Framework for rapid design and optimisation of immersive battery cooling system

Framework for rapid design and optimisation of immersive battery cooling system | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Framework for rapid design and optimisation of immersive battery cooling system Ali Almshahy, Z. Khatir, K. J. Kubiak, M. Al Qubeissi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6991924/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Engineering with Computers → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Effective battery thermal management system (BTMS) is critical for lithium-ion battery (LIB) safety and performance in electric vehicles. This study presents a CFD-driven optimisation framework for an immersion cooling BTMS using sustainable palm biodiesel as coolant. A conjugate heat transfer model for a 3S2P pouch cell module (20 Ah LiFePO₄) is developed and validated against experimental data (<2% error). The CFD model of a battery module is developed to train an ultra-fast metamodel for battery geometry optimisation. Two key parameters are optimised, namely: battery gap spacing (3-10 mm) and inlet/outlet width (5-15 mm), via Optimal Latin Hypercube Sampling, Support Vector Regression, and GDE3 genetic algorithm. Palm biodiesel is used as a dielectric coolant in the proposed system to preserve LIB temperature within 20-40 , preventing thermal runaway and ensuring a lightweight BTMS design. Compared to a conventional 3M-Novec, the palm biodiesel achieved system lightweight by 43%. The findings can establish biofuel immersion cooling as an eco-friendly BTMS solution, achieving Pareto-optimal figures: T max < 29.9°C, Δ T < 5°C, and Δ P < 145.275 Pa (at 5C and 0.05 m/s). Battery thermal management Biodiesel coolant Hybrid electric vehicles Immersion cooling Optimisation Surrogate modelling Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Engineering with Computers → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 21 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 13 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 29 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jul, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 27 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6991924","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":480591919,"identity":"d71ae762-e0f9-41d6-931f-2caff7d5a8e6","order_by":0,"name":"Ali Almshahy","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA40lEQVRIie3RPQrCMBTA8VcK6fIk6xNR8QZKQByUXqWlq5uLkyiFugiuLt6hUHBOCTh5iHZ3cLNgB1PcHKJuDvmTJYEf+QKw2f4wbw2ODCrqcU/P8LXoGglKAFnuJqId/0Lygi3DVH1N+GUoA6QwU25eXGvo8zWKoZHQXJMJiZNi0eiYwOggUQQm4hMLml26J4XjTks/RgoopPlgZ00YOVnM7w+swf9MIJINGaQuMj0gbIjxYEiahDsSpJhoHxOKDootzNfn+aasqlWPb+Pydq2ns/02zshE3qNPv2Kz2Wy2b3oClS5FDR4LDPwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Leeds","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Almshahy","suffix":""},{"id":480591920,"identity":"741d3adf-e0ca-4331-bcb2-ef9a16da2b51","order_by":1,"name":"Z. 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This study presents a CFD-driven optimisation framework for an immersion cooling BTMS using sustainable palm biodiesel as coolant. A conjugate heat transfer model for a 3S2P pouch cell module (20 Ah LiFePO₄) is developed and validated against experimental data (\u0026lt;2% error). The CFD model of a battery module is developed to train an ultra-fast metamodel for battery geometry optimisation. Two key parameters are optimised, namely: battery gap spacing (3-10 mm) and inlet/outlet width (5-15 mm), via Optimal Latin Hypercube Sampling, Support Vector Regression, and GDE3 genetic algorithm. Palm biodiesel is used as a dielectric coolant in the proposed system to preserve LIB temperature within 20-40 \u003cimg width=\"12\" height=\"16\" src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAwAAAAQCAMAAAAVv241AAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAEtQTFRFAAAAAAAAADpmADqQAGa2OgAAOmaQOma2OpDbZgAAZgBmZjoAZrbbZrb/kDoAtmYAtv//25A627Zm2////7Zm/9uQ/9u2//+2///bz6imXQAAAAF0Uk5TAEDm2GYAAAAJcEhZcwAADsQAAA7EAZUrDhsAAAAZdEVYdFNvZnR3YXJlAE1pY3Jvc29mdCBPZmZpY2V/7TVxAAAASUlEQVQYV2NgIANI8DGyCTOIcTMyMgkwiPAwCPKKc3IwiHFBOYLMwmBDgcrYhfk5EBZI8OHiMPCzILlDlJUHbBoECLGC7SEOAAAucAK5eWsncgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==\"/\u003e, preventing thermal runaway and ensuring a lightweight BTMS design. Compared to a conventional 3M-Novec, the palm biodiesel achieved system lightweight by 43%. 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