You Can Only Keep It So Warm”: Temperatures Inside Tents and Coping Strategies Among People Experiencing Unsheltered Homelessness

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Ellis, Courtney Cronley, Dimitris A. Herrera, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767026/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in International Journal of Biometeorology → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract People experiencing unsheltered homelessness (PEUH) are disproportionately vulnerable to extreme temperatures. This study measured overnight exposure to hot and cold temperatures inside tents occupied by PEUH in Knoxville, Tennessee, and examined participants’ coping strategies through semi-structured interviews ( n =20). In winter, many participants successfully warmed their tents by 10 °C or more, by burning materials and using layers of blankets and tarps. Winter warmth required an abundance of resources, making moving to shelters infeasible, as it meant abandoning these hard-won supplies. Tents quickly dropped in temperature after burning materials, forcing inhabitants to decide between sleep or warmth. In summer, tent location was crucial for access to shade and water, but options were limited by policing and displacement. Shady spots helped keep tents from warming beyond the ambient temperature during the day, but participants avoided going inside them due to being uncomfortably hot, likely due to lack of air flow. When they returned to their tent to sleep, trapped heat caused tents to be up to 5 °C warmer than ambient temperatures. Some tent strategies allowed for better ventilation on hot nights. Although not the focus of this study, participants repeatedly described the damaging effects of rain and flooding, which destroyed belongings and deepened feelings of helplessness. These challenges compounded existing precarity, including chronic health conditions and frequent sweeps. Findings underscore the partial effectiveness of behavioral and material coping strategies and show how the criminalization of homelessness and restrictions on movement increase PEUH’s exposure to extreme weather and related health risks. homelessness unhoused encampment exposure heat cold overnight Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction On a cold day in January 2024, approximately 30 volunteers fanned out across Knoxville, Tennessee, to count the city’s unhoused population. During this annual point-in-time (PIT) count, they found 899 individuals, nearly a third living unsheltered (Knoxville-Knox County Office of Housing Stability 2024 ). This is just above the 10-year average for PIT counts in Knoxville, but each year the PIT total likely falls short of the true count, as PIT counts often underreport the scale of the crisis (Schneider et al. 2016 ). PIT counts struggle to capture the entirety of the community because it is challenging to find people experiencing unsheltered homelessness (PEUH). Many PEUH living in tents and similar makeshift shelters attempt to stay hidden (Hilty et al. 2021 ), especially in municipalities where living in a tent is not allowed. Once an individual or group of campers (an encampment) is found and a complaint is placed, a “sweep” is performed, where the tent(s) are taken down and the inhabitant(s) forced to move elsewhere (Knoxville-Knox County Office of Housing Stability 2024 ). This adds to the precarity of PEUH and may lead to serious health consequences due to lost necessities and being forced to live in less viable living spaces (Chang et al. 2022 ), causing PEUH to constantly focus on short-term needs and lose any progress they made with outreach workers or towards general stability (Cohen et al. 2019 ). Langegger and Koester ( 2016 ) detail the deep, complex effects of rendering camping illegal in Denver, Colorado, ultimately taking away PEUH right to anonymity. PEUH reside in tents for various reasons, including for the sense of community, privacy, and autonomy these arrangements provide (Cohen et al. 2019 ) compared to shelters, which are often considered a last resort (Langegger and Koester 2016 ). PEUH living in an encampment just outside the city of Victoria, British Columbia, said that a key contributor to a sense of community and safety was the level of stability felt by residents, who can avoid constant movement, displacement, and theft experienced on the street (Olson and Pauly 2022 ). On the other hand, a study in Amsterdam found that outside sleepers may steal from one another, resulting in threats to personal security (Steger and Brunt 2004 ) and in places with sweeps, tent dwellers constantly move and lose their sense of community (Langegger and Koester 2016 ; Chang et al. 2022 ). PEUH encounter numerous problems while sleeping outside, including exposure to harsh weather, safety threats, and health issues stemming from sleep deprivation, heat stress, and cold exposure, and chronic medical conditions exacerbated by these challenges (Romaszko et al. 2017 ; Gonzalez and Tyminski 2020 ). During heat waves, unhoused individuals make up a large proportion of the reported fatalities (Simonton and Davidson 2022 ) and after extreme winter weather, there are regular stories of fatalities from unhoused communities, including in Knoxville, the location of this study (Crabtree 2025 ). Overall, the heightened exposure of PEUH to extreme temperatures is a well-known but little-studied problem (Robertson et al. 2024 ; Cronley et al. 2024 ). Those who sleep in tents may have some protection from inclement weather, but tents can be damaged or flooded, resulting in the loss of a safe sleeping area (Every et al. 2019 ), and the protection tents provide against extreme temperatures is unknown. PEUH often camp and congregate in urban areas due to resource accessibility (Cronley et al. 2024 ), which exposes them to excess urban heat. This is consistent with findings showing popular camping areas for PEUH in Knoxville maintain warmer temperatures than the suburbs (Ellis et al. 2024 ). Some PEUH choose to camp in green spaces, which may offer some reprieve from hot weather, while also keeping them out of public view where they feel unwelcome (Koprowska et al. 2020 ), providing solace (Speer and Goldfischer 2020 ) and helping them avoid sweeps. The trees in these spaces play a pivotal role in creating local urban microclimates that can mitigate urban heat and enhance thermal comfort (Rahman et al. 2020 ) by providing shade, reducing wind speed, and cooling the air via evapotranspiration (Georgi and Zafiriadis 2006 ). Thus, PEUH may find relief in areas like parks with plentiful tree cover to provide shade and some protection against the weather, though they are often not welcome to live in public parks (Speer and Goldfischer 2020 ). Heat protection provided by urban green spaces is limited; while trees may help keep daytime temperatures down, even treed areas in urban environments retain heat at night due to the surrounding built environment, resulting in greater overnight heat exposure (Ellis et al. 2017 ). Ellis et al. ( 2024 ) showed this was the case for a downtown park in Knoxville that is frequented by PEUH. There are other strategic locations where PEUH set up their tents to provide protection from the weather. For example, an encampment in California was at the bottom of a hill next to a canal and under an overpass (Speer 2017 ). At locations such as these in low-lying areas, cold air drainage reduces night-time temperatures beginning right after sunset (Mahrt et al. 2001 ). Overpasses also offer shading and protection from rain, making them a popular living space for PEUH (Ellis et al. 2024 ) or a shelter during weather events (Cronley et al. 2024 ). However, the overpass stores incoming solar irradiance to remit at night, which may keep the area somewhat warmer than out in the open (Ellis et al. 2024 ). Cities have attempted to provide some measures to limit heat exposure of unhoused individuals. For example, they may open cooling shelters during abnormally hot days in summer. Usually, local community centers or churches serve as cooling shelters where PEUH can seek refuge from the heat. However, information about heat alerts (Bezgrebelna et al. 2021 ) and cooling shelter locations (Berisha et al. 2017 ) may not be effectively communicated to PEUH, especially those who continually lose their support system due to frequent sweeps (Chang et al. 2022 ). Without careful attention, advances in heat-health systems may not be beneficial to the unhoused community (Longo et al. 2017 ). When access to cooling shelters is not provided, unhoused individuals might seek refuge in a park under a shade tree, a library, or a shopping mall (Every et al. 2019 ); however, they risk being removed by security or law enforcement from these public spaces, often due to complaints made by other people (Herring 2019 ). Tents provide shade and could offer some protection from sun, but during hot summer days and nights, they are often warmer inside than the surrounding air (Karanja et al. 2023 ), though thermal conditions inside inhabited tents have not yet been observed. Cold weather is also dangerous for unhoused individuals, resulting in frequent occurrences of hypothermia and frostbite (Endorf and Nygaard 2021 ; Sheckter et al. 2022 ). Those with chronic conditions especially struggle to cope due to increased physical pain and illness (Cronley et al. 2024 ). PEUH attempt to combat the cold in various ways. In a previous study, one unhoused woman described seeking public restrooms for warmth, but they were often closed (Alewett 2024 ). Burning trash and paper against bricks or rocks, which hold heat, can help warm structures (Reeve 2011 ), as can burning hand sanitizer, which is dangerous and can result in setting the tent on fire (Cronley et al. 2024 ). How well these methods work to warm a tent are unknown. This study is the first to examine the thermal conditions within tents inhabited by PEUH. Our objective was to collect and analyze temperature data from inside tents occupied by PEUH in Knoxville, Tennessee (Fig. 1 ), to assess their overnight exposure to hot and cold temperatures. Additionally, we sought to understand how individuals adapt or modify their tents in response to these temperature extremes. To guide this research, we posed the following questions: To what extent do tents buffer or amplify ambient temperatures during hot and cold weather? How do hot and cold weather impact individuals sleeping in tents? What coping strategies do tent residents use during hot and cold weather? Our analysis emphasizes overnight thermal conditions in tents, as this is the period when they are most consistently inhabited. While our primary focus is on nighttime exposure, we also collected and report on daytime temperature data for context, but daytime tent conditions likely do not reflect the conditions experienced by the tent owners during that time. From a human health perspective, nighttime conditions are particularly consequential, as the body relies on cooler overnight temperatures to recover from daytime heat exposure; insufficient nocturnal cooling can exacerbate heat stress (He et al. 2022 ), which will be especially problematic in urban areas, including in Knoxville, where temperatures remain warmer overnight (Ellis et al. 2017 ). Warmer nights are becoming more common in many places, resulting in increased nocturnal heat exposure (He et al. 2022 ), especially for vulnerable individuals who lack the resources to cool themselves sufficiently overnight (Hass and Ellis 2019 ). Materials and Methods Participant Recruitment and Study Settings After gaining Institutional Review Board approval, participants were recruited across the downtown district of Knoxville, Tennessee (Fig. 1 ). Knoxville is a medium-sized city with an estimated population of 190,740 as of 2020 (Census Bureau 2020 ). Knoxville exists in a valley, located east of the Cumberland Plateau and west of the Great Smoky Mountains. The Tennessee River separates South Knoxville from the rest of the city and downtown, where the data were collected. Knoxville has a humid subtropical climate, with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Data were collected in two periods: 14–21 February (winter) and 14–21 August (summer) 2024. For each period, ten unhoused individuals who were living in a tent or similar makeshift structure (simply referred to as a tent hereafter) were recruited for participation. Given that PEUH frequently desire to stay hidden, the Volunteer Ministry Center of Knoxville (VMC) helped identify potential participants. The study dates were chosen based on personnel availability, including partners at the VMC who were integral to ensuring the camps were not swept during the study. Notably, the study provided temporary housing security for the participants because there was an agreement with the city that their camp would not be swept while participating. We documented the weather during the collection periods in Online Resources 1 and 2. Unfortunately, while the periods did not overlap with extreme temperatures, they provided information about thermal conditions on average winter and summer days, which may be more useful ultimately to inform policy making based on typical chronicity of exposure rather than extremes. Survey and interview After being formally invited to participate, all participants orally agreed to a consent form that was read aloud and completed a short demographic survey with questions about their health and general interactions with extreme weather while sleeping in a tent. After a survey question was read aloud, a participant vocalized their answer, which was entered into a Qualtrics survey. A brief interview followed, which focused on three questions detailing their experiences with extreme weather: Does the weather affect your decision about where to sleep? Have you ever had problems because of the weather while you’re sleeping outside? What do you do to deal with extreme weather? Participants were given a $ 20 gift card for completing the demographic survey and interview, and were asked to meet the research team at their tent the following day. Temperature observations inside tents The VMC Street Team helped the researchers locate study participants’ encampments and place equipment in their tents. When arriving, the street team loudly called out, “it’s VMC and UT” and asked if they could access the tent. If someone was there and allowed access, then the weather station was hung in the participant’s tent. Otherwise, we returned and tried the next day. Notes were taken about the tents and surrounding environment (Online Resource 3). Participants were given a $ 20 Kroger gift card approximately every other day during the study period. Participants earned a total of $ 100 in gift cards during the study. Each weather station consisted of two iButton Hygrochrons collecting 15-minute temperature and humidity observations inside a radiation shield (Fig. 1 ). iButtons have an accuracy of ± 0.5°C and ± 5% relative humidity. They were tested inside an office environment to determine reporting accuracy prior to placing them in the field. They were hung one foot from the ceiling following the suggestion of Karanga et al. (2023). An additional iButton was placed outside of the tent to measure ambient conditions. Upon collection of the weather station the following week, the data were downloaded onto a computer. The two iButtons from inside the tent were compared to ensure quality control. If both iButtons worked appropriately, the data from the first iButton were used. For one tent, only one iButton worked through the entire period. Other issues inhibited use of some study locations, including excessive smoking inside the tent, participants living in an open-air shelter, participants covering the ambient iButton with a wet shirt, and one participant potentially placing their weather station outside their tent, though we cannot be certain. Overall, we are confident about the data coming from inside and outside six tents in winter and seven tents in summer. Analysis methods Temperature observations were analyzed using descriptive statistics and visualizations to investigate relationships between in-tent temperature and ambient temperature. Graphs illustrate how tents deviated from their ambient environment and the variability between tents within an encampment. The multitude of variables within the study made it challenging to isolate any single variable to discern its impact on temperature exposure, and that, along with the small sample size, prevented multivariate analysis. Instead, a paired-samples t-test was used to compare overnight ambient air temperature to the in-tent temperature for each tent using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha of 0.0004. For these tests, we only used data from days with no synoptic forcing and maximum and minimum temperatures between two deviations from their climatological averages (see Online Resource 1 and 2). This ensured we focused on typical weather instead of extremes. While a study on extremes is warranted, the extremes during the study period were extremely mild, meaning abnormally cool (warm) days over the summer (winter), which are days with uncharacteristically little exposure. This resulted in three (four) days for the summer (winter) study. Because we were interested in overnight exposure when residents were most likely inside their tents, we analyzed the period from 12 am to 7 am. Defining “overnight” should be done carefully (Hass et al. 2022 ), and this specific period was chosen because it is the time average adults are asleep (Monk et al. 2000 ); though we recognize that the patterns of unhoused individuals may differ, this is likely a period where they do not have other places to go and will be in their tent. Survey data were reported as univariate statistics to describe the sample. Interview data were organized according to whether they refer to hot weather, cold weather, or other weather, and then within each type of weather, four categories: 1) impacts of weather, 2) changes to tent/environment, 3) behavioral modifications, and 4) barriers to coping strategies. The second author analyzed the data and extracted quotes to illustrate the above categories. The other authors who participated in the interviews validated her work. Results Field notes: tent descriptions Tents varied in their construction, from minimalistic structures built from PVC and tarps, small camping tents, and elaborate makeshift structures with multiple small rooms (Online Resource 3). Likewise, contents ranged from only blankets on the ground to elaborate setups with a mattress, food, a night table, and lights. Some tents were home to one individual while others housed multiple people. Some were independent tents while others were within encampments. Participant descriptions Participants were 29–63 years old (x̄=46). They were all white except for one African American. They had been unhoused for as few as 4 months to as long as 20+ years, with 75% having been unhoused for at least several years, and many experiencing homelessness multiple times in their lives. Only one participant felt they did not have at least “okay” physical health, while five did not feel that had at least “okay” mental health. Most experienced mental health challenges, with 70% having been diagnosed with anxiety, 55% with depression, and many cases of PTSD and bi-polar disorder. Only 20% were currently on medication for their mental health. Over half of the participants had experienced physical and/or sexual assault or violence. About half of the participants indicated they know to expect extreme weather before it happens. The most common source was a phone or a friend/family member. Participants noted that very cold weather (84%), hot weather (68%), rainy weather (63%), and snowy weather (79%) are likely to affect their health when sleeping in a tent. Tent microclimates During the winter, tents were almost always warmer than the ambient environment, often 10 °C or more (Figure 2b), with the greatest difference occurring at night. On typical, synoptically weak nights, all tents were significantly warmer than the ambient environment (p<0.004; Table 1). However, there was great variability, with three tents being ~10 °C, or more, warmer, but two tents were less than 5 °C warmer. Sometimes there was as much as a 20 °C difference between the tents, with these large differences happening at night. Tents were also typically warmer than their ambient environment in the summer (Figure 2b), though many hovered around the ambient temperature. In most cases, the largest differences were at night. This excess warmth can be attributed to incoming solar radiation being trapped inside the tent while the ambient environment cooled. On typical, synoptically weak nights, all but one tent experienced significantly warmer conditions than their ambient environment (most at p<0.004, one only at p<0.05; Table 1). Overall, these differences were much smaller than in winter. There were only a few times when the difference was greater than 3 °C, and this usually happened at night. During each season, several participants lived in the same encampment, providing an opportunity to assess the microclimate of different tents within the same ambient environment (Fig. 3). The summer and winter encampments were in two different places. Despite having nearly the same external conditions, the tents within a single encampment have notably different temperature profiles, highlighting the impact of coping strategies and tent variability. Overall, encampment characteristics, like shading, affected the tent temperatures, but tents also experienced microclimates likely related to tent and behavioral modifications. During the winter (Fig. 3a), tent temperatures increased sharply and often, indicative of supplemental heating sources such as burning candles or hand sanitizer to produce heat. There was no clear diurnal pattern in temperature inside the tents. It was not rare for tents to be 15 °C or more warmer than the ambient environment and the coldest tent at the moment, but all the tents experienced quick drops in temperature after warming periods. Winter 2 did not see spikes in temperature between 2 and 9 am, except for on one of the coldest nights. The Winter 3 tent, on the other hand, frequently had temperature spikes throughout the night, especially on the coldest nights. During the summer (Fig. 3b), tents within a single encampment largely had a similar temperature profile to the ambient temperature, and there were smaller differences between tents. During the day, most tents heated alongside the ambient environment, observing similar temperatures. Overnight, body heat and heat trapped inside the tents kept most tents about 5 °C or more warmer than the ambient environment. Summer 5 trapped the most heat. The participant in this tent noted that they took a tarp off during the day and replaced it at night, likely trapping additional heat. Summer 3 experienced extreme temperature spikes during the day and cooled to the ambient environment at night. When we returned to gather the weather station, it had been placed higher in the tent. It is possible that it was moved outside the tent during the study, but we cannot be certain. This tent is the only one that was not significantly different from the ambient environment overnight (Table 1). Lived experiences with hot and cold weather During the interviews, participants recalled how and cold weather affected them (Table 2). Both weather types disrupted sleep and caused other mental and physical health issues. Many participants reported exhaustion. “There's days go by, I might not sleep,” said one participant. He also described the cold as physically painful: “the cold kind of hurts, trying to sleep on the ground or whatever because I don't have a mat. I just got a sleeping bag I sleep on. Yeah, it actually hurts.” “It makes us do stupid things sometimes, too,” said another. Participants named many reasons they did not rely on shelters during extreme weather, such as their belongings being taken while they were away, the rigid schedules and rules in shelters, longing for privacy, and other social and physical aspects of the shelters they found unpleasant or unsanitary. One participant said of a recent snowstorm, “I could have went to a church, but I chose to stay in the tent because someone would take my shit.” Instead, participants modified their tents or behavior to reduce the effects of extreme temperatures. In hot weather, many participants have attempted to increase shading by building a canopy or moving their tent to a shady location. They noted barriers to these strategies, including difficulty moving their tent and belongings, or limited ideal camp locations due to law enforcement activity. They recognize the need to stay hydrated but have had trouble accessing water near their tent legally. Several participants noted that the tent is too hot to use during the day. One said, “when it's hot outside, you might as well not be in it… during the winter, they're awesome, but during the summer, they're just a hot box until it gets cooler.” Another mentioned having to “get up at daybreak” and stay out of their tent during the heat of the day because “it gets so hot you can’t breathe.” They return to go to bed once the tent cools off, but that does not happen until late into the night, so they cannot go to bed until later than they would like. Several noted that inactivity is their best defense against the heat: “Just don't do nothing.” Participants have accumulated knowledge on how to stay warmer in the winter. As one participant said it “takes a while to learn how to stay warm,” and participants shared their trials and triumphs. They added layers on top of their tents to trap heat, typically using blankets––mylar or otherwise––tarps, and plastic sheeting, though they have struggled to access materials at times. Indeed, during the winter visits to their tents, we observed thick piles of blankets on top of and inside many tents. They also mentioned burning things in their tents to create warmth and noted that it works better in smaller tents. One participant described a “hobo candle,” which was candle wax being burned in a cupcake tin, and said it was invented by his girlfriend: “She's the one that invented it, more or less. Figured out how to do it. It sounds super smart, very inventive.” Of course, burning items in a tent is dangerous, so some have lost their belongings in past fires. One participant described how they cannot go to sleep while burning anything, and the heat they create does not last: “But as quick as it gets warm, quick as it goes out.” After describing all the small things they do in the winter to help keep warm, another participant said, “other than that, it's survival out there.” Participant experiences with other weather types While not intended to be the focus of this study, participants also went into detail about the effects of rain and flooding (Online Resource 4), and had some mentions of snow, wind, and lightning. Sometimes participants were stuck inside a tent unable to leave their camp area due to flooding, and other times they evacuated their tents and could not return for some time, one participant saying the water was over his head. But it typically ended the same: losing many of their belongings to mold and starting over yet again. On rain, one participant said, “generally, something of yours is going to be ruined almost every time.” Another said, “I was able to save some stuff. But it would start raining again, get wet again, and we would start over.” One described what they lost as “really sentimental… It was the last I had with my kids.” Participants mentioned moving their tent under a bridge would be helpful, but it is too likely they would be forced to leave by law enforcement. Snow was mentioned by some participants, likely because there was a snowstorm just before the winter study period. One said, “I didn't realize how bad it was, sleeping outside, until we got that snow this year.” Others discussed how their tents or those of their friends collapsed due to the weight of snow, trapping them inside. One participant said of their friends, “their tents fell on them. They were lucky enough, but it almost killed them.” It can also be challenging to enter their tents during winter storms because sometimes the door freezes shut. Discussion PEUH who sleep in tents often choose not to access to shelters during extreme weather for fear of losing the belongings they leave behind, as expressed by our participants and those in Cronley et al. ( 2024 ). This means PEUH shelter in place and rely on coping strategies, including tent and behavior modifications, which have varying success due to limitations and barriers. Our study adds to works like Cronley et al. ( 2024 ) that use narratives from unhoused individuals to describe their experiences with weather and extends previous work by focusing specifically on those living in tents and using physical observations to assess how their coping strategies affect their tent’s microclimate. Cold and hot weather With tent living comes learned resiliency. PEUH have personal toolkits for coping with cold, heat, and other types of extreme weather. Strategies mentioned in our interviews and former studies (e.g., Reeve et al. (2011), Cronley at al. (2024)) for cold weather resilience, like burning materials and modifying their tent, successfully altered tent temperatures significantly at night in the winter, often by 10–20°C. During winter nights, participants had to weigh warmth or sleep, as the temperature quickly dropped when burning materials stopped. The impacts and coping strategies of unhoused individuals in cold weather has been understudied, but most studies agree that they experience significantly more cold exposure; shelters have been the main coping strategy studied, while admitting they may not be effective (Akhanemhe et al. 2025 ). Our study adds to this discussion by demonstrating how winters are resource-heavy seasons, requiring PEUH to collect a lot of burnable materials, layers of blankets to sleep on and cover up with, extra clothes, and additional materials to cover tents. Thus, going to a shelter during a cold snap and losing these resources could be detrimental to their survival for the rest of winter. PEUH have fewer tools for coping with heat in the summer. By camping in the shade and opening tent windows, they were able to keep their tents from warming more than the surrounding environment during the day. But participants noted their tent was still too hot to use during the day. The lack of a breeze in the tent likely made it insufferable compared to sitting outside, and a more accurate representation of the tent microclimate would have been using mean radiant temperature, as in Karanja et al. ( 2024 ), though that is not possible with the iButton data we collected. When participants finally returned to their tents at night to sleep, the tent temperature was significantly higher than the surrounding environment. Some tents cooled more than others, showing that decisions surrounding ventilation are important to reduce nighttime heat exposure. The ideal temperature for sleep is between 65–70°C (Raj et al. 2020 ), which is not experienced on the average summer night in any tent, let alone during extreme heat, resulting in exhaustion and other health effects in the unhoused community. Geographic differences Few studies have examined how modifications to physical structures influence the thermal exposure of PEUH. When studying tent microclimates in Arizona, Karanja et al. ( 2024 ) found that shade structures provided heat relief during the day, but exacerbated heat risk at night. This indicates it would be useful to use a canopy and remove it after sunset; however, this may not be applicable in Knoxville, where residents camp within and beneath trees to remain hidden from authorities. The trees provide substantial shade, but cannot be removed at night like an artificial structure. One participant who did mention changing their shade actually added it at night and took it off during the day, demonstrating a misunderstanding of the impacts of the shading. Another major difference in these two locations is moisture. Although our study period was not sufficiently hot to evaluate the heat index, future research should incorporate this metric, as it is likely to be more informative than temperature alone in hot, humid climates. Many participants had awnings to protect themselves from precipitation, a concern less relevant in the arid climate of Arizona, and one that requires a structure to be used without a predictable cycle. Additionally, the structures built by campers in Knoxville are typically complex and difficult to dismantle and they would not be able to alter them on a daily basis. Moisture is important in areas that have cool to cold winters as well. Cusack et al. ( 2013 ) found that PEUH in their study reported more adverse impacts from cold weather because of issues when it intersects with moisture. Several of our participants also mentioned how being wet makes them much colder. These differences underscore the need for context-specific mitigation strategies that reflect local climatic conditions, landscape features, resources, and legal considerations. Additionally, the current study demonstrates that complexity of the lived camping environment provides challenges in isolating the many variables affecting tent microclimates, suggesting that both field and experimental research are needed in different climate regions to determine the most effective, achievable mitigation measures for PEUH communities. Sweeps, rain, and precarity While participants demonstrated admirable resilience to extreme weather, stories of precarity prevailed in the interviews. The two main risks to their safety and stability identified in this study were police sweeps and rainfall, both of which have caused participants to lose everything and start over. Even the threat of sweeps intersected with participants’ ability to cope by controlling where they could camp, which determined their access to shade and water. It is also important to note that not only were camping locations controlled, but so were locations where they could sit to seek relief. Some participants indicated having nowhere to go to sit in the shade to cool or to stand in the sun to get warm, or not being allowed to sit under an overpass to stay dry, similar to stories told in Cronley et al. ( 2024 ). Prior work discussed the deep impacts sweeps have on the PEUH community (e.g., Langegger and Koester ( 2016 ), Cohen et al. ( 2019 ), Chang et al. ( 2022 )), and the current work furthers this evidence by detailing their problematic intersection with coping strategies for extreme weather. Limitations This study was limited by sampling capabilities that affected the size and timing of the data collection. Study periods had to be planned weeks in advance to coincide with personal availability and officials being willing to pause sweeps. This resulted in data collection occurring in unseasonably mild temperature periods for summer and winter. Previous work using iButtons to study exposure noted the significance of participant drop-off (Ellis et al. 2024 ). Due to the hard work of our partners at VMC, all participants completed the survey, interviews, and instrumentation parts of the study, and all instruments were returned. Because we placed two iButtons inside the tents, we had at least one working iButton from each. However, other issues caused participation drop off. Upon arriving at some camps, we learned participants were sleeping in open air environments making their data irrelevant for this study. Other issues happened in data collection that rendered data unusable, like coming to collect the ambient iButton and realizing it was covered with a wet shirt or that smoking in the tent severely altered the data (Online Resource 5). Participants humorously recalled hitting their heads on the weather stations inside their tents, an inconvenience that could become a barrier to participation in future studies if it proves too frustrating. Lastly, the study environment proved to have many intersecting and complex variables that would be interesting to study in isolation but may be impossible to address in a real-world environment due to a lack of suitable control options. Opportunities Using mixed methods, our research demonstrated how the intersection of the criminalization of homelessness with the policing of the built environment and mobility leads to increased personal risk for PEUH exposed to extreme weather in a changing climate. Future work in this area is warranted. Meanwhile, many policy improvements could be made to improve the resilience of PEUH in times of extreme weather. Ideally, there would be legal locations for campers near water access and shade, or under an overpass for shelter from rain and sun. But other small changes can make a big impact for this community. One would be to provide adequate storage solutions for people needing temporary shelter during extreme weather, though those with complex shelters would still be unable to dismantle their camp and move all of their belongings to take advantage of this resource. Another would be ensuring PEUH have access to weather information in a timely manner, as some participants were caught by surprise by floods. We witnessed first-hand the deep and supportive relationship that case workers have with their unhoused neighbors, and providing them with the knowledge and materials to support those who choose not to go to shelters could minimize the mental and physical anguish brought on by extreme weather events. As mentioned by Every et al. ( 2019 ), weather awareness and response plans should include early warning strategies for “non-severe” weather events as well, as PEUH are affected by a wider range of conditions than sheltered individuals. Finally, coordinating and discouraging sweeps during months when extreme weather risks are high may reduce external threats to shelter stability. Statements and Declarations Acknowledge We are grateful for the support of the Street Team at the Volunteer Ministry Center in Knoxville, who made this work possible. Funding This work was funded by a University of Tennessee Student-Faculty Research Grant. Financial Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Ethics approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This research was approved by the University of Tennessee Institutional Review Board (UTK IRB-24-07952-XP). Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent to publish Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Data availability Temperature data will be published prior to publication of the manuscript and a link will be added here. Author contributions Seth Thompson, Kelsey Ellis, and Courtney Cronley contributed to the study conception. All authors contributed to the study design. Data collection was performed by Seth Thompson, Kelsey Ellis, and Courtney Cronley. Data analysis was performed by Seth Thompson and Kelsey Ellis. Visualizations were created by Kelsey Ellis and Dimitris Herrera. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Kelsey Ellis and Seth Thompson. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References Akhanemhe R, Petrokofsky C, Ismail SA (2025) Health impacts of cold exposure among people experiencing homelessness: A narrative systematic review on risks and risk-reduction approaches. 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SSM - Qualitative Research in Health 2:100064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmqr.2022.100064 Cohen R, Yetvin W, Khadduri J (2019) Understanding encampments of people experiencing homelessness and community responses: Emerging evidence as of late 2018. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Crabtree E (2025) “Frank was the most gentle soul that you could ever meet” | Woman remembers, honors man who may have frozen to death in Knoxville park. WBIR Cronley C, Fackler A, First JM, et al (2024) Persons Experiencing Homelessness during Extreme Temperatures: Lessons for Promoting Socially Inclusive Adaptive Capacity. IJERPH 21:984. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21080984 Cusack L, Van Loon A, Kralik D, et al (2013) Extreme weather-related health needs of people who are homeless. Aust J Prim Health 19:250. https://doi.org/10.1071/PY12048 Ellis KN, First JM, Kintziger KW, Hunter E (2024) Overnight heat in sleep spaces of housed and unhoused residents: results and recommendations from a Knoxville, Tennessee, case study. Int J Biometeorol 68:637–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-023-02611-3 Ellis KN, Hathaway JM, Mason LR, et al (2017) Summer temperature variability across four urban neighborhoods in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. Theor Appl Climatol 127:701–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-015-1659-8 Endorf FW, Nygaard RM (2021) Social Determinants of Poor Outcomes Following Frostbite Injury: A Study of the National Inpatient Sample. Journal of Burn Care & Research 42:1261–1265. https://doi.org/10.1093/jbcr/irab115 Every D, Richardson J, Osborn E (2019) There’s nowhere to go: counting the costs of extreme weather to the homeless community. Disasters 43:799–817. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12400 Georgi NJ, Zafiriadis K (2006) The impact of park trees on microclimate in urban areas. Urban Ecosyst 9:195–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-006-8590-9 Gonzalez A, Tyminski Q (2020) Sleep deprivation in an American homeless population. Sleep Health 6:489–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2020.01.002 Hass AL, Ellis KN (2019) Using wearable sensors to assess how a heatwave affects individual heat exposure, perceptions, and adaption methods. Int J Biometeorol 63:1585–1595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01770-6 Hass AL, McCanless K, Cooper W, et al (2022) Heat exposure misclassification: Do current methods of classifying diurnal range in individually experienced temperatures and heat indices accurately reflect personal exposure? Int J Biometeorol 66:1339–1348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-022-02280-8 He C, Kim H, Hashizume M, et al (2022) The effects of night-time warming on mortality burden under future climate change scenarios: a modelling study. The Lancet Planetary Health 6:e648–e657. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00139-5 Herring C (2019) Complaint-Oriented Policing: Regulating Homelessness in Public Space. Am Sociol Rev 84:769–800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419872671 Hilty R, Bergmann S, Hirilall A, Kraft L (2021) Strategies to Improve Point-In-Time (PIT) Counts of Unsheltered Homelessness. University of Minnesota, The Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs Karanja J, Vanos J, Joshi A, et al (2024) Impact of tent shade on heat exposures and simulated heat strain for people experiencing homelessness. Int J Biometeorol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-024-02751-0 Karanja J, Vieira J, Vanos J (2023) Sheltered from the heat? How tents and shade covers may unintentionally increase air temperature exposures to unsheltered communities. Public Health in Practice 6:100450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhip.2023.100450 Knoxville-Knox County Office of Housing Stability (2024) Knoxville-Knox County Annual Point-in-Time Count 2024 Report Koprowska K, Kronenberg J, Kuźma IB, Łaszkiewicz E (2020) Condemned to green? Accessibility and attractiveness of urban green spaces to people experiencing homelessness. Geoforum 113:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.04.017 Langegger S, Koester S (2016) Invisible homelessness: anonymity, exposure, and the right to the city. Urban Geography 37:1030–1048. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1147755 Longo J, Kuras E, Smith H, et al (2017) Technology Use, Exposure to Natural Hazards, and Being Digitally Invisible: Implications for Policy Analytics. Policy & Internet 9:76–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.144 Mahrt L, Vickers D, Nakamura R, et al (2001) Shallow Drainage Flows. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 101:243–260. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019273314378 Monk TH, Buysse DJ, Rose LR, et al (2000) The sleep of healthy people—a diary study. Chronobiology International 17:49–60. https://doi.org/10.1081/CBI-100101031 Olson N, Pauly B (2022) ‘Forced to Become a Community’: Encampment Residents’ Perspectives on Systemic Failures, Precarity, and Constrained Choice. IJOH 3:124–138. https://doi.org/10.5206/ijoh.2022.2.14431 Rahman MA, Stratopoulos LMF, Moser-Reischl A, et al (2020) Traits of trees for cooling urban heat islands: A meta-analysis. Building and Environment 170:106606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106606 Raj A, Ruder M, Rus HM, et al (2020) 1214 Higher Bedroom Temperature Associated With Poorer Sleep: Data From Over 3.75 Million Nights. Sleep 43:A464–A464. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa056.1208 Reeve K (2011) The hidden truth about homelessness: Report Summary. Crisis, London, England Robertson BW, Dow K, Salinas J, Cutter SL (2024) Heat Risk Perceptions and Coping Strategies of the Unhoused. IJERPH 21:737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21060737 Romaszko J, Cymes I, Dragańska E, et al (2017) Mortality among the homeless: Causes and meteorological relationships. PLoS ONE 12:e0189938. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189938 Schneider M, Brisson D, Burnes D (2016) Do We Really Know how Many Are Homeless?: An Analysis of the Point-In-Time Homelessness Count. Families in Society 97:321–329. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2016.97.39 Sheckter CC, Radics-Johnson J, Pham TN (2022) Fire and ice—Demands for thermal and frost injury care from extreme weather. Burns 48:1766–1768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2022.07.009 Simonton T, Davidson MS (2022) ‘Alarming’ trend continues as Vegas heat deaths hit decade peak in 2021. Las Vegas Review-Journal Speer J (2017) “It’s not like your home”: Homeless Encampments, Housing Projects, and the Struggle over Domestic Space: “It’s not like your home.” Antipode 49:517–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12275 Speer J, Goldfischer E (2020) The City Is not Innocent: Homelessness and the Value of Urban Parks. Capitalism Nature Socialism 31:24–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455752.2019.1640756 Steger B, Brunt L (eds) (2004) Night-time and Sleep in Asia and the West: Exploring the Dark Side of Life, 0 edn. Routledge Tables Table 1 Mean differences in 15-minute overnight temperature observations (°C) between tents and the ambient environment during the summer and winter. Positive values indicate in-tent temperature is warmer than ambient temperature. Significance is reported based on a paired-samples t-test (*p<0.05, **p<0.004). Tent numbers correspond to the respective season, and the same tent is not used in both seasons. Analysis was not performed on Winter 6 due to smoking influence on data. We speculate Summer 3 may have been placed outside the tent, as it was moved to a different location inside the tent when it was recovered. Tent Number Summer Winter Summer or Winter 1 1.48 ** 9.70 ** Summer or Winter 2 0.61 * 17.00 ** Summer or Winter 3 0.13 9.90 ** Summer or Winter 4 1.63 ** 4.90 ** Summer or Winter 5 3.48 ** 8.20 ** Summer or Winter 6 3.26 ** n/a Summer or Winter 7 2.96 ** 2.70 ** Summer 8 1.73 ** Table 2 Participant descriptions of heat impacts and coping strategies, as well as barriers to being able to effectively deploy strategies. Weather type Impacts Changes to tent/environment Behavioral modifications Barriers to coping strategies Heat Generally feeling unwell (e.g., dizzy, upset stomach, tired) Sweaty and uncomfortable Food spoils quickly Open the windows/rain fly Build canopy over tent Move tent to where there is shade Move tent closer to water access Inactivity Do not use tent during the heat of the day Stay hydrated Try to keep ice Wear less clothing Find shade to sit under Hard to access water legally Have to stay out late waiting for tent to cool for the night Bugs are bothersome during day when too hot to enter tent Expensive to buy and maintain ice Limited access to shade Camping under trees is dangerous Cold Frostbite, complications from previous frostbite Depression and anger Bothers arthritis Use mylar blankets on top of tent Use plastic covers over tent Layers of blankets on the ground Burn candles (“hobo candles” and “candle bombs”), hand sanitizer, and Sterno cans Bundle up; wear more clothing layers, use sleeping bag Use hand warmers Take drugs Canopy does not seem to help trap heat Takes a while to learn how to stay warm Blankets and tent materials are not readily available Heating options burn too hot then quickly get cold Risk of fire or explosion due to heating mechanisms Have to stop using heating mechanisms to sleep Heating options work for smaller, not larger, tents Both heat and cold Struggle to sleep Exhaustion Bothers arthritis Too hard to move tent Tent placement is limited by police activity If you use a shelter, your items will be stolen while you are away Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in International Journal of Biometeorology → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Jun, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 05 Jun, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 03 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 02 Jun, 2025 Editorial decision: Major Revisions Needed 30 May, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6767026","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":467038243,"identity":"6edc5bde-3611-457f-9f81-2513b24b8e52","order_by":0,"name":"Seth Thompson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seth","middleName":"","lastName":"Thompson","suffix":""},{"id":467038244,"identity":"f5665ae9-c58f-4eb7-947a-95a31cc465b0","order_by":1,"name":"Kelsey N. 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Panel a shows sampling location (dashed square) within the Knoxville metropolitan area (red). The gray lines indicate the county borders, including Knox County, where Knoxville is located. The upper-right panel shows the location of Tennessee (black) in the conterminous United States. Panel b shows instrumentation placed inside of tents. Weather stations were hung one foot from the ceiling of the tent. Two iButton Hygrochrons (left panel) inside the radiation shield (right panel) recorded temperature and relative humidity in 15-minute increments\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767026/v1/237e7bd265bbb1ae06906658.png"},{"id":84304453,"identity":"426df379-e0b0-4869-9eb1-693692213f9c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 11:23:15","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":179426,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences between a tent and its surroundings during winter (a) and summer (b). Each line represents a different tent that is compared to its ambient environment. Positive values indicate tent is warmer than ambient environment. Data have been smoothed using the loess function. Vertical shaded bars denote nighttime (midnight through 7 am). Winter 6 is in a separate figure (Fig. 5) due to influence of smoking on data\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767026/v1/a6c6dcfa097c28f0bb7bf4a4.png"},{"id":84304448,"identity":"6436f236-2183-4494-99bf-80a21da3a1e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 11:23:15","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":150034,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemperature observations from within a set of tents located at a single encampment, as well as ambient encampment temperature (thick line), during the a winter and b) summer. Vertical shaded bars denote nighttime (midnight through 7 am).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767026/v1/8389d9ba1a56b8a8f853f383.png"},{"id":101690561,"identity":"ff252d2a-d521-4d21-902e-bcfe32cb536a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-02 16:05:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1377781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767026/v1/94c0fa2c-a4a2-4637-bbd3-a15d5833d749.pdf"},{"id":84304444,"identity":"9756c64d-8976-4913-a312-c0ba3999e486","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-10 11:23:14","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":260943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767026/v1/b0ae32b79254cfe9053d2f7d.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eYou Can Only Keep It So Warm”: Temperatures Inside Tents and Coping Strategies Among People Experiencing Unsheltered Homelessness\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOn a cold day in January 2024, approximately 30 volunteers fanned out across Knoxville, Tennessee, to count the city\u0026rsquo;s unhoused population. During this annual point-in-time (PIT) count, they found 899 individuals, nearly a third living unsheltered (Knoxville-Knox County Office of Housing Stability \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This is just above the 10-year average for PIT counts in Knoxville, but each year the PIT total likely falls short of the true count, as PIT counts often underreport the scale of the crisis (Schneider et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePIT counts struggle to capture the entirety of the community because it is challenging to find people experiencing unsheltered homelessness (PEUH). Many PEUH living in tents and similar makeshift shelters attempt to stay hidden (Hilty et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), especially in municipalities where living in a tent is not allowed. Once an individual or group of campers (an encampment) is found and a complaint is placed, a \u0026ldquo;sweep\u0026rdquo; is performed, where the tent(s) are taken down and the inhabitant(s) forced to move elsewhere (Knoxville-Knox County Office of Housing Stability \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This adds to the precarity of PEUH and may lead to serious health consequences due to lost necessities and being forced to live in less viable living spaces (Chang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), causing PEUH to constantly focus on short-term needs and lose any progress they made with outreach workers or towards general stability (Cohen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Langegger and Koester (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) detail the deep, complex effects of rendering camping illegal in Denver, Colorado, ultimately taking away PEUH right to anonymity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePEUH reside in tents for various reasons, including for the sense of community, privacy, and autonomy these arrangements provide (Cohen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) compared to shelters, which are often considered a last resort (Langegger and Koester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). PEUH living in an encampment just outside the city of Victoria, British Columbia, said that a key contributor to a sense of community and safety was the level of stability felt by residents, who can avoid constant movement, displacement, and theft experienced on the street (Olson and Pauly \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, a study in Amsterdam found that outside sleepers may steal from one another, resulting in threats to personal security (Steger and Brunt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) and in places with sweeps, tent dwellers constantly move and lose their sense of community (Langegger and Koester \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Chang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePEUH encounter numerous problems while sleeping outside, including exposure to harsh weather, safety threats, and health issues stemming from sleep deprivation, heat stress, and cold exposure, and chronic medical conditions exacerbated by these challenges (Romaszko et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Gonzalez and Tyminski \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). During heat waves, unhoused individuals make up a large proportion of the reported fatalities (Simonton and Davidson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and after extreme winter weather, there are regular stories of fatalities from unhoused communities, including in Knoxville, the location of this study (Crabtree \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, the heightened exposure of PEUH to extreme temperatures is a well-known but little-studied problem (Robertson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Cronley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Those who sleep in tents may have some protection from inclement weather, but tents can be damaged or flooded, resulting in the loss of a safe sleeping area (Every et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and the protection tents provide against extreme temperatures is unknown.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePEUH often camp and congregate in urban areas due to resource accessibility (Cronley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which exposes them to excess urban heat. This is consistent with findings showing popular camping areas for PEUH in Knoxville maintain warmer temperatures than the suburbs (Ellis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Some PEUH choose to camp in green spaces, which may offer some reprieve from hot weather, while also keeping them out of public view where they feel unwelcome (Koprowska et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), providing solace (Speer and Goldfischer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and helping them avoid sweeps. The trees in these spaces play a pivotal role in creating local urban microclimates that can mitigate urban heat and enhance thermal comfort (Rahman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) by providing shade, reducing wind speed, and cooling the air via evapotranspiration (Georgi and Zafiriadis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, PEUH may find relief in areas like parks with plentiful tree cover to provide shade and some protection against the weather, though they are often not welcome to live in public parks (Speer and Goldfischer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Heat protection provided by urban green spaces is limited; while trees may help keep daytime temperatures down, even treed areas in urban environments retain heat at night due to the surrounding built environment, resulting in greater overnight heat exposure (Ellis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Ellis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) showed this was the case for a downtown park in Knoxville that is frequented by PEUH.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are other strategic locations where PEUH set up their tents to provide protection from the weather. For example, an encampment in California was at the bottom of a hill next to a canal and under an overpass (Speer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). At locations such as these in low-lying areas, cold air drainage reduces night-time temperatures beginning right after sunset (Mahrt et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Overpasses also offer shading and protection from rain, making them a popular living space for PEUH (Ellis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) or a shelter during weather events (Cronley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the overpass stores incoming solar irradiance to remit at night, which may keep the area somewhat warmer than out in the open (Ellis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCities have attempted to provide some measures to limit heat exposure of unhoused individuals. For example, they may open cooling shelters during abnormally hot days in summer. Usually, local community centers or churches serve as cooling shelters where PEUH can seek refuge from the heat. However, information about heat alerts (Bezgrebelna et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and cooling shelter locations (Berisha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) may not be effectively communicated to PEUH, especially those who continually lose their support system due to frequent sweeps (Chang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Without careful attention, advances in heat-health systems may not be beneficial to the unhoused community (Longo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). When access to cooling shelters is not provided, unhoused individuals might seek refuge in a park under a shade tree, a library, or a shopping mall (Every et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e); however, they risk being removed by security or law enforcement from these public spaces, often due to complaints made by other people (Herring \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Tents provide shade and could offer some protection from sun, but during hot summer days and nights, they are often warmer inside than the surrounding air (Karanja et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), though thermal conditions inside inhabited tents have not yet been observed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCold weather is also dangerous for unhoused individuals, resulting in frequent occurrences of hypothermia and frostbite (Endorf and Nygaard \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sheckter et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Those with chronic conditions especially struggle to cope due to increased physical pain and illness (Cronley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). PEUH attempt to combat the cold in various ways. In a previous study, one unhoused woman described seeking public restrooms for warmth, but they were often closed (Alewett \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Burning trash and paper against bricks or rocks, which hold heat, can help warm structures (Reeve \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), as can burning hand sanitizer, which is dangerous and can result in setting the tent on fire (Cronley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). How well these methods work to warm a tent are unknown.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is the first to examine the thermal conditions within tents inhabited by PEUH. Our objective was to collect and analyze temperature data from inside tents occupied by PEUH in Knoxville, Tennessee (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), to assess their overnight exposure to hot and cold temperatures. Additionally, we sought to understand how individuals adapt or modify their tents in response to these temperature extremes. To guide this research, we posed the following questions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo what extent do tents buffer or amplify ambient temperatures during hot and cold weather?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do hot and cold weather impact individuals sleeping in tents?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat coping strategies do tent residents use during hot and cold weather?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur analysis emphasizes overnight thermal conditions in tents, as this is the period when they are most consistently inhabited. While our primary focus is on nighttime exposure, we also collected and report on daytime temperature data for context, but daytime tent conditions likely do not reflect the conditions experienced by the tent owners during that time. From a human health perspective, nighttime conditions are particularly consequential, as the body relies on cooler overnight temperatures to recover from daytime heat exposure; insufficient nocturnal cooling can exacerbate heat stress (He et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which will be especially problematic in urban areas, including in Knoxville, where temperatures remain warmer overnight (Ellis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Warmer nights are becoming more common in many places, resulting in increased nocturnal heat exposure (He et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), especially for vulnerable individuals who lack the resources to cool themselves sufficiently overnight (Hass and Ellis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipant Recruitment and Study Settings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter gaining Institutional Review Board approval, participants were recruited across the downtown district of Knoxville, Tennessee (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Knoxville is a medium-sized city with an estimated population of 190,740 as of 2020 (Census Bureau \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Knoxville exists in a valley, located east of the Cumberland Plateau and west of the Great Smoky Mountains. The Tennessee River separates South Knoxville from the rest of the city and downtown, where the data were collected. Knoxville has a humid subtropical climate, with hot, humid summers and mild winters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected in two periods: 14\u0026ndash;21 February (winter) and 14\u0026ndash;21 August (summer) 2024. For each period, ten unhoused individuals who were living in a tent or similar makeshift structure (simply referred to as a tent hereafter) were recruited for participation. Given that PEUH frequently desire to stay hidden, the Volunteer Ministry Center of Knoxville (VMC) helped identify potential participants. The study dates were chosen based on personnel availability, including partners at the VMC who were integral to ensuring the camps were not swept during the study. Notably, the study provided temporary housing security for the participants because there was an agreement with the city that their camp would not be swept while participating. We documented the weather during the collection periods in Online Resources 1 and 2. Unfortunately, while the periods did not overlap with extreme temperatures, they provided information about thermal conditions on average winter and summer days, which may be more useful ultimately to inform policy making based on typical chronicity of exposure rather than extremes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSurvey and interview\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter being formally invited to participate, all participants orally agreed to a consent form that was read aloud and completed a short demographic survey with questions about their health and general interactions with extreme weather while sleeping in a tent. After a survey question was read aloud, a participant vocalized their answer, which was entered into a Qualtrics survey. A brief interview followed, which focused on three questions detailing their experiences with extreme weather:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoes the weather affect your decision about where to sleep?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHave you ever had problems because of the weather while you\u0026rsquo;re sleeping outside?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat do you do to deal with extreme weather?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were given a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20 gift card for completing the demographic survey and interview, and were asked to meet the research team at their tent the following day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTemperature observations inside tents\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe VMC Street Team helped the researchers locate study participants\u0026rsquo; encampments and place equipment in their tents. When arriving, the street team loudly called out, \u0026ldquo;it\u0026rsquo;s VMC and UT\u0026rdquo; and asked if they could access the tent. If someone was there and allowed access, then the weather station was hung in the participant\u0026rsquo;s tent. Otherwise, we returned and tried the next day. Notes were taken about the tents and surrounding environment (Online Resource 3). Participants were given a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20 Kroger gift card approximately every other day during the study period. Participants earned a total of \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e100 in gift cards during the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach weather station consisted of two iButton Hygrochrons collecting 15-minute temperature and humidity observations inside a radiation shield (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). iButtons have an accuracy of \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u0026deg;C and \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% relative humidity. They were tested inside an office environment to determine reporting accuracy prior to placing them in the field. They were hung one foot from the ceiling following the suggestion of Karanga et al. (2023). An additional iButton was placed outside of the tent to measure ambient conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpon collection of the weather station the following week, the data were downloaded onto a computer. The two iButtons from inside the tent were compared to ensure quality control. If both iButtons worked appropriately, the data from the first iButton were used. For one tent, only one iButton worked through the entire period. Other issues inhibited use of some study locations, including excessive smoking inside the tent, participants living in an open-air shelter, participants covering the ambient iButton with a wet shirt, and one participant potentially placing their weather station outside their tent, though we cannot be certain. Overall, we are confident about the data coming from inside and outside six tents in winter and seven tents in summer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalysis methods\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemperature observations were analyzed using descriptive statistics and visualizations to investigate relationships between in-tent temperature and ambient temperature. Graphs illustrate how tents deviated from their ambient environment and the variability between tents within an encampment. The multitude of variables within the study made it challenging to isolate any single variable to discern its impact on temperature exposure, and that, along with the small sample size, prevented multivariate analysis. Instead, a paired-samples t-test was used to compare overnight ambient air temperature to the in-tent temperature for each tent using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha of 0.0004. For these tests, we only used data from days with no synoptic forcing and maximum and minimum temperatures between two deviations from their climatological averages (see Online Resource 1 and 2). This ensured we focused on typical weather instead of extremes. While a study on extremes is warranted, the extremes during the study period were extremely mild, meaning abnormally cool (warm) days over the summer (winter), which are days with uncharacteristically little exposure. This resulted in three (four) days for the summer (winter) study. Because we were interested in overnight exposure when residents were most likely inside their tents, we analyzed the period from 12 am to 7 am. Defining \u0026ldquo;overnight\u0026rdquo; should be done carefully (Hass et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and this specific period was chosen because it is the time average adults are asleep (Monk et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e); though we recognize that the patterns of unhoused individuals may differ, this is likely a period where they do not have other places to go and will be in their tent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey data were reported as univariate statistics to describe the sample. Interview data were organized according to whether they refer to hot weather, cold weather, or other weather, and then within each type of weather, four categories: 1) impacts of weather, 2) changes to tent/environment, 3) behavioral modifications, and 4) barriers to coping strategies. The second author analyzed the data and extracted quotes to illustrate the above categories. The other authors who participated in the interviews validated her work.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eField notes: tent descriptions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTents varied in their construction, from minimalistic structures built from PVC and tarps, small camping tents, and elaborate makeshift structures with multiple small rooms (Online Resource 3). Likewise, contents ranged from only blankets on the ground to elaborate setups with a mattress, food, a night table, and lights. Some tents were home to one individual while others housed multiple people. Some were independent tents while others were within encampments.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipant descriptions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were 29\u0026ndash;63 years old (x̄=46). They were all white except for one African American. \u0026nbsp;They had been unhoused for as few as 4 months to as long as 20+ years, with 75% having been unhoused for at least several years, and many experiencing homelessness multiple times in their lives. Only one participant felt they did not have at least \u0026ldquo;okay\u0026rdquo; physical health, while five did not feel that had at least \u0026ldquo;okay\u0026rdquo; mental health. Most experienced mental health challenges, with 70% having been diagnosed with anxiety, 55% with depression, and many cases of PTSD and bi-polar disorder. Only 20% were currently on medication for their mental health. Over half of the participants had experienced physical and/or sexual assault or violence. About half of the participants indicated they know to expect extreme weather before it happens. The most common source was a phone or a friend/family member. Participants noted that very cold weather (84%), hot weather (68%), rainy weather (63%), and snowy weather (79%) are likely to affect their health when sleeping in a tent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTent microclimates\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the winter, tents were almost always warmer than the ambient environment, often 10 \u0026deg;C or more (Figure 2b), with the greatest difference occurring at night. On typical, synoptically weak nights, all tents were significantly warmer than the ambient environment (p\u0026lt;0.004; Table 1). However, there was great variability, with three tents being ~10 \u0026deg;C, or more, warmer, but two tents were less than 5 \u0026deg;C warmer. Sometimes there was as much as a 20 \u0026deg;C difference between the tents, with these large differences happening at night.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTents were also typically warmer than their ambient environment in the summer (Figure 2b), though many hovered around the ambient temperature. In most cases, the largest differences were at night. This excess warmth can be attributed to incoming solar radiation being trapped inside the tent while the ambient environment cooled. On typical, synoptically weak nights, all but one tent experienced significantly warmer conditions than their ambient environment (most at p\u0026lt;0.004, one only at p\u0026lt;0.05; Table 1). Overall, these differences were much smaller than in winter. There were only a few times when the difference was greater than 3 \u0026deg;C, and this usually happened at night.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring each season, several participants lived in the same encampment, providing an opportunity to assess the microclimate of different tents within the same ambient environment (Fig. 3). The summer and winter encampments were in two different places. Despite having nearly the same external conditions, the tents within a single encampment have notably different temperature profiles, highlighting the impact of coping strategies and tent variability. Overall, encampment characteristics, like shading, affected the tent temperatures, but tents also experienced microclimates likely related to tent and behavioral modifications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the winter (Fig. 3a), tent temperatures increased sharply and often, indicative of supplemental heating sources such as burning candles or hand sanitizer to produce heat. There was no clear diurnal pattern in temperature inside the tents. It was not rare for tents to be 15 \u0026deg;C or more warmer than the ambient environment and the coldest tent at the moment, but all the tents experienced quick drops in temperature after warming periods. Winter 2 did not see spikes in temperature between 2 and 9 am, except for on one of the coldest nights. The Winter 3 tent, on the other hand, frequently had temperature spikes throughout the night, especially on the coldest nights.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the summer (Fig. 3b), tents within a single encampment largely had a similar temperature profile to the ambient temperature, and there were smaller differences between tents. During the day, most tents heated alongside the ambient environment, observing similar temperatures. Overnight, body heat and heat trapped inside the tents kept most tents about 5 \u0026deg;C or more warmer than the ambient environment. Summer 5 trapped the most heat. The participant in this tent noted that they took a tarp off during the day and replaced it at night, likely trapping additional heat. Summer 3 experienced extreme temperature spikes during the day and cooled to the ambient environment at night. When we returned to gather the weather station, it had been placed higher in the tent. It is possible that it was moved outside the tent during the study, but we cannot be certain. This tent is the only one that was not significantly different from the ambient environment overnight (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLived experiences with hot and cold weather\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the interviews, participants recalled how and cold weather affected them (Table 2). Both weather types disrupted sleep and caused other mental and physical health issues. Many participants reported exhaustion. \u0026ldquo;There\u0026apos;s days go by, I might not sleep,\u0026rdquo; said one participant. He also described the cold as physically painful: \u0026ldquo;the cold kind of hurts, trying to sleep on the ground or whatever because I don\u0026apos;t have a mat. I just got a sleeping bag I sleep on. Yeah, it actually hurts.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;It makes us do stupid things sometimes, too,\u0026rdquo; said another.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants named many reasons they did not rely on shelters during extreme weather, such as their belongings being taken while they were away, the rigid schedules and rules in shelters, longing for privacy, and other social and physical aspects of the shelters they found unpleasant or unsanitary. One participant said of a recent snowstorm,\u0026nbsp;\u0026ldquo;I could have went to a church, but I chose to stay in the tent because someone would take my shit.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstead, participants modified their tents or behavior to reduce the effects of extreme temperatures. In hot weather, many participants have attempted to increase shading by building a canopy or moving their tent to a shady location. They noted barriers to these strategies, including difficulty moving their tent and belongings, or limited ideal camp locations due to law enforcement activity. They recognize the need to stay hydrated but have had trouble accessing water near their tent legally. Several participants noted that the tent is too hot to use during the day. One said, \u0026ldquo;when it\u0026apos;s hot outside, you might as well not be in it\u0026hellip;\u0026nbsp;during the winter, they\u0026apos;re awesome, but during the summer, they\u0026apos;re just a hot box until it gets cooler.\u0026rdquo; Another mentioned having to \u0026ldquo;get up at daybreak\u0026rdquo; and stay out of their tent during the heat of the day because \u0026ldquo;it gets so hot you can\u0026rsquo;t breathe.\u0026rdquo; They return to go to bed once the tent cools off, but that does not happen until late into the night, so they cannot go to bed until later than they would like. Several noted that inactivity is their best defense against the heat: \u0026ldquo;Just don\u0026apos;t do nothing.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants have accumulated knowledge on how to stay warmer in the winter. As one participant said it \u0026ldquo;takes a while to learn how to stay warm,\u0026rdquo; and participants shared their trials and triumphs. They added layers on top of their tents to trap heat, typically using blankets\u0026ndash;\u0026ndash;mylar or otherwise\u0026ndash;\u0026ndash;tarps, and plastic sheeting, though they have struggled to access materials at times. Indeed, during the winter visits to their tents, we observed thick piles of blankets on top of and inside many tents. They also mentioned burning things in their tents to create warmth and noted that it works better in smaller tents. One participant described a \u0026ldquo;hobo candle,\u0026rdquo; which was candle wax being burned in a cupcake tin, and said it was invented by his girlfriend: \u0026ldquo;She\u0026apos;s the one that invented it, more or less. Figured out how to do it. It sounds super smart, very inventive.\u0026rdquo; Of course, burning items in a tent is dangerous, so some have lost their belongings in past fires. One participant described how they cannot go to sleep while burning anything, and the heat they create does not last: \u0026ldquo;But as quick as it gets warm, quick as it goes out.\u0026rdquo; After describing all the small things they do in the winter to help keep warm, another participant said, \u0026ldquo;other than that, it\u0026apos;s survival out there.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipant experiences with other weather types\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile not intended to be the focus of this study, participants also went into detail about the effects of rain and flooding (Online Resource 4), and had some mentions of snow, wind, and lightning. Sometimes participants were stuck inside a tent unable to leave their camp area due to flooding, and other times they evacuated their tents and could not return for some time, one participant saying the water was over his head. But it typically ended the same: losing many of their belongings to mold and starting over yet again. On rain, one participant said, \u0026ldquo;generally, something of yours is going to be ruined almost every time.\u0026rdquo; Another said, \u0026ldquo;I was able to save some stuff. But it would start raining again, get wet again, and we would start over.\u0026rdquo; One described what they lost as \u0026ldquo;really sentimental\u0026hellip; It was the last I had with my kids.\u0026rdquo; Participants mentioned moving their tent under a bridge would be helpful, but it is too likely they would be forced to leave by law enforcement.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSnow was mentioned by some participants, likely because there was a snowstorm just before the winter study period. One said, \u0026ldquo;I didn\u0026apos;t realize how bad it was, sleeping outside, until we got that snow this year.\u0026rdquo; Others discussed how their tents or those of their friends collapsed due to the weight of snow, trapping them inside. One participant said of their friends, \u0026ldquo;their tents fell on them. They were lucky enough, but it almost killed them.\u0026rdquo; It can also be challenging to enter their tents during winter storms because sometimes the door freezes shut.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePEUH who sleep in tents often choose not to access to shelters during extreme weather for fear of losing the belongings they leave behind, as expressed by our participants and those in Cronley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This means PEUH shelter in place and rely on coping strategies, including tent and behavior modifications, which have varying success due to limitations and barriers. Our study adds to works like Cronley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) that use narratives from unhoused individuals to describe their experiences with weather and extends previous work by focusing specifically on those living in tents and using physical observations to assess how their coping strategies affect their tent\u0026rsquo;s microclimate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCold and hot weather\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith tent living comes learned resiliency. PEUH have personal toolkits for coping with cold, heat, and other types of extreme weather. Strategies mentioned in our interviews and former studies (e.g., Reeve et al. (2011), Cronley at al. (2024)) for cold weather resilience, like burning materials and modifying their tent, successfully altered tent temperatures significantly at night in the winter, often by 10\u0026ndash;20\u0026deg;C. During winter nights, participants had to weigh warmth or sleep, as the temperature quickly dropped when burning materials stopped. The impacts and coping strategies of unhoused individuals in cold weather has been understudied, but most studies agree that they experience significantly more cold exposure; shelters have been the main coping strategy studied, while admitting they may not be effective (Akhanemhe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Our study adds to this discussion by demonstrating how winters are resource-heavy seasons, requiring PEUH to collect a lot of burnable materials, layers of blankets to sleep on and cover up with, extra clothes, and additional materials to cover tents. Thus, going to a shelter during a cold snap and losing these resources could be detrimental to their survival for the rest of winter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePEUH have fewer tools for coping with heat in the summer. By camping in the shade and opening tent windows, they were able to keep their tents from warming more than the surrounding environment during the day. But participants noted their tent was still too hot to use during the day. The lack of a breeze in the tent likely made it insufferable compared to sitting outside, and a more accurate representation of the tent microclimate would have been using mean radiant temperature, as in Karanja et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), though that is not possible with the iButton data we collected. When participants finally returned to their tents at night to sleep, the tent temperature was significantly higher than the surrounding environment. Some tents cooled more than others, showing that decisions surrounding ventilation are important to reduce nighttime heat exposure. The ideal temperature for sleep is between 65\u0026ndash;70\u0026deg;C (Raj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which is not experienced on the average summer night in any tent, let alone during extreme heat, resulting in exhaustion and other health effects in the unhoused community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGeographic differences\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFew studies have examined how modifications to physical structures influence the thermal exposure of PEUH. When studying tent microclimates in Arizona, Karanja et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) found that shade structures provided heat relief during the day, but exacerbated heat risk at night. This indicates it would be useful to use a canopy and remove it after sunset; however, this may not be applicable in Knoxville, where residents camp within and beneath trees to remain hidden from authorities. The trees provide substantial shade, but cannot be removed at night like an artificial structure. One participant who did mention changing their shade actually added it at night and took it off during the day, demonstrating a misunderstanding of the impacts of the shading.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother major difference in these two locations is moisture. Although our study period was not sufficiently hot to evaluate the heat index, future research should incorporate this metric, as it is likely to be more informative than temperature alone in hot, humid climates. Many participants had awnings to protect themselves from precipitation, a concern less relevant in the arid climate of Arizona, and one that requires a structure to be used without a predictable cycle. Additionally, the structures built by campers in Knoxville are typically complex and difficult to dismantle and they would not be able to alter them on a daily basis. Moisture is important in areas that have cool to cold winters as well. Cusack et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) found that PEUH in their study reported more adverse impacts from cold weather because of issues when it intersects with moisture. Several of our participants also mentioned how being wet makes them much colder.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese differences underscore the need for context-specific mitigation strategies that reflect local climatic conditions, landscape features, resources, and legal considerations. Additionally, the current study demonstrates that complexity of the lived camping environment provides challenges in isolating the many variables affecting tent microclimates, suggesting that both field and experimental research are needed in different climate regions to determine the most effective, achievable mitigation measures for PEUH communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSweeps, rain, and precarity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile participants demonstrated admirable resilience to extreme weather, stories of precarity prevailed in the interviews. The two main risks to their safety and stability identified in this study were police sweeps and rainfall, both of which have caused participants to lose everything and start over. Even the threat of sweeps intersected with participants\u0026rsquo; ability to cope by controlling where they could camp, which determined their access to shade and water. It is also important to note that not only were camping locations controlled, but so were locations where they could sit to seek relief. Some participants indicated having nowhere to go to sit in the shade to cool or to stand in the sun to get warm, or not being allowed to sit under an overpass to stay dry, similar to stories told in Cronley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Prior work discussed the deep impacts sweeps have on the PEUH community (e.g., Langegger and Koester (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), Cohen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Chang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)), and the current work furthers this evidence by detailing their problematic intersection with coping strategies for extreme weather.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was limited by sampling capabilities that affected the size and timing of the data collection. Study periods had to be planned weeks in advance to coincide with personal availability and officials being willing to pause sweeps. This resulted in data collection occurring in unseasonably mild temperature periods for summer and winter. Previous work using iButtons to study exposure noted the significance of participant drop-off (Ellis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the hard work of our partners at VMC, all participants completed the survey, interviews, and instrumentation parts of the study, and all instruments were returned. Because we placed two iButtons inside the tents, we had at least one working iButton from each. However, other issues caused participation drop off. Upon arriving at some camps, we learned participants were sleeping in open air environments making their data irrelevant for this study. Other issues happened in data collection that rendered data unusable, like coming to collect the ambient iButton and realizing it was covered with a wet shirt or that smoking in the tent severely altered the data (Online Resource 5). Participants humorously recalled hitting their heads on the weather stations inside their tents, an inconvenience that could become a barrier to participation in future studies if it proves too frustrating. Lastly, the study environment proved to have many intersecting and complex variables that would be interesting to study in isolation but may be impossible to address in a real-world environment due to a lack of suitable control options.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOpportunities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing mixed methods, our research demonstrated how the intersection of the criminalization of homelessness with the policing of the built environment and mobility leads to increased personal risk for PEUH exposed to extreme weather in a changing climate. Future work in this area is warranted. Meanwhile, many policy improvements could be made to improve the resilience of PEUH in times of extreme weather. Ideally, there would be legal locations for campers near water access and shade, or under an overpass for shelter from rain and sun. But other small changes can make a big impact for this community. One would be to provide adequate storage solutions for people needing temporary shelter during extreme weather, though those with complex shelters would still be unable to dismantle their camp and move all of their belongings to take advantage of this resource. Another would be ensuring PEUH have access to weather information in a timely manner, as some participants were caught by surprise by floods. We witnessed first-hand the deep and supportive relationship that case workers have with their unhoused neighbors, and providing them with the knowledge and materials to support those who choose not to go to shelters could minimize the mental and physical anguish brought on by extreme weather events. As mentioned by Every et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), weather awareness and response plans should include early warning strategies for \u0026ldquo;non-severe\u0026rdquo; weather events as well, as PEUH are affected by a wider range of conditions than sheltered individuals. Finally, coordinating and discouraging sweeps during months when extreme weather risks are high may reduce external threats to shelter stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Statements and Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledge\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are grateful for the support of the Street Team at the Volunteer Ministry Center in Knoxville, who made this work possible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was funded by a University of Tennessee Student-Faculty Research Grant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFinancial Interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This research was approved by the University of Tennessee Institutional Review Board (UTK\u0026nbsp;IRB-24-07952-XP).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eData availability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemperature data will be published prior to publication of the manuscript and a link will be added here.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeth Thompson, Kelsey Ellis, and Courtney Cronley contributed to the study conception. All authors contributed to the study design. Data collection was performed by Seth Thompson, Kelsey Ellis, and Courtney Cronley. Data analysis was performed by Seth Thompson and Kelsey Ellis. Visualizations were created by Kelsey Ellis and Dimitris Herrera. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Kelsey Ellis and Seth Thompson. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAkhanemhe R, Petrokofsky C, Ismail SA (2025) Health impacts of cold exposure among people experiencing homelessness: A narrative systematic review on risks and risk-reduction approaches. Public Health 240:80\u0026ndash;87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2025.01.006\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlewett H (2024) Homeless for One Winter Night: A Nursing Student\u0026rsquo;s Perspective. 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PLoS ONE 12:e0189938. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189938\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchneider M, Brisson D, Burnes D (2016) Do We Really Know how Many Are Homeless?: An Analysis of the Point-In-Time Homelessness Count. Families in Society 97:321\u0026ndash;329. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2016.97.39\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSheckter CC, Radics-Johnson J, Pham TN (2022) Fire and ice\u0026mdash;Demands for thermal and frost injury care from extreme weather. Burns 48:1766\u0026ndash;1768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2022.07.009\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSimonton T, Davidson MS (2022) \u0026lsquo;Alarming\u0026rsquo; trend continues as Vegas heat deaths hit decade peak in 2021. Las Vegas Review-Journal\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpeer J (2017) \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s not like your home\u0026rdquo;: Homeless Encampments, Housing Projects, and the Struggle over Domestic Space: \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s not like your home.\u0026rdquo; Antipode 49:517\u0026ndash;535. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12275\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpeer J, Goldfischer E (2020) The City Is not Innocent: Homelessness and the Value of Urban Parks. Capitalism Nature Socialism 31:24\u0026ndash;41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455752.2019.1640756\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSteger B, Brunt L (eds) (2004) Night-time and Sleep in Asia and the West: Exploring the Dark Side of Life, 0 edn. Routledge\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e Mean differences in 15-minute overnight temperature observations (\u0026deg;C) between tents and the ambient environment during the summer and winter. Positive values indicate in-tent temperature is warmer than ambient temperature. Significance is reported based on a paired-samples t-test (*p\u0026lt;0.05, **p\u0026lt;0.004). Tent numbers correspond to the respective season, and the same tent is not used in both seasons. Analysis was not performed on Winter 6 due to smoking influence on data. We speculate Summer 3 may have been placed outside the tent, as it was moved to a different location inside the tent when it was recovered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"360\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTent Number\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.70 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61 *\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.00 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.90 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.63 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.90 **\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.48 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.20 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.26 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en/a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer or Winter 7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.96 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.70 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummer 8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.73 **\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e Participant descriptions of heat impacts and coping strategies, as well as barriers to being able to effectively deploy strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"630\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWeather type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImpacts\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChanges to tent/environment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBehavioral modifications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBarriers to coping strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGenerally feeling unwell (e.g., dizzy, upset stomach, tired)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSweaty and uncomfortable\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFood spoils quickly\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOpen the windows/rain fly\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBuild canopy over tent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMove tent to where there is shade\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMove tent closer to water access\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eInactivity\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDo not use tent during the heat of the day\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStay hydrated\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTry to keep ice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWear less clothing\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFind shade to sit under\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHard to access water legally\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHave to stay out late waiting for tent to cool for the night\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBugs are bothersome during day when too hot to enter tent\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eExpensive to buy and maintain ice\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLimited access to shade\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCamping under trees is dangerous\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCold\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFrostbite, complications from previous frostbite\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDepression and anger\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBothers arthritis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUse mylar blankets on top of tent\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUse plastic covers over tent\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLayers of blankets on the ground\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBurn candles (\u0026ldquo;hobo candles\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;candle bombs\u0026rdquo;), hand sanitizer, and Sterno cans\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBundle up; wear more clothing layers, use sleeping bag\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUse hand warmers\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTake drugs\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCanopy does not seem to help trap heat\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTakes a while to learn how to stay warm\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBlankets and tent materials are not readily available\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHeating options burn too hot then quickly get cold\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRisk of fire or explosion due to heating mechanisms\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHave to stop using heating mechanisms to sleep\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHeating options work for smaller, not larger, tents\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoth heat and cold\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStruggle to sleep\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eExhaustion\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBothers arthritis\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eToo hard to move tent\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTent placement is limited by police activity\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIf you use a shelter, your items will be stolen while you are away\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-biometeorology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbm","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Biometeorology](http://link.springer.com/journal/484)","snPcode":"484","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijbm/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Biometeorology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"homelessness, unhoused, encampment, exposure, heat, cold, overnight","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767026/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767026/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePeople experiencing unsheltered homelessness (PEUH) are disproportionately vulnerable to extreme temperatures. This study measured overnight exposure to hot and cold temperatures inside tents occupied by PEUH in Knoxville, Tennessee, and examined participants’ coping strategies through semi-structured interviews (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=20). In winter, many participants successfully warmed their tents by 10 °C or more, by burning materials and using layers of blankets and tarps. Winter warmth required an abundance of resources, making moving to shelters infeasible, as it meant abandoning these hard-won supplies. Tents quickly dropped in temperature after burning materials, forcing inhabitants to decide between sleep or warmth. In summer, tent location was crucial for access to shade and water, but options were limited by policing and displacement. Shady spots helped keep tents from warming beyond the ambient temperature during the day, but participants avoided going inside them due to being uncomfortably hot, likely due to lack of air flow. When they returned to their tent to sleep, trapped heat caused tents to be up to 5 °C warmer than ambient temperatures. Some tent strategies allowed for better ventilation on hot nights. Although not the focus of this study, participants repeatedly described the damaging effects of rain and flooding, which destroyed belongings and deepened feelings of helplessness. These challenges compounded existing precarity, including chronic health conditions and frequent sweeps. Findings underscore the partial effectiveness of behavioral and material coping strategies and show how the criminalization of homelessness and restrictions on movement increase PEUH’s exposure to extreme weather and related health risks.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"You Can Only Keep It So Warm”: Temperatures Inside Tents and Coping Strategies Among People Experiencing Unsheltered Homelessness","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-10 11:23:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767026/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-06-05T17:09:51+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-05T13:07:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T07:33:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Biometeorology","date":"2025-06-02T10:47:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revisions Needed","date":"2025-05-30T14:48:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-biometeorology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbm","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Biometeorology](http://link.springer.com/journal/484)","snPcode":"484","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijbm/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Biometeorology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2e809a04-553c-4d38-90a5-4963788e9106","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-02T16:02:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6767026","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-025-03094-0","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-of-biometeorology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal of Biometeorology"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-30 15:59:19","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 30th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-10 11:23:08","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00484-025-03094-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-025-03094-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6767026","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6767026","identity":"rs-6767026","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}