 at 5M. Density ranged from 1.972 gr/cm³ to 2.086 gr/cm³, decreasing with higher bagasse ash content. Overall, results suggest that increasing slag and sodium hydroxide concentration enhances mechanical properties and density( 19 ). Samples with high slag and low bagasse ash are ideal for load-bearing construction, particularly with a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration, achieving optimal strength and density. Future studies should focus on optimizing bagasse ash percentages, alkaline concentrations, and assessing cost and environmental sustainability for practical applications. Table 4: Compressive Strength and Density Results of Samples Samples GGBS WB Baggase NA Molarity Specific Gravity Compressive strength (Mpa) WB0G100BA0M8 100 0 0 8 2.077 45.54 WB10G90BA0M8 90 10 0 8 2.075 27.89 WB20G80BA0M8 80 20 0 8 2.053 32.18 WB30G70BA0M8 70 30 0 8 2.043 37.88 WB30G70BA0M5 70 30 0 5 2.067 25.43 WB30G60BA10M5 60 30 10 5 2.014 19.37 WB30G50BA20M5 50 30 20 5 2.017 18.08 WB30G40BA30M5 40 30 30 5 1.987 14.71 WB30G70BA0M8 70 30 0 8 2.08 34.01 WB30G60BA10M8 60 30 10 8 2.036 32.05 WB30G50BA20M8 50 30 20 8 2.04 24.11 WB30G40BA30M8 40 30 30 8 2.016 19.12 WB30G70BA0M12 70 30 0 12 2.086 45.17 WB30G60BA10M12 60 30 10 12 2.035 34.84 WB30G50BA20M12 50 30 20 12 2 28.39 WB30G40BA30M12 40 30 30 12 1.972 23.48 Figure 5 shows the compressive strength of geopolymer brick samples with different combinations of brick waste (WB), blast furnace slag (GGBS), and sugar beet bagasse ash (Bagasse) under 5 M, 8 M, and 12 M sodium hydroxide concentrations. The highest strength (45.17 MPa) occurred in sample WB30G70BA0M12 (30% brick waste, 70% slag, no bagasse ash, 12M concentration), while the lowest (14.71 MPa) was in WB30G40BA30M5 (30% brick waste, 40% slag, 30% bagasse ash, 5M concentration). Increased bagasse ash percentages generally reduced strength, while samples without it exhibited the highest compressive strength across all concentrations. Higher sodium hydroxide concentrations significantly improved strength, particularly in samples with bagasse ash. Brick waste enhanced structural density and reduced cracks, while higher slag content was crucial for strength. Samples with minimal or no bagasse ash are ideal for load-bearing applications, while those with high bagasse ash are suited for non-load-bearing or eco-friendly projects due to lower costs and recycled content. Reducing slag consumption by partially replacing it with bagasse ash can lower production costs and reduce agricultural waste; however, this substitution must be carefully managed to avoid compromising the brick’s mechanical properties( 20 ). Reducing slag consumption and replacing part with bagasse ash can reduce production costs and help decrease agricultural waste. Still, this replacement must be done carefully to prevent a significant reduction in the mechanical properties of the brick( 14 )The optimal combination for achieving high compressive strength includes 30% brick waste, 70% slag, no bagasse ash, and a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration. It is recommended that supplementary materials with lower water absorption be used for improving the performance of samples with high bagasse ash, the mixing and curing process be optimized, and the effects of different alkaline concentrations be evaluated more precisely. Initial strength loss in the first four samples, shown in Fig. 6 , is due to the lower strength of clay brick fragments compared to cement bricks. However, strength improves with a 30% increase in brick fragment percentage, as fine particles fill voids. The compressive strength of all samples meets the Iranian national standard No. 7 for clay bricks. The highest flexural strength (7.875 MPa) was observed in sample WB30G60BA10M12, while higher bagasse ash content and lower alkaline concentrations led to decreased flexural strength. All samples exceeded the 4 MPa minimum specified by the standard, with optimal compositions (high slag, low bagasse ash) significantly outperforming it. The combination of 30% brick waste, 60% slag, and 10% bagasse ash at a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration showed the best performance. The presence of 30% brick waste enhances bonding, and 60% slag improves resistance through aluminum silicate gel formation. While 10% bagasse ash increases reactivity, higher amounts reduce strength due to cracking. Higher sodium hydroxide concentrations (12M) accelerate geopolymer reactions, creating a compact structure, while lower concentrations (5M) yield incomplete reactions. A positive correlation exists between flexural and compressive strengths. Ultimately, Fig. 6 illustrates that geopolymer bricks with optimized compositions can meet or exceed Iranian standards, recommending the WB30G60BA10M12 combination for high flexural strength applications. Further enhancements could focus on adjusting bagasse ash content, refining curing processes, and balancing alkaline concentrations to boost mechanical properties and reduce costs. 3.2. Flexural Strength Table 5 shows the flexural strength of geopolymer brick samples with varying proportions of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), waste bricks (WB), and sugarcane bagasse across 5 M, 8 M, and 12 M sodium hydroxide concentrations. The WB30G70BA0M12 sample (70% GGBFS, 30% WB, 12 M) achieved the highest strength at 8.49 MPa, while adding bagasse reduced strength; for example, WB30G40BA30M12 reached only 4.207 MPa. Increasing sodium hydroxide concentrations generally led to better flexural performance, as seen with WB30G70BA0M5, which had a lower strength (4.838 MPa) at 5M. Higher GGBFS percentages consistently improved mechanical properties, with 70% GGBFS resulting in optimal performance, while bagasse’s fibrous nature reduced cohesion and strength, exemplified by WB30G40BA30M5, which had a flexural strength of 2.906 MPa. Specific gravities also varied, with higher GGBFS and molarity yielding denser samples, such as WB30G70BA0M12 (2.236). These observations highlight the importance of composition and processing conditions for designing durable materials. High GGBFS percentages at elevated molarity levels are recommended for applications demanding strong flexural performance, while bagasse can be used effectively with proper optimization to mitigate its negative impact. Table 5 Results of Flexural Strength (Three-Point Bending) of Samples Along with Their Specific Gravities Sample GGBFS (%) WB (%) Bagasse (%) NaOH Molarity Specific Gravity Flexural Strength (MPa) WB0G100BA0M8 100 0 0 8 2.223 8.703 WB10G90BA0M8 90 10 0 8 2.21 5.351 WB20G80BA0M8 80 20 0 8 2.246 6.111 WB30G70BA0M8 70 30 0 8 2.201 7.056 WB30G70BA0M5 70 30 0 5 2.122 4.838 WB30G60BA10M5 60 30 10 5 2.211 3.649 WB30G50BA20M5 50 30 20 5 2.2 3.555 WB30G40BA30M5 40 30 30 5 2.152 2.906 WB30G70BA0M8 70 30 0 8 2.195 7.064 WB30G60BA10M8 60 30 10 8 2.218 6.338 WB30G50BA20M8 50 30 20 8 2.178 4.524 WB30G40BA30M8 40 30 30 8 2.153 3.628 WB30G70BA0M12 70 30 0 12 2.236 8.49 WB30G60BA10M12 60 30 10 12 2.205 7.875 WB30G50BA20M12 50 30 20 12 2.198 5.642 WB30G40BA30M12 40 30 30 12 2.159 4.207 3.3. Flexural Strength Analysis of Initial Samples Figure 7 shows the flexural strength of four samples with different ratios of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and waste binder (WB) at 8 M sodium hydroxide. WB0G100BA0M8 (100% GGBFS) achieved the highest strength of 8.703 MPa, attributed to GGBFS’s dense structure. In contrast, WB10G90BA0M8 (10% WB) exhibited a marked decrease to 5.351 MPa due to reduced cohesion. The sample WB20G80BA0M8, with 20% WB, improved to 6.111 MPa, indicating better adhesion, while WB30G70BA0M8, containing 30% WB, reached 7.056 MPa, benefiting from enhanced matrix cohesion. These results highlight the importance of GGBFS content in maximizing flexural strength; higher percentages yield better performance. Although WB can enhance mechanical properties when balanced, excessive substitution of GGBFS can compromise strength. Overall, compositions with high GGBFS and 8M molarity are ideal for applications requiring significant flexural strength, with WB30G70BA0M8 representing a strong, flexible option. Future research should aim to optimize compositions and investigate additives to improve performance further Figure 8 shows the flexural strength of samples with varying proportions of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), waste binder (WB), and sugarcane bagasse at different sodium hydroxide molarities. The sample with 70% GGBFS and 30% WB at 12M molarity achieved the highest flexural strength of 8.49 MPa, highlighting the positive impact of higher molarity on mechanical properties. However, adding 10% bagasse reduced the strength to 7.875 MPa due to the fibrous nature of bagasse affecting matrix cohesion. As bagasse content increased, the sample with 20% bagasse showed a further decline to 5.642 MPa, and a 30% bagasse sample recorded the lowest strength of 4.207 MPa, primarily due to voids and structural defects. These findings consistently indicate that higher bagasse proportions correlate with reduced flexural strength, emphasizing the need for careful formulation to balance environmental benefits with mechanical performance. Compositions with 70% GGBFS and 12M molarity are recommended for high-strength construction materials. Future research should explore optimizing bagasse use to enhance material cohesion while maintaining desirable mechanical properties, promoting sustainable construction practices. 3.4. Water Absorption The water absorption of geopolymer bricks was tested after 28 days for samples WB30G70BA0M12, WB30G60BA10M12, WB30G50BA20M12, and WB30G40BA30M12. As shown in Table 6 and Fig. 9 , adding 10% bagasse ash increased water absorption by 8%, while higher additions (> 10%) further raised absorption. To minimize water uptake, less than 10% bagasse ash is optimal. All samples met the Iranian national standard No. 7 for clay bricks (6–15% absorption by weight), classifying them as high-strength bricks. The highest absorption (14.14%) occurred in WB30G70BA0M12 (30% brick dust, 70% slag, no bagasse ash, 12 M), and the lowest (11.41%) in WB30G40BA30M12 (30% brick dust, 40% slag, 30% bagasse ash, 12 M). Results indicate that raw material composition and sodium hydroxide molarity (5 M, 8 M, 12 M) significantly influence water absorption. Samples containing 30% bagasse ash generally showed higher water absorption than those without. Additionally, samples prepared with a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration absorbed more water than those made with 5M and 8M concentrations, indicating that higher alkalinity concentration may result in a less dense brick structure. The increase in water absorption with higher bagasse ash content is due to the hydrophilic nature of the material, which causes greater water absorption. Adding bagasse ash to the brick mix also reduces workability, as high water absorption decreases the fluidity of the mix. Due to the formation of aluminosilicate gels, slag can create a more compact structure and reduce water absorption. Furthermore, higher concentrations of sodium hydroxide (12M) accelerate the geopolymerization process, but this acceleration can lead to structures with more pores, resulting in higher water absorption. To optimize the water absorption performance of geopolymer bricks, it is recommended to limit bagasse ash content and use optimal sodium hydroxide concentrations to achieve a denser structure. Table 6 summarizes the 28-day water absorption results, highlighting the effects of bagasse ash content and sodium hydroxide molarity on durability. Table 6 Water Absorption Results Sample Water absorption WB30G40BA30M12 11.41 WB30G50BA20M12 12.42 WB30G60BA10M12 12.58 WB30G70BA0M12 14.14 3.5.Examination and results of scanning electron microscope (SEM test) To Better Understand the Effect of Bagasse Ash (Sugar Beet) and Granulated Slag on the Microstructure of Geopolymer Brick, WB30G70BA0M12 and WB30G60BA10M12 samples were examined using a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) after 28 days of curing. As shown in the images below, microcracks observed in the pictures could negatively impact the strength and durability of the brick. These cracks are due to excess water in the brick, which, upon evaporation, causes shrinkage and cracking. These scattered cracks vary in size and shape. By comparing Fig. 10 with Fig. 11 , it can be observed that the sample with 0% bagasse ash (sample WB30G70BA0M12) has fewer cracks, which reduces the brick’s permeability. This sample has a more uniform gel structure with fewer particle boundaries. Figures 10 and 11 also show that the sample containing 10% bagasse ash (sample WB30G60BA10M12) has numerous pores and cracks. As the percentage of bagasse ash increases, the brick’s workability decreases, and compaction is less effective, leading to the retention of microvoids. The reduction in workability is due to the high specific surface area of bagasse ash particles, which results in higher water absorption. In this sample, brick particles adhere together with less uniformity than in the previous sample. These findings are consistent with the compressive and flexural strength results and the water absorption properties. The denser and more uniform a sample, the higher its strength and lower its water absorption. Figure 10 shows an electron microscope (SEM) image of the WB30G70BA0M12 sample, which consists of 30% brick waste and 70% blast furnace slag with a 12-molar concentration of sodium hydroxide. This image reveals the sample's microstructure and helps evaluate its microstructural properties. The aluminosilicate gel structure in this sample appears dense with minimal particle boundaries, indicating proper formation of the aluminosilicate gel due to the alkaline activation reaction, which contributes to reduced permeability and increased compressive strength of the brick. This sample's number of cracks and delicate pores is low, indicating appropriate water distribution and controlled thermal shrinkage conditions. The particle boundaries are minimized, showing strong bonding between the geopolymer components and reduced internal voids. The high slag content (70%) leads to the production of substantial amounts of CaO and SiO₂, which participate in geopolymeric reactions and result in the formation of a dense gel structure. The absence of bagasse ash (0%) reduces the harmful effects of its high specific surface area and water absorption, preventing cracks caused by shrinkage. The high concentration of sodium hydroxide accelerates the geopolymeric reaction and helps form the gel more rapidly. The fine particles of brick waste fill the voids between particles, leading to a denser structure. Suitable curing conditions also enhance chemical reactions and control shrinkage. These features contribute to high compressive strength (45.17 MPa) and durability against environmental conditions. The reduction in cracks and pores decreases permeability and enhances resistance to chemical attacks (such as carbonation and chloride penetration). This type of geopolymer brick is suitable for construction projects that require high durability and minimal permeability (such as marine and industrial structures). As a result, the SEM image of the WB30G70BA0M12 sample demonstrates an optimal geopolymer structure, which results from the proper combination of raw materials, high alkaline concentration, and controlled curing conditions, leading to a product with high mechanical strength and long-term durability. Figure 11 is an electron microscope (SEM) image of the WB30G60BA10M12 sample, which contains 30% brick waste, 60% blast furnace slag, and 10% bagasse ash from sugar beet at a 12 molar concentration of sodium hydroxide. This image shows the sample's microstructure and provides vital information about its mechanical and microstructural properties. Numerous cracks and pores are visible compared to the WB30G70BA0M12 sample, indicating the negative effect of increasing the bagasse ash content in the structure. The aluminosilicate gel in the WB30G60BA10M12 sample exhibits non-uniformity, with low-density regions and scattered voids caused by the high specific surface area and water absorption of bagasse ash. Poor dispersion of bagasse ash particles results in uneven density, micro-voids, and cracks that compromise the structure. Excessive bagasse ash (> 10%) reduces mix efficiency, density, and cohesion of the aluminosilicate gel, leading to lower mechanical strength. Compared to WB30G70BA0M12, the reduced slag content lowers CaO and SiO₂ levels, further limiting dense gel formation. While brick waste acts as a filler to mitigate voids, it cannot fully offset the adverse effects of slag reduction and high bagasse ash. Although a high sodium hydroxide concentration accelerates reactions, material imbalances prevent optimal structure formation. Cracks and pores observed in SEM images correspond with decreased compressive strength (34.84 MPa vs. 45.17 MPa in WB30G70BA0M12) and increased permeability, reducing resistance to environmental factors. The comparison with Fig. 11 confirms WB30G70BA0M12’s denser, more uniform microstructure, whereas WB30G60BA10M12 shows greater cracking and porosity. To address these issues, reducing bagasse ash content, incorporating additives with lower specific surface areas, and improving mixing and curing practices are recommended to enhance density, reduce cracks, and improve durability. Figure 11 is an electron microscope (SEM) image of the WB30G60BA10M12 sample, which contains 30% brick waste, 60% blast furnace slag, and 10% bagasse ash from sugar beet at a 12 molar concentration of sodium hydroxide. This image shows the sample's microstructure and provides vital information about its mechanical and microstructural properties. Numerous cracks and pores are visible compared to the WB30G70BA0M12 sample, indicating the negative effect of increasing the bagasse ash content in the structure. The aluminosilicate gel in the WB30G60BA10M12 sample exhibits non-uniformity, with low-density regions and scattered voids caused by the high specific surface area and water absorption of bagasse ash. Poor dispersion of bagasse ash particles results in uneven density, micro-voids, and cracks that compromise the structure. Excessive bagasse ash (>10%) reduces mix efficiency, density, and cohesion of the aluminosilicate gel, leading to lower mechanical strength. Compared to WB30G70BA0M12, the reduced slag content lowers CaO and SiO₂ levels, further limiting dense gel formation. While brick waste acts as a filler to mitigate voids, it cannot fully offset the adverse effects of slag reduction and high bagasse ash. Although a high sodium hydroxide concentration accelerates reactions, material imbalances prevent optimal structure formation. Cracks and pores observed in SEM images correspond with decreased compressive strength (34.84 MPa vs. 45.17 MPa in WB30G70BA0M12) and increased permeability, reducing resistance to environmental factors. The comparison with Figure 11 confirms WB30G70BA0M12’s denser, more uniform microstructure, whereas WB30G60BA10M12 shows greater cracking and porosity. To address these issues, reducing bagasse ash content, incorporating additives with lower specific surface areas, and improving mixing and curing practices are recommended to enhance density, reduce cracks, and improve durability. 4. Conclusion This study explores the reuse of industrial waste—waste brick, sugar beet bagasse ash, and granulated blast furnace slag—to develop eco-friendly geopolymer bricks (“green bricks”). The effects of varying proportions of brick fragments, bagasse ash, and sodium hydroxide molarity on mechanical properties were systematically investigated. Increasing sodium hydroxide molarity improved flexural strength, while bagasse ash content above 10% reduced both compressive and flexural strength. The optimal formulation, containing 10% bagasse ash, 30% brick fragments, and 60% slag, achieved the highest compressive strength (34.84 MPa) and flexural strength (7.875 MPa). Durability tests and SEM analysis confirmed this mix had a denser, more uniform microstructure and superior resistance to degradation. Higher bagasse ash levels led to wax-like phase formation, weakening the structure and reducing durability. These findings highlight 10% bagasse ash as the optimal content for balancing strength, durability, and sustainability, demonstrating a promising approach for converting industrial waste into high-performance construction materials. In Future Future research should focus on optimizing the use of industrial by-products—such as sugar beet bagasse ash, filter cake, and recycled aggregates—to enhance the mechanical and environmental performance of sustainable geopolymer bricks. Long-term durability studies under varied environmental conditions, including extreme temperatures and humidity, are essential for wider construction adoption. Exploring additional agricultural and industrial wastes as alternative binders could further improve waste valorization and reduce the construction sector’s carbon footprint. Moreover, investigating scalable, cost-effective production methods and real-world application in construction projects will be key to assessing practical feasibility and economic viability. Declarations Acknowledgments During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Deepseek in order to improve language. After using this tool, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication. Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable. Consent to Participate declaration: Not applicable. Ethics declaration: Not applicable. Clinical trial registration: Our study is not a clinical trial, so this requirement is not applicable. Data Availability: The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Funding declaration: The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. References Ghiasi V, Marabi Y, Fahmi A, Maleki HR, Rahimpour H. Compressive strength of geopolymer brick samples based on sand-washing waste with different particle sizes. Advances in materials research: AMR. 2025;14(1):31-42. Saravanan J, Rao PV. 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Maaze MR, Shrivastava S. Development and performance evaluation of recycled brick waste-based geopolymer brick for improved physcio-mechanical, brick-bond and durability properties. Journal of Building Engineering. 2024;97:110701. De Feo G, Ferrara C. Advancing communication in solid waste management: leveraging life cycle thinking for environmental sustainability. Environmental Technology Reviews. 2024;13(1):441-60. Lamba P, Kaur DP, Raj S, Sorout J. Recycling/reuse of plastic waste as construction material for sustainable development: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022;29(57):86156-79. Rivera J, Castro F, Fernández-Jiménez A, Cristelo N. Alkali-activated cements from urban, mining and agro-industrial waste: State-of-the-art and opportunities. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 2021;12(5):2665-83. Choeycharoen P, Sornlar W, Wannagon A. 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Mechtcherine V, Buswell R, Kloft H, Bos FP, Hack N, Wolfs R, et al. Integrating reinforcement in digital fabrication with concrete: A review and classification framework. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2021;119:103964. Sousa LN, Figueiredo PF, França S, de Moura Solar Silva MV, Borges PHR, Bezerra ACdS. Effect of non-calcined sugarcane bagasse ash as an alternative precursor on the properties of alkali-activated pastes. Molecules. 2022;27(4):1185. Tang Z, Li W, Tam VW, Luo Z. Investigation on dynamic mechanical properties of fly ash/slag-based geopolymeric recycled aggregate concrete. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2020;185:107776. Ahmed HU, Mohammed AS, Qaidi SM, Faraj RH, Hamah Sor N, Mohammed AA. Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete composites: a systematic comprehensive review, analysis and modeling. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering. 2023;27(3):1383-428. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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first four samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8352823/v1/d1cf3ce6c3cfe73d20ba74a1.jpeg"},{"id":100212906,"identity":"4c85a298-9f47-4028-9024-6e30b2d98858","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 07:57:41","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural strength results (three-point) of the remaining samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8352823/v1/07d7cb9518ba96ef78446b53.jpeg"},{"id":100369608,"identity":"ab42e61a-5c67-4247-abb9-a2f164186bcc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:59:11","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30240,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWater Absorption Results\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8352823/v1/03709082b09a19070d77b190.png"},{"id":100212912,"identity":"548cdf66-0bb9-42d6-ae11-54c8410361c2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 07:57:41","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":301208,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScanning Electron Microscope Image of Sample WB30G70BA0M12\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8352823/v1/dfb609a7a0881b96e53571ce.png"},{"id":100212914,"identity":"8b5f9411-d1b2-4df8-83af-ea32974d91c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 07:57:41","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":326434,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScanning Electron Microscope Image of Sample WB30G60BA10M12\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8352823/v1/50f3ffdcf28249d7ad189bc3.png"},{"id":105896081,"identity":"17b1c29a-1574-4d31-a109-725e1c8e864d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-01 08:43:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2851646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8352823/v1/610ddfb7-33b2-43c7-b664-146420b77735.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Investigation of Recycled Geopolymer Bricks Made with Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash and Filter Cake Binders","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe growing demand for housing and infrastructure in developing countries has driven significant expansion in the brick industry. Bricks remain a fundamental construction material due to rapid urbanization and development worldwide(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). However, cement shortages in many nations\u0026mdash;stemming from production limitations or reliance on imports\u0026mdash;have led to increased foreign currency expenditure and energy consumption, raising economic and environmental concerns. To address these challenges, the development of high-performance bricks with improved strength and durability has gained attention. Numerous studies have investigated alternative materials to enhance brick properties and reduce cement dependency. Additionally, reusing materials from deconstructed structures helps conserve natural aggregates and decreases landfill waste, contributing to more sustainable construction practices(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Geopolymers are inorganic polymeric materials formed through the alkaline activation of aluminosilicate sources (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) The term \u0026ldquo;geopolymer,\u0026rdquo; introduced by Davidovits in 1972, describes a class of amorphous aluminosilicate-based binders that have emerged as promising alternatives to Portland cement in construction. These materials are typically synthesized from industrial by-products such as fly ash, slag, kaolinite, and other aluminosilicate-rich wastes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The synthesis process, known as geopolymerization, involves the dissolution and polymerization of silicate and aluminate species in an alkaline environment, resulting in a three-dimensional aluminosilicate network with favorable mechanical and durability properties (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e)Geopolymer bricks, produced from similar aluminosilicate-rich raw materials, present a sustainable alternative to traditional clay-fired bricks. They can be manufactured using industrial by-products such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, and recycled brick aggregates(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Compared to conventional bricks, geopolymer bricks offer several advantages, including reduced carbon emissions, higher mechanical strength, improved thermal stability, and enhanced durability. Moreover, their production does not require high-temperature firing, significantly lowering energy consumption and environmental impact(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Construction and demolition waste, often used as a raw material, predominantly comprises inert mineral components such as brick, tile, and ceramics, along with smaller fractions of wood, glass, plastic, asphalt, and tar(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Over the past decade, global construction and demolition (C\u0026amp;D) waste generation has been estimated at billions of tons annually, much of which is disposed of in landfills, exacerbating environmental and land-use concerns(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). The industrial production process contributes substantially to this waste stream, generating materials such as brick waste (BW), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and sugar beet bagasse ash (SBBA)(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Given the resource-intensive and pollutant-heavy nature of the Portland cement industry, geopolymers have emerged as promising sustainable alternatives. Davidovits (1994), a pioneer in geopolymer technology, demonstrated the potential of utilizing various aluminosilicate-rich materials\u0026mdash;including kaolinite, feldspar, and industrial by-products such as fly ash, steel slag, and mining residues\u0026mdash;in the synthesis of geopolymer binders(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Zhang et al. (2023) found that as the recycled brick replacement ratio increases (0% to 100%), the compressive and tensile strengths of geopolymer bricks decrease significantly. Specifically, at 50% and 100% replacement, compressive strength dropped by 32.25% and 57.49%, respectively, while tensile strength decreased by 33.11% and 53.20%. The study noted that aluminosilicate gel in geopolymer creates a denser structure than conventional brick, with weaknesses in the aggregate transition zone.(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). Gavali et al. (2019) explored using stone dust waste in fly ash-based geopolymeric adhesive mortar, utilizing sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide as alkaline activators. Cured at 80\u0026deg;C, tests showed all samples met tensile adhesion strength standards, with a 33% silica sand addition enhancing some properties(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Li et al. (2023) studied flexible green polymeric composites using fine recycled brick aggregates. They found that increased slag content and decreased silicate modulus improved strength. Despite a slight reduction in strength from the aggregates, their roughness enhanced fiber-matrix bonding, achieving maximum tensile strength of 4.41 MPa and flexibility of 4.27%(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). The primary objective of this research is to explore advancements in geopolymer bricks by utilizing recycled materials, specifically bagasse ash, brick waste, and blast furnace slag. By enhancing the mechanical properties, durability, and sustainability of these bricks, this study aims to contribute to waste reduction and decrease reliance on natural raw materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key novelty lies in the utilization of sugar beet bagasse ash as a recycled material in geopolymer brick production\u0026mdash;a strategy not extensively explored in prior research. This innovative approach has yielded geopolymer bricks that not only meet but surpass standard construction requirements in terms of strength and durability. The findings of this research highlight significant potential for advancing sustainable and cost-effective construction practices, contributing to a more environmentally responsible building industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines the stability and durability of geopolymer bricks incorporating granulated blast furnace slag and sugar beet bagasse ash. Brick samples were synthesized with varying proportions of these materials and compared to control specimens. In the absence of a standardized mix design for geopolymer bricks, a target density of 2400 kg/m\u0026sup3; was adopted as the basis for calculations. The mixture comprised crushed sand as a filler, brick fragments as a pozzolanic substitute, and granulated blast furnace slag and bagasse ash as key binders. Distilled water facilitated mixing and chemical reactions, while alkaline activators\u0026mdash;sodium hydroxide (at 5, 8, and 12 M concentrations) and sodium silicate\u0026mdash;were employed to initiate geopolymerization and enhance mechanical strength. Superplasticizers were added to improve workability and adjust the fluidity of the mix, contributing to increased density and reduced water absorption to enhance the bricks\u0026rsquo; durability and stability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Sample Preparation and Curing\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emixing crushed sand, brick fragments, slag, and bagasse ash for 2\u0026ndash;3 minutes. A sodium hydroxide alkaline solution was prepared and combined with sodium silicate. Water and superplasticizers were added for consistency. The mixture was poured into molds, compacted, and smoothed before setting at room temperature for 24 hours(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e) Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e showed Cube samples produced in different structures.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1. Initial Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esodium silicate, and distilled water were sourced locally. Slag was sourced from the Bio Technology Company in Hamedan. Beet pulp residue from the Karaj sugar factory was incinerated at 600\u0026deg;C for 3 hours in the Razi Metallurgical Lab to produce bagasse ash. The superplasticizer used was purchased from the Building Chemistry Company. Brick fragments, bagasse ash, and granulated furnace slag were separately sieved using a sieve shaker, with particles passing through a 200-mesh sieve (particles less than 0.075 mm) utilized. All molds were thoroughly cleaned with a trowel and wire brush to ensure smooth surfaces, which eased sample removal.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2. Preparing Test Samples\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn alkaline solution was prepared by dissolving 40 g of sodium hydroxide per liter of distilled water and allowing it to cool after the exothermic reaction. Dry materials (crushed sand, brick fragments, slag, bagasse ash) were weighed and mixed manually. Sodium silicate was added, and the mixtures were combined with the alkaline solution for uniformity, adjusting water for consistency. The geopolymer mix was cast into 4 \u0026times; 4 \u0026times; 4 cm cube molds, compacted, and set for 24 hours before curing for 14 days. Initial batches contained varying brick fragment percentages, followed by bagasse ash substitutions across different sodium hydroxide molarities(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2.Brick Fabrication Steps\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe brick fabrication process involved manually\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompressive strength tests on 10 \u0026times; 10 \u0026times; 10 cm cubic samples (3, 7, and 28 days curing) showed that 10% sugar beet bagasse ash provided the highest strength. A three-point flexural strength test on 4\u0026times;4\u0026times;16 cm prismatic samples also indicated maximum strength at 10% bagasse ash. Water absorptivity tests revealed that 28-day samples with 10% bagasse ash absorbed the least water, demonstrating superior durability compared to other mixes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.X-Ray Diffraction Test (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis by the Razi Metallurgical Research Center identified the crystalline phases in granulated furnace slag and sugar beet bagasse ash, showing that 10% bagasse ash improved mechanical properties and durability. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tests indicated this mix had a balanced elemental composition. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed that the 10% bagasse ash sample had a denser microstructure with fewer pores than the 0% sample, correlating with its superior mechanical properties. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e displays the chemical composition of sugar beet bagasse ash, detailing its key elemental constituents and their proportions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical Analysis of Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaterial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChart\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) test result\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecalcium carbonate (Calcite CaCO3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebagasse ash chart\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCalcite and Akermanite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGranular furnace slag\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of sugar beet bagasse ash, used to identify its crystalline phases. The analysis indicates the presence of calcite (CaCO₃), known for its natural cementitious properties that enhance the mechanical characteristics of geopolymer bricks. The formation of calcite during the thermal processing of bagasse ash activates calcium carbonate, contributing to improved strength and adhesion in the final product.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of granulated blast furnace slag, identifying crystalline compounds such as akermanite. This phase is crucial in alkaline materials and geopolymers, enhancing durability, reducing permeability, and minimizing cracks from temperature changes or shrinkage, thereby improving the material\u0026apos;s resilience.Analysis and Calcite and akermanite significantly enhance geopolymer bricks through different mechanisms. Calcite improves compressive strength and adhesion, while akermanite increases heat resistance and reduces cracking. Their combined effects contribute to stronger, more durable bricks, demonstrating the importance of optimizing their proportions for sustainable construction materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the chemical analysis of Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash, revealing low percentages of key oxides: CaO (0.05%), SiO₂ (0.86%), Al₂O₃ (0.19%), and high Fe₂O₃ (53.8%). The limited CaO and SiO₂ indicate that bagasse ash is unsuitable as a standalone cementing material and requires supplementary materials like blast furnace slag for effective geopolymer production. While its high Fe₂O₃ content enhances compressive strength, the low levels of silica and alumina reduce reactivity. Thus, combining bagasse ash with silica and alumina-rich materials can promote sustainability by minimizing agricultural waste and carbon emissions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical analysis of sugar beet bagasse ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOxide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAL2O3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSiO2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSO3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK2O\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe2O3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL.O.I\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWeight percent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e details the chemical analysis of Granulated Furnace Slag, highlighting significant oxides: SiO₂ (39.5%), Al₂O₃ (9.5%), CaO (38.5%), Fe₂O₃ (1.5%), and MgO (11%). Its richness in SiO₂ and CaO is essential for geopolymeric reactions, forming aluminosilicate gels that enhance brick strength and durability. The calcium content facilitates alkaline conditions for effective geopolymerization, while magnesium oxide improves resistance to thermal shrinkage. Overall, Granulated Furnace Slag\u0026rsquo;s balanced composition makes it ideal for geopolymer bricks, reducing cement use and CO₂ emissions, and enhancing durability when combined with materials like bagasse ash.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical Analysis of Granulated Furnace Slag\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSIO2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAl2O3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe2O3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eslag powder\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study, presented below, include XRD, XRF, and SEM analyses. The practical aim of this research is to create geopolymer brick with enhanced durability and stability by incorporating brick fragments, bagasse ash (from beet pulp), and granulated blast furnace slag. In other words, using waste materials from buildings, agricultural, and industrial residues reduce waste generation, minimizes pollution and environmental impact, and lowers CO₂ emissions from cement production through geopolymer brick.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Compressive Strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe compressive strength test results for 16 cube samples (40 \u0026times; 40 \u0026times; 40 mm) and their corresponding densities at 14 days of curing are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Additionally, the compressive strength results for the remaining samples are illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe slag percentage was high in all samples, serving as the primary source of calcium and silica compounds in the geopolymer reaction. Detailed analysis shows that using brick waste as an active filler effectively fills voids in the brick matrix and increases density. Up to 30% brick waste, these particles help reduce cracks and enhance structural density, thereby increasing compressive strength. In contrast, a small amount of brick waste (10%) has little effect on filling voids. Slag, with its high CaO and SiO₂ content, plays a key role in forming aluminosilicate gel. The gradual reduction in slag percentage, while maintaining high compressive strength, indicates that brick waste can serve as an effective alternative to slag.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the medium concentration of sodium hydroxide (8M) optimized the geopolymer reaction and prevented the formation of shrinkage cracks. In the analysis of each sample\u0026apos;s impact, the WB30G70BA0M8 sample, with the optimal combination of brick waste and slag, showed the highest compressive strength and is suitable for applications that require high compressive strength. Replacing part of the slag with brick waste not only maintains or increases compressive strength but also reduces production costs and improves the use of construction waste. This trend may reduce natural raw material consumption, lower costs, and enhance environmental sustainability. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the compressive strength of the first four samples, with WB30G70BA0M8 showing superior strength and sustainability due to the effective use of brick waste and granulated blast furnace slag.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows compressive strength and density results for various geopolymer brick samples, combining brick waste (WB), blast furnace slag (GGBS), and sugar beet bagasse ash (Bagasse) at different sodium hydroxide concentrations (5M, 8M, 12M). The highest compressive strength (45.17 MPa) occurred in WB30G70BA0M12 at 12M NaOH, while the lowest (14.71 MPa) was in WB30G40BA30M5 at 5M. Density ranged from 1.972 gr/cm\u0026sup3; to 2.086 gr/cm\u0026sup3;, decreasing with higher bagasse ash content. Overall, results suggest that increasing slag and sodium hydroxide concentration enhances mechanical properties and density(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). Samples with high slag and low bagasse ash are ideal for load-bearing construction, particularly with a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration, achieving optimal strength and density. Future studies should focus on optimizing bagasse ash percentages, alkaline concentrations, and assessing cost and environmental sustainability for practical applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 4: Compressive Strength and Density Results of Samples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGGBS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg width=\"13\" height=\"19\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAA0AAAATCAMAAAB86XelAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAF1QTFRFAAAAAAAAAAA6AGa2OgAAOjqQOmaQOma2OpDbZgA6ZgBmZjoAZpDbZrbbZrb/kDoAkDo6kDpmkNv/tmYAtmY6ttv/tv//25A625Bm2////7Zm/9uQ/9u2//+2///bhNEQtgAAAAF0Uk5TAEDm2GYAAAAJcEhZcwAADsQAAA7EAZUrDhsAAAAZdEVYdFNvZnR3YXJlAE1pY3Jvc29mdCBPZmZpY2V/7TVxAAAAaUlEQVQoU62NOxaAIAwEg6KCXxQFRcz9j2mCFJYWbsEj+yYTgH8SpFBkQrPQe7Vb1PTxDcvP6gA7Uule08o0kXqhnomUXRY9mjF2os5NKMEOSOuZxtmBf3atSs5nYgVOmSQFV1Kk+x9zA8tMBgUiApgeAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" alt=\"image\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg width=\"13\" height=\"19\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAA0AAAATCAMAAAB86XelAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAF1QTFRFAAAAAAAAAAA6AGa2OgAAOjqQOmaQOma2OpDbZgA6ZgBmZjoAZpDbZrbbZrb/kDoAkDo6kDpmkNv/tmYAtmY6ttv/tv//25A625Bm2////7Zm/9uQ/9u2//+2///bhNEQtgAAAAF0Uk5TAEDm2GYAAAAJcEhZcwAADsQAAA7EAZUrDhsAAAAZdEVYdFNvZnR3YXJlAE1pY3Jvc29mdCBPZmZpY2V/7TVxAAAAaUlEQVQoU62NOxaAIAwEg6KCXxQFRcz9j2mCFJYWbsEj+yYTgH8SpFBkQrPQe7Vb1PTxDcvP6gA7Uule08o0kXqhnomUXRY9mjF2os5NKMEOSOuZxtmBf3atSs5nYgVOmSQFV1Kk+x9zA8tMBgUiApgeAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" alt=\"image\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaggase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg width=\"13\" height=\"19\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAA0AAAATCAMAAAB86XelAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAF1QTFRFAAAAAAAAAAA6AGa2OgAAOjqQOmaQOma2OpDbZgA6ZgBmZjoAZpDbZrbbZrb/kDoAkDo6kDpmkNv/tmYAtmY6ttv/tv//25A625Bm2////7Zm/9uQ/9u2//+2///bhNEQtgAAAAF0Uk5TAEDm2GYAAAAJcEhZcwAADsQAAA7EAZUrDhsAAAAZdEVYdFNvZnR3YXJlAE1pY3Jvc29mdCBPZmZpY2V/7TVxAAAAaUlEQVQoU62NOxaAIAwEg6KCXxQFRcz9j2mCFJYWbsEj+yYTgH8SpFBkQrPQe7Vb1PTxDcvP6gA7Uule08o0kXqhnomUXRY9mjF2os5NKMEOSOuZxtmBf3atSs5nYgVOmSQFV1Kk+x9zA8tMBgUiApgeAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" alt=\"image\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMolarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompressive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003estrength (Mpa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB0G100BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB10G90BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB20G80BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.987\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.972\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the compressive strength of geopolymer brick samples with different combinations of brick waste (WB), blast furnace slag (GGBS), and sugar beet bagasse ash (Bagasse) under 5 M, 8 M, and 12 M sodium hydroxide concentrations. The highest strength (45.17 MPa) occurred in sample WB30G70BA0M12 (30% brick waste, 70% slag, no bagasse ash, 12M concentration), while the lowest (14.71 MPa) was in WB30G40BA30M5 (30% brick waste, 40% slag, 30% bagasse ash, 5M concentration). Increased bagasse ash percentages generally reduced strength, while samples without it exhibited the highest compressive strength across all concentrations. Higher sodium hydroxide concentrations significantly improved strength, particularly in samples with bagasse ash. Brick waste enhanced structural density and reduced cracks, while higher slag content was crucial for strength. Samples with minimal or no bagasse ash are ideal for load-bearing applications, while those with high bagasse ash are suited for non-load-bearing or eco-friendly projects due to lower costs and recycled content. Reducing slag consumption by partially replacing it with bagasse ash can lower production costs and reduce agricultural waste; however, this substitution must be carefully managed to avoid compromising the brick\u0026rsquo;s mechanical properties(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Reducing slag consumption and replacing part with bagasse ash can reduce production costs and help decrease agricultural waste. Still, this replacement must be done carefully to prevent a significant reduction in the mechanical properties of the brick(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e)The optimal combination for achieving high compressive strength includes 30% brick waste, 70% slag, no bagasse ash, and a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration. It is recommended that supplementary materials with lower water absorption be used for improving the performance of samples with high bagasse ash, the mixing and curing process be optimized, and the effects of different alkaline concentrations be evaluated more precisely.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial strength loss in the first four samples, shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, is due to the lower strength of clay brick fragments compared to cement bricks. However, strength improves with a 30% increase in brick fragment percentage, as fine particles fill voids. The compressive strength of all samples meets the Iranian national standard No. 7 for clay bricks. The highest flexural strength (7.875 MPa) was observed in sample WB30G60BA10M12, while higher bagasse ash content and lower alkaline concentrations led to decreased flexural strength. All samples exceeded the 4 MPa minimum specified by the standard, with optimal compositions (high slag, low bagasse ash) significantly outperforming it. The combination of 30% brick waste, 60% slag, and 10% bagasse ash at a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration showed the best performance. The presence of 30% brick waste enhances bonding, and 60% slag improves resistance through aluminum silicate gel formation. While 10% bagasse ash increases reactivity, higher amounts reduce strength due to cracking. Higher sodium hydroxide concentrations (12M) accelerate geopolymer reactions, creating a compact structure, while lower concentrations (5M) yield incomplete reactions. A positive correlation exists between flexural and compressive strengths. Ultimately, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e illustrates that geopolymer bricks with optimized compositions can meet or exceed Iranian standards, recommending the WB30G60BA10M12 combination for high flexural strength applications. Further enhancements could focus on adjusting bagasse ash content, refining curing processes, and balancing alkaline concentrations to boost mechanical properties and reduce costs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Flexural Strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the flexural strength of geopolymer brick samples with varying proportions of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), waste bricks (WB), and sugarcane bagasse across 5 M, 8 M, and 12 M sodium hydroxide concentrations. The WB30G70BA0M12 sample (70% GGBFS, 30% WB, 12 M) achieved the highest strength at 8.49 MPa, while adding bagasse reduced strength; for example, WB30G40BA30M12 reached only 4.207 MPa. Increasing sodium hydroxide concentrations generally led to better flexural performance, as seen with WB30G70BA0M5, which had a lower strength (4.838 MPa) at 5M. Higher GGBFS percentages consistently improved mechanical properties, with 70% GGBFS resulting in optimal performance, while bagasse\u0026rsquo;s fibrous nature reduced cohesion and strength, exemplified by WB30G40BA30M5, which had a flexural strength of 2.906 MPa. Specific gravities also varied, with higher GGBFS and molarity yielding denser samples, such as WB30G70BA0M12 (2.236). These observations highlight the importance of composition and processing conditions for designing durable materials. High GGBFS percentages at elevated molarity levels are recommended for applications demanding strong flexural performance, while bagasse can be used effectively with proper optimization to mitigate its negative impact.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResults of Flexural Strength (Three-Point Bending) of Samples Along with Their Specific Gravities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGGBFS (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBagasse (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNaOH Molarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlexural Strength (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB0G100BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.223\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.703\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB10G90BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.351\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB20G80BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.246\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.201\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.211\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.649\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.555\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.152\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.906\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.195\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.218\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.338\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.178\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.524\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.153\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.628\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.236\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.205\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.875\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.198\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.642\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.207\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Flexural Strength Analysis of Initial Samples\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows the flexural strength of four samples with different ratios of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and waste binder (WB) at 8 M sodium hydroxide. WB0G100BA0M8 (100% GGBFS) achieved the highest strength of 8.703 MPa, attributed to GGBFS\u0026rsquo;s dense structure. In contrast, WB10G90BA0M8 (10% WB) exhibited a marked decrease to 5.351 MPa due to reduced cohesion. The sample WB20G80BA0M8, with 20% WB, improved to 6.111 MPa, indicating better adhesion, while WB30G70BA0M8, containing 30% WB, reached 7.056 MPa, benefiting from enhanced matrix cohesion. These results highlight the importance of GGBFS content in maximizing flexural strength; higher percentages yield better performance. Although WB can enhance mechanical properties when balanced, excessive substitution of GGBFS can compromise strength. Overall, compositions with high GGBFS and 8M molarity are ideal for applications requiring significant flexural strength, with WB30G70BA0M8 representing a strong, flexible option. Future research should aim to optimize compositions and investigate additives to improve performance further\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the flexural strength of samples with varying proportions of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), waste binder (WB), and sugarcane bagasse at different sodium hydroxide molarities. The sample with 70% GGBFS and 30% WB at 12M molarity achieved the highest flexural strength of 8.49 MPa, highlighting the positive impact of higher molarity on mechanical properties. However, adding 10% bagasse reduced the strength to 7.875 MPa due to the fibrous nature of bagasse affecting matrix cohesion. As bagasse content increased, the sample with 20% bagasse showed a further decline to 5.642 MPa, and a 30% bagasse sample recorded the lowest strength of 4.207 MPa, primarily due to voids and structural defects. These findings consistently indicate that higher bagasse proportions correlate with reduced flexural strength, emphasizing the need for careful formulation to balance environmental benefits with mechanical performance. Compositions with 70% GGBFS and 12M molarity are recommended for high-strength construction materials. Future research should explore optimizing bagasse use to enhance material cohesion while maintaining desirable mechanical properties, promoting sustainable construction practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Water Absorption\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe water absorption of geopolymer bricks was tested after 28 days for samples WB30G70BA0M12, WB30G60BA10M12, WB30G50BA20M12, and WB30G40BA30M12. As shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, adding 10% bagasse ash increased water absorption by 8%, while higher additions (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10%) further raised absorption. To minimize water uptake, less than 10% bagasse ash is optimal. All samples met the Iranian national standard No. 7 for clay bricks (6\u0026ndash;15% absorption by weight), classifying them as high-strength bricks. The highest absorption (14.14%) occurred in WB30G70BA0M12 (30% brick dust, 70% slag, no bagasse ash, 12 M), and the lowest (11.41%) in WB30G40BA30M12 (30% brick dust, 40% slag, 30% bagasse ash, 12 M). Results indicate that raw material composition and sodium hydroxide molarity (5 M, 8 M, 12 M) significantly influence water absorption. Samples containing 30% bagasse ash generally showed higher water absorption than those without. Additionally, samples prepared with a 12M sodium hydroxide concentration absorbed more water than those made with 5M and 8M concentrations, indicating that higher alkalinity concentration may result in a less dense brick structure. The increase in water absorption with higher bagasse ash content is due to the hydrophilic nature of the material, which causes greater water absorption. Adding bagasse ash to the brick mix also reduces workability, as high water absorption decreases the fluidity of the mix. Due to the formation of aluminosilicate gels, slag can create a more compact structure and reduce water absorption. Furthermore, higher concentrations of sodium hydroxide (12M) accelerate the geopolymerization process, but this acceleration can lead to structures with more pores, resulting in higher water absorption. To optimize the water absorption performance of geopolymer bricks, it is recommended to limit bagasse ash content and use optimal sodium hydroxide concentrations to achieve a denser structure. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the 28-day water absorption results, highlighting the effects of bagasse ash content and sodium hydroxide molarity on durability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater Absorption Results\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater absorption\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G40BA30M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G50BA20M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G60BA10M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWB30G70BA0M12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5.Examination and results of scanning electron microscope (SEM test)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo Better Understand the Effect of Bagasse Ash (Sugar Beet) and Granulated Slag on the Microstructure of Geopolymer Brick, WB30G70BA0M12 and WB30G60BA10M12 samples were examined using a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) after 28 days of curing. As shown in the images below, microcracks observed in the pictures could negatively impact the strength and durability of the brick. These cracks are due to excess water in the brick, which, upon evaporation, causes shrinkage and cracking. These scattered cracks vary in size and shape. By comparing Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e with Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, it can be observed that the sample with 0% bagasse ash (sample WB30G70BA0M12) has fewer cracks, which reduces the brick\u0026rsquo;s permeability. This sample has a more uniform gel structure with fewer particle boundaries. Figures \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e also show that the sample containing 10% bagasse ash (sample WB30G60BA10M12) has numerous pores and cracks. As the percentage of bagasse ash increases, the brick\u0026rsquo;s workability decreases, and compaction is less effective, leading to the retention of microvoids. The reduction in workability is due to the high specific surface area of bagasse ash particles, which results in higher water absorption. In this sample, brick particles adhere together with less uniformity than in the previous sample. These findings are consistent with the compressive and flexural strength results and the water absorption properties. The denser and more uniform a sample, the higher its strength and lower its water absorption.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e shows an electron microscope (SEM) image of the WB30G70BA0M12 sample, which consists of 30% brick waste and 70% blast furnace slag with a 12-molar concentration of sodium hydroxide. This image reveals the sample\u0026apos;s microstructure and helps evaluate its microstructural properties. The aluminosilicate gel structure in this sample appears dense with minimal particle boundaries, indicating proper formation of the aluminosilicate gel due to the alkaline activation reaction, which contributes to reduced permeability and increased compressive strength of the brick. This sample\u0026apos;s number of cracks and delicate pores is low, indicating appropriate water distribution and controlled thermal shrinkage conditions. The particle boundaries are minimized, showing strong bonding between the geopolymer components and reduced internal voids. The high slag content (70%) leads to the production of substantial amounts of CaO and SiO₂, which participate in geopolymeric reactions and result in the formation of a dense gel structure. The absence of bagasse ash (0%) reduces the harmful effects of its high specific surface area and water absorption, preventing cracks caused by shrinkage. The high concentration of sodium hydroxide accelerates the geopolymeric reaction and helps form the gel more rapidly. The fine particles of brick waste fill the voids between particles, leading to a denser structure. Suitable curing conditions also enhance chemical reactions and control shrinkage. These features contribute to high compressive strength (45.17 MPa) and durability against environmental conditions. The reduction in cracks and pores decreases permeability and enhances resistance to chemical attacks (such as carbonation and chloride penetration). This type of geopolymer brick is suitable for construction projects that require high durability and minimal permeability (such as marine and industrial structures). As a result, the SEM image of the WB30G70BA0M12 sample demonstrates an optimal geopolymer structure, which results from the proper combination of raw materials, high alkaline concentration, and controlled curing conditions, leading to a product with high mechanical strength and long-term durability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e is an electron microscope (SEM) image of the WB30G60BA10M12 sample, which contains 30% brick waste, 60% blast furnace slag, and 10% bagasse ash from sugar beet at a 12 molar concentration of sodium hydroxide. This image shows the sample\u0026apos;s microstructure and provides vital information about its mechanical and microstructural properties. Numerous cracks and pores are visible compared to the WB30G70BA0M12 sample, indicating the negative effect of increasing the bagasse ash content in the structure. The aluminosilicate gel in the WB30G60BA10M12 sample exhibits non-uniformity, with low-density regions and scattered voids caused by the high specific surface area and water absorption of bagasse ash. Poor dispersion of bagasse ash particles results in uneven density, micro-voids, and cracks that compromise the structure. Excessive bagasse ash (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10%) reduces mix efficiency, density, and cohesion of the aluminosilicate gel, leading to lower mechanical strength. Compared to WB30G70BA0M12, the reduced slag content lowers CaO and SiO₂ levels, further limiting dense gel formation. While brick waste acts as a filler to mitigate voids, it cannot fully offset the adverse effects of slag reduction and high bagasse ash. Although a high sodium hydroxide concentration accelerates reactions, material imbalances prevent optimal structure formation. Cracks and pores observed in SEM images correspond with decreased compressive strength (34.84 MPa vs. 45.17 MPa in WB30G70BA0M12) and increased permeability, reducing resistance to environmental factors. The comparison with Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e confirms WB30G70BA0M12\u0026rsquo;s denser, more uniform microstructure, whereas WB30G60BA10M12 shows greater cracking and porosity. To address these issues, reducing bagasse ash content, incorporating additives with lower specific surface areas, and improving mixing and curing practices are recommended to enhance density, reduce cracks, and improve durability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure 11 is an electron microscope (SEM) image of the WB30G60BA10M12 sample, which contains 30% brick waste, 60% blast furnace slag, and 10% bagasse ash from sugar beet at a 12 molar concentration of sodium hydroxide. This image shows the sample\u0026apos;s microstructure and provides vital information about its mechanical and microstructural properties. Numerous cracks and pores are visible compared to the WB30G70BA0M12 sample, indicating the negative effect of increasing the bagasse ash content in the structure. The aluminosilicate gel in the WB30G60BA10M12 sample exhibits non-uniformity, with low-density regions and scattered voids caused by the high specific surface area and water absorption of bagasse ash. Poor dispersion of bagasse ash particles results in uneven density, micro-voids, and cracks that compromise the structure. Excessive bagasse ash (\u0026gt;10%) reduces mix efficiency, density, and cohesion of the aluminosilicate gel, leading to lower mechanical strength. Compared to WB30G70BA0M12, the reduced slag content lowers CaO and SiO₂ levels, further limiting dense gel formation. While brick waste acts as a filler to mitigate voids, it cannot fully offset the adverse effects of slag reduction and high bagasse ash. Although a high sodium hydroxide concentration accelerates reactions, material imbalances prevent optimal structure formation. Cracks and pores observed in SEM images correspond with decreased compressive strength (34.84 MPa vs. 45.17 MPa in WB30G70BA0M12) and increased permeability, reducing resistance to environmental factors. The comparison with Figure 11 confirms WB30G70BA0M12\u0026rsquo;s denser, more uniform microstructure, whereas WB30G60BA10M12 shows greater cracking and porosity. To address these issues, reducing bagasse ash content, incorporating additives with lower specific surface areas, and improving mixing and curing practices are recommended to enhance density, reduce cracks, and improve durability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the reuse of industrial waste\u0026mdash;waste brick, sugar beet bagasse ash, and granulated blast furnace slag\u0026mdash;to develop eco-friendly geopolymer bricks (\u0026ldquo;green bricks\u0026rdquo;). The effects of varying proportions of brick fragments, bagasse ash, and sodium hydroxide molarity on mechanical properties were systematically investigated. Increasing sodium hydroxide molarity improved flexural strength, while bagasse ash content above 10% reduced both compressive and flexural strength. The optimal formulation, containing 10% bagasse ash, 30% brick fragments, and 60% slag, achieved the highest compressive strength (34.84 MPa) and flexural strength (7.875 MPa). Durability tests and SEM analysis confirmed this mix had a denser, more uniform microstructure and superior resistance to degradation. Higher bagasse ash levels led to wax-like phase formation, weakening the structure and reducing durability. These findings highlight 10% bagasse ash as the optimal content for balancing strength, durability, and sustainability, demonstrating a promising approach for converting industrial waste into high-performance construction materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIn Future\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should focus on optimizing the use of industrial by-products\u0026mdash;such as sugar beet bagasse ash, filter cake, and recycled aggregates\u0026mdash;to enhance the mechanical and environmental performance of sustainable geopolymer bricks. Long-term durability studies under varied environmental conditions, including extreme temperatures and humidity, are essential for wider construction adoption. Exploring additional agricultural and industrial wastes as alternative binders could further improve waste valorization and reduce the construction sector\u0026rsquo;s carbon footprint. Moreover, investigating scalable, cost-effective production methods and real-world application in construction projects will be key to assessing practical feasibility and economic viability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Deepseek in order to improve language. After using this tool, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish declaration: Not applicable.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration: Not applicable.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declaration: Not applicable.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial registration:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Our study is not a clinical trial, so this requirement is not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u003c/strong\u003e The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGhiasi V, Marabi Y, Fahmi A, Maleki HR, Rahimpour H. 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European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering. 2023;27(3):1383-428.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Geopolymer bricks, Sugar beet bagasse ash, Mechanical properties, Microstructure analysis, Sustainable construction materials","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8352823/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8352823/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the incorporation of sugar beet bagasse ash as a partial binder in geopolymer bricks to enhance their microstructural and mechanical properties. Geopolymer brick samples were fabricated using varying proportions of sugar beet bagasse ash, granulated blast furnace slag, and brick fragments, activated by a sodium hydroxide\u0026ndash;sodium silicate alkaline solution. After a 28-day curing period, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) was conducted to examine microstructural changes, while mechanical and durability performance was assessed through compressive strength, flexural strength, and water absorption tests. The results demonstrated that adding 10% sugar beet bagasse ash significantly improved compressive strength to 35.5 MPa and flexural strength to 8.2 MPa compared to the control mix, while also reducing permeability, shrinkage, and microcracking. Higher bagasse ash percentages negatively affected strength, confirming 10% as the optimal level for performance and durability. This research highlights the potential of sugar beet bagasse ash as a sustainable supplementary material for geopolymer bricks, promoting environmental sustainability and supporting eco-friendly construction practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Investigation of Recycled Geopolymer Bricks Made with Sugar Beet Bagasse Ash and Filter Cake Binders","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-14 07:57:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8352823/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ab3859f6-3a7c-4a26-8c50-394573a3895a","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 14th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-01T08:42:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-14 07:57:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8352823","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8352823","identity":"rs-8352823","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}