Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Maladaptive Daydreaming in University Students: The Mediating Role of Perceived Stress

Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Maladaptive Daydreaming in University Students: The Mediating Role of Perceived Stress | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Maladaptive Daydreaming in University Students: The Mediating Role of Perceived Stress Leanne Constantine, Shamsul Haque This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538726/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose Maladaptive daydreaming is excessive daydreaming that causes distress, disrupts well-being, and thus impairs academic performance among university students. Because loneliness, low self-esteem, and stress are common risk factors for maladaptive daydreaming, we investigated whether loneliness and self-esteem predicted maladaptive daydreaming and if perceived stress mediated these relationships. Methods 119 university students (71.40% female) completed the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, and Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale. The hypotheses were tested using mediated regression analyses. Results Higher loneliness and lower self-esteem significantly predicted maladaptive daydreaming. Perceived stress partially mediated the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming, and fully mediated the relationship between self-esteem and maladaptive daydreaming. Conclusion University students were likely to engage in maladaptive daydreaming to compensate for unmet belongingness needs and cope with perceived stress. The mediating role of perceived stress implies that interventions that target stress may reduce maladaptive daydreaming, mitigating its consequences and improving the well-being of university students. Maladaptive daydreaming Loneliness Self-esteem Perceived stress University students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Daydreaming is a universal experience, described as a flow of thoughts unrelated to the task one is engaged in [ 1 , 2 ]. This can be adaptive, with functions such as promoting creativity, preparing for the future, facilitating academic achievement, and stress relief [ 3 – 5 ]. Freud suggested that daydreams also perform a compensatory function by satisfying an individual’s unconscious desires [ 6 ]. However, if the tendency to daydream is not controlled, the once-adaptive functions of daydreaming can become maladaptive. Somer [ 7 ] coined the term maladaptive daydreaming to describe the act of excessive daydreaming that interferes with social, occupational, and academic functioning. These daydreams can occupy over half an individual’s waking hours, with many reporting an intense urge to daydream from the moment they awaken [ 8 , 9 ]. Maladaptive daydreaming is characterized by vivid and immersive daydreams, often described as fantasies, which begin as early as childhood and continue throughout life [ 7 , 10 ]. They can involve story-like plots with fictional characters that exist in an elaborate internal world, or the imagined life experiences of ideal versions of the self [ 7 , 9 ]. Another distinguishing feature is that kinaesthetic movement and music can trigger and maintain maladaptive daydreaming [ 9 , 11 ]. Maladaptive daydreaming is distinct from normal daydreaming due to its addictive nature, the distress it causes, and its disturbance of daily functioning [ 8 , 9 , 12 ]. The intense yearning, rewarding feelings, and withdrawal-like symptoms associated with maladaptive daydreaming led researchers to label it as a behavioural addiction [ 13 ]. Additionally, some maladaptive daydreamers experience great distress due to shame and the fear of their habits being discovered by others [ 7 , 8 , 10 ]. The sheer amount of time spent on these fantasies and the uncontrollable urge to daydream causes distress and hinders goal accomplishment and daily tasks [ 7 , 9 , 14 ]. Research shows that maladaptive daydreaming is distinct from other conditions with overlapping symptoms such as attention deficit, obsessive-compulsive, dissociative, and psychotic disorders [ 8 , 15– 17 ]. However, the condition is yet to be recognized as a diagnosable disorder. Maladaptive daydreaming compensates for loneliness – a manifestation of unmet belongingness needs [ 18 , 19 ]. Loneliness is the negative feeling individuals experience when there is a perceived discrepancy between their existing relationships and those they desire [ 20 ]. Many maladaptive daydreamers reported that loneliness motivates them to fantasize excessively, and research has revealed social relationships are a common theme in maladaptive daydreaming content [ 7 , 9 , 10 , 13 ]. Among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), those who engage in maladaptive daydreaming experience more loneliness than those who do not [ 17 ]. Additionally, loneliness plays a role in predicting maladaptive daydreaming among those with autism spectrum disorder traits [ 21 ]. However, there is a lack of quantitative research on this association among non-pathological populations. Maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill unmet needs continues concerning the need for esteem – self-esteem in particular. Self-esteem is defined as an individual’s judgment of their feelings towards the self, which can be positive or negative [ 22 ]. Qualitative reports allude to the role of self-esteem in maladaptive daydreaming, describing how individuals turn to immersive fantasies as a distraction from feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem [ 7 , 13 ]. However, there is a lack of conclusive quantitative evidence for this association. A study examining maladaptive daydreaming among female survivors of childhood sexual abuse found that maladaptive daydreamers had lower self-esteem than those who did not, but this difference was not statistically significant [ 23 ]. This result can be explained by the fact that regardless of the presence of maladaptive daydreaming, trauma can still affect self-esteem [ 24 ]. Another study showed that individuals with ADHD and comorbid maladaptive daydreaming had significantly lower self-esteem than those with only ADHD [ 17 ]. Thus, quantitative evidence is still needed to unravel the connection between self-esteem and maladaptive daydreaming, especially among individuals without psychiatric disorders. Several studies have highlighted the role of trauma in predicting maladaptive daydreaming [ 7 , 10 , 23 , 25 ]. However, only a small percentage of maladaptive daydreamers reported traumatic experiences – a proportion that is no different from non-maladaptive daydreamers [ 8 , 9 ]. This implies that trauma itself is not a necessary condition for maladaptive daydreaming, indicating that the roots of the behavior extend far deeper. Recent studies exploring the risk factors for maladaptive daydreaming amidst the COVID-19 pandemic revealed a connection between distress and immersive daydreaming, concluding that the quarantine period led to enhanced maladaptive daydreaming to cope with isolation and distress [ 26 ]. Both childhood trauma and the pandemic share the common factor of elevated perceptions of stress [ 27 – 29 ], which could potentially be their link to maladaptive daydreaming. Perceived stress occurs when individuals feel that they lack the resources to handle difficult situations [ 30 ]. Individuals will then turn to excessive daydreaming to alleviate their stress levels. Supporting this view, Musetti and colleagues [ 31 ] found that maladaptive daydreaming was an immediate response to the stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, besides using maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill the unmet needs of reality, individuals may also engage in this behavior to cope with stressful situations. The Present Study University life is particularly stressful, with students perceiving high levels of stress due to study load, peer pressure, and other transitional life experiences [ 32 ]. Loneliness and low self-esteem during this period can also significantly contribute to stress, leading to high levels of burnout, impaired academic performance, and diminished well-being [ 33 – 35 ]. To cope with the elevated stress of university life, students report that they resort to daydreaming [ 3 ]. However, this coping mechanism can be counterproductive if the tendency to daydream becomes excessive and develops into maladaptive daydreaming [ 28 , 31 ]. The higher prevalence of maladaptive daydreaming among university students than among older individuals indicates that the younger cohort is more prone to it; hence, facing more consequences [ 36 ]. Indeed, higher rates of academic impairment are found among maladaptive daydreamers than non-maladaptive daydreamers [ 8 ], emphasizing the need for maladaptive daydreaming-related research on this population. Pandemic-related studies confirm the notion that stressful conditions can exacerbate the relationship between maladaptive daydreaming and its risk factors, suggesting that stress plays a central role in these associations. In line with this, Metin and colleagues [ 37 ] proposed that perceived stress mediates the influence of factors like depression and emotional instability on maladaptive daydreaming. By applying this theoretical framework to the context of university students, the impact of loneliness and self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming will likely be heightened via elevated stress levels. However, this relationship is yet to be examined quantitatively in the university setting. Given the influence of maladaptive daydreaming and perceived stress on academic outcomes and student well-being [ 8 ], it is important to examine this relationship to raise awareness among this cohort. Recognizing maladaptive daydreaming and its associated factors will help develop interventions to mitigate its consequences. This study investigated if loneliness and self-esteem could contribute to maladaptive daydreaming and if those relationships are mediated by perceived stress. We hypothesized that higher loneliness scores would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming scores (H1), and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H2). We also hypothesized that lower self-esteem scores would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming scores (H3) and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H4). Method Participants We recruited 119 participants (71.4% female, 25.2% male, and 3.4% non-binary) from a university in Malaysia. The participants were undergraduate and postgraduate students between 18 and 35 years old ( M = 21.70, SD = 2.41). This was a multi-ethnic sample, with the majority being Malaysian (53.8%) and Sri Lankan (21.8%). Participants were considered eligible if they were between 18 and 35 years of age, and students who were not studying at the university of recruitment were excluded. A priori power analyses using the software G*Power indicated that a minimum of 85 individuals would be required to attain a moderate effect size (Cohen’s f 2 = .15) and 80% statistical power for multiple regression analysis with four predictors (α = .05). Materials Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale Maladaptive daydreaming was measured using the 16-item Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS-16) [ 38 , 39 ]. The original scale was scored on an 11-point scale ranging from 0% ( never ) to 100% ( extremely frequent ). These responses were converted to a scale of 0 to 10 in the present study for ease, similar to other studies in maladaptive daydreaming literature [ 15 , 40 ]. The scale contains items such as “How difficult has it been for you to keep your daydreaming under control?” – referring to the amount or intensity of daydreaming activity during the past month. An overall score was obtained by averaging the item scores, with the possible scores ranging between 0 and 10. The scores were evaluated on a continuous scale, with higher scores indicating higher maladaptive daydreaming. The MDS-16 demonstrates high reliability and has been validated among diverse populations [ 25 , 39 , 41 , 42 ]. The scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency in the present study with a Cronbach’s α of .94. UCLA Loneliness Scale Loneliness was measured using the 8-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) [ 43 ]. This was rated based on each item’s applicability to the participants on a Likert scale of 1 ( never ) to 4 ( often ). Two items were reverse scored and an overall score was calculated by summing the item scores. An example of a normally-scored item is “I lack companionship” and a reverse-scored item is “I am an outgoing person”. Possible scores ranged from 8 to 32, with higher scores indicating more loneliness. The ULS-8 shows high internal consistency and has been validated for use among university students and several ethnicities [ 43 , 44 ]. In this study, the scale demonstrated good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s α of .86. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Self-esteem was assessed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) [ 22 ]. This scale has 10 items, five of which are negatively worded and therefore reverse-scored. An example of a positively worded item is “I take a positive attitude towards myself’, and a negatively worded item is “I certainly feel useless at times”. All responses were rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 4 ( strongly agree ). An overall score ranging from 10 to 40 was calculated by summing the item scores, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. The RSE demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest reliability when administered to university students, with coefficients of .88 and .84 respectively [ 45 ]. In this study, the RSE demonstrated high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s ɑ of .89. Perceived Stress Scale Perceived stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) [ 46 ]. This 10-item measure was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 ( never ) to 4 ( very often ). Four items were reverse-scored due to negative wording, and a total score was obtained by summing the item scores. An example of a normally worded item is “In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?”, and a negatively worded item is “In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life?”. The range of possible scores lay between 0 and 40, with higher scores indicating higher perceived stress. Studies demonstrate that the PSS-10 has good internal consistency, and convergent and divergent validity, and is appropriate for university students [ 47 ]. A Cronbach’s α of .85 was obtained for the PSS-10 in the present study. Procedure Before commencing the study, ethics approval was obtained from the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project ID: 38042). Participants were recruited via social media using a poster with a link to the study questionnaire attached to it. The questionnaire consisted of an explanatory statement of the background and aims of the study, along with details about confidentiality, anonymity, and informed consent. Questions regarding participant demographics and the four scales used in the study followed this. The scales were presented in the same order to all the participants since the option of randomization order was not available. Overall, the survey took approximately 10 minutes to complete. As an incentive, 20 Grab vouchers worth RM20 (US $ 4.25) were offered to the participants on a lucky draw basis. Participation was voluntary, and withdrawal was allowed at any point during the completion of the survey. Consent was implied through the submission of the form, after which the participants were led to a separate form to sign up for the lucky draw. Data Analysis Data was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics v27 with an α level of .05. Descriptive statistics were obtained for the study variables, and Pearson’s correlation coefficients were obtained to examine the bivariate correlations between the variables. The hypotheses were tested using mediated multiple regressions on SPSS PROCESS Macro v4.2 (Model 4) [ 48 ]. Perceived stress was entered as the mediator and maladaptive daydreaming as the outcome variable in both models, with loneliness as the predictor in the first model and self-esteem as the predictor in the second. Since the participants had a relatively wide age range (18 to 35 years), age was added as a covariate to control for any confounding effect. Gender was also dummy-coded (because there were three categories) and added as a covariate due to the overrepresentation of females in the sample, similar to other studies in maladaptive daydreaming [ 49 , 50 ]. H1 and H3 were addressed by examining the total effect of the relevant models, without controlling for perceived stress. H2 and H4 were then addressed by observing the direct and indirect effects of the respective models. The variance attributed to the mediation was calculated manually (i.e., the variance in the total effect that was explained by the indirect effect). The significance of the mediation was assessed by analyzing the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% confidence intervals (CI), created with 5000 bootstrap samples. The effect was considered significant if 0 was outside the CI, and non-significant if 0 was within the CI [ 48 ]. Results Bivariate Correlations Between the Study Variables Pearson’s (zero-order) correlation coefficients revealed that loneliness had strong positive correlations with perceived stress and maladaptive daydreaming and a strong negative correlation with self-esteem. Self-esteem had a strong negative correlation with perceived stress and a moderate negative correlation with maladaptive daydreaming. Perceived stress had a moderate positive correlation with maladaptive daydreaming. All these associations were statistically significant ( p < .001). In terms of the covariates, the male gender had a weak positive correlation with self-esteem, and a weak negative correlation with perceived stress, relative to the female and non-binary gender groups ( p < .05). All other correlations between the covariates and the main variables were not significant (see Table 1). Table 1 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients Between the Main Variables of Interest and the Covariates Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. Loneliness - -.66** .55** .50** -.08 .15 -.14 -.03 2. Self-esteem - - -.67** -.37** .05 -.18 .18* -.01 3. Perceived stress - - - .49** -.08 .18 -.20* .04 4. Maladaptive daydreaming - - - - -.003 .14 -.09 -.14 5. Age - - - - - -.08 .12 -.09 6. Female gender - - - - - - -.92** -.30** 7. Male gender - - - - - - - -.11 8. Non-binary gender - - - - - - - - *p < .05. ** p < .001. Mediation Analyses Hayes’ PROCESS model 4 [48] analyzes regression pathways from (1) the predictor to the mediator; (2) the mediator to the outcome; and (3) the predictor to the outcome, both directly and indirectly. It also analyzes the total effect of the predictor on the outcome without controlling for the mediator, which is the sum of the direct and indirect effects. The direct effect shows the effect of the predictor while controlling for the mediator, and the indirect effect shows the effect of the predictor through the action of the mediator. Following this model, two mediated multiple regressions were conducted to assess whether perceived stress mediated the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming (Model 1) and self-esteem and MD (Model 2); with age and gender as covariates. The male gender was used as the reference group for the gender covariate in both models. To avoid singularity issues in the bootstrapping process due to the small number of non-binary individuals ( n = 4), these cases were excluded from the mediation models. In both models, the covariates had non-significant impacts on maladaptive daydreaming scores ( p > .05 for age and gender). The Relationship Between Loneliness, Perceived Stress, and Maladaptive Daydreaming To address H1, the total effect of loneliness on maladaptive daydreaming was obtained from the output of the mediation analysis. Overall, a one-unit increase in loneliness scores significantly predicted a 0.21 increase in maladaptive daydreaming scores. The total effect accounted for 25% of the variance in maladaptive daydreaming scores ( R 2 = .25, F (3, 115) = 13.06, p < .001). To address H2, the direct and indirect effects of loneliness on maladaptive daydreaming scores were examined. The direct effects of loneliness and perceived stress on maladaptive daydreaming were both statistically significant, with the model accounting for 32% of the variance in maladaptive daydreaming scores ( R 2 = .32, F (4, 114) = 13.36, p < .001). The indirect effect of loneliness on maladaptive daydreaming was also significant since the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% CI excluded zero. The indirect effect explained 34% of the total effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming scores. Since both the direct effect and indirect effects of loneliness were significant, perceived stress partially mediated the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming. The direct and indirect effects of this model are illustrated in Figure 1. The Relationship Between Self-Esteem, Perceived Stress, and Maladaptive Daydreaming To address H3, the total effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming was obtained from the output of the mediation analysis. Overall, a one-unit increase in self-esteem predicted a 0.14 decrease in maladaptive daydreaming scores. The total effect accounted for 14% of the variance in maladaptive daydreaming scores ( R 2 = .14, F (3, 115) = 6.38, p < .001). To address H4, the direct and indirect effects of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming were examined. The direct effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming was non-significant ( p = .53), whereas the direct effect of perceived stress on maladaptive daydreaming was significant. The model accounted for 25% of the variance in maladaptive daydreaming scores ( R 2 = .25, F (4, 114) = 9.44, p < .001). The indirect effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming scores was significant since the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% CI excluded zero. This indirect effect explained 80% of the total effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming scores. Since the indirect effect of self-esteem was significant but the direct effect was not, perceived stress fully mediated the relationship between self-esteem and maladaptive daydreaming. The direct and indirect effects in this model are illustrated in Figure 2. Refer to Table 2 for the standardized and unstandardized regression coefficients, 95% CI, t -values, and p -values for the total, direct, and indirect effects in Models 1 and 2. Table 2 Regression Coefficients for the Predictor Variables in Each Step of the Mediation Analyses Regression pathway B [95% CI] β t Model 1 Loneliness à Perceived stress 0.62 [0.44, 0.80]** 0.54 6.88 Perceived stress à MD 0.11 [0.04, 0.18]* 0.31 3.30 Total effect 0.21 [0.14, 0.28]** 0.49 6.02 Direct effect 0.14 [0.06, 0.21]** 0.33 3.50 Indirect effect 0.07 [0.03, 0.12]* 0.17 - Model 2 Self-esteem à Perceived stress -0.71 [-0.87, -0.56]** -0.65 -9.32 Perceived stress à MD 0.16 [0.08. 0.24]** 0.44 4.01 Total effect -0.14 [-0.21, -0.07]** -0.36 -4.07 Direct effect -0.03 [-0.11, 0.06] -0.07 -0.64 Indirect effect -0.11 [-0.17, -0.06]* -0.29 - Note . B = unstandardized regression coefficient; β = standardized regression coefficient; CI = confidence interval; MD = maladaptive daydreaming. * p < .05. ** p < .001. Discussion This study investigates how loneliness and self-esteem contribute to maladaptive daydreaming through the mediating action of perceived stress. It was hypothesized that higher loneliness would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming (H1) and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H2). The results fully supported H1, but partially supported H2. It was also hypothesized that lower self-esteem would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming (H3) and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H4). The results fully supported both hypotheses. Loneliness, Perceived Stress, and Maladaptive Daydreaming Many maladaptive daydreamers suggested loneliness as a motivator for excessive daydreaming [ 10 , 13 ]. Quantitative research on clinical populations confirms this relationship [ 17 , 21 ]. The results of the present study are consistent with these findings and contribute to the existing literature by revealing that loneliness predicts maladaptive daydreaming among a non-clinical population of university students. This relationship could be attributed to the emotional and compensatory function of daydreams. Social daydreams elicit positive emotions and feelings of connection in individuals who lack these emotions in reality [ 51 ]. Undergraduate students are more likely to fantasize about relationships with popular media figures – both platonic and romantic – when they are lonely and lack such relationships in real life [ 52 , 53 ]. Thus, daydreams can facilitate the love and connection that the external world does not provide. However, according to our results, daydreaming to compensate for loneliness could lead to pathological daydreaming (i.e., maladaptive daydreaming). Although it cannot be confirmed that our participants’ daydreams were about social relationships specifically, the results indicate that the likelihood of engaging in maladaptive daydreaming increases as unmet belongingness needs increase (i.e., as loneliness becomes more severe). The role of perceived stress as a partial mediator in the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming suggests that loneliness affects maladaptive daydreaming both directly and indirectly. While higher loneliness predicts higher maladaptive daydreaming directly, it also does this indirectly by first increasing the perception of stress. This is consistent with research that shows that loneliness significantly increases stress [ 33 ] and that higher levels of stress predict maladaptive daydreaming [ 31 ]. Thus, the results demonstrate that besides engaging in more maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill their unmet belongingness needs, university students also use maladaptive daydreaming behavior to cope with the stress of their current situation. Self-Esteem, Perceived Stress, and Maladaptive Daydreaming The finding that lower self-esteem predicts higher maladaptive daydreaming is consistent with the studies that observed similar relationships in those with ADHD and past trauma [ 17 , 23 ], confirming that such a relationship may exist in university students as well. Maladaptive daydreaming provides individuals a chance to create and live the lives of their ideal selves, so those with lower self-esteem may gravitate towards excessive daydreaming to achieve their self-related desires [ 10 , 11 ]. Longitudinal research shows that immersive daydreams about achievement and the ideal self can cause a significant elevation in positive emotions [ 40 ]. Hence, individuals are likely to engage in maladaptive daydreaming to appease the negative emotions that their low self-esteem elicits. However, the direct effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming disappeared once perceived stress was controlled in the present study (i.e., perceived stress fully mediated this relationship). This means that low self-esteem did not directly influence maladaptive daydreaming, but predicted a consequent increase in maladaptive daydreaming by first increasing the perception of stress. This is an interesting finding as it reveals a mechanism that underlies this relationship. Past research shows that those who have lower self-esteem are more vulnerable to stress [ 35 ], for whom maladaptive daydreaming is a coping mechanism [ 31 ]. Thus, the participants in the present study did not use maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill their unmet self-esteem needs directly as they did with their belongingness needs. Instead, they used maladaptive daydreaming to cope with the stress associated with these unmet needs. The Role of Perceived Stress The results showed a strong link between perceived stress and maladaptive daydreaming severity – supported by research demonstrating that stressful conditions lead to psychic ways of functioning to cope (i.e., excessive daydreaming) [ 26 ]. Maladaptive daydreamers experience high emotional investment and absorption in their fantasies because of the immersive nature of their daydreams [ 8 , 12 , 54 ]. Hence, maladaptive daydreaming distracts individuals from stress by diverting their attention away from the stressful environment and towards the pleasant internal experience of their daydreams [ 55 ]. Our results align with the mechanism proposed by Metin and colleagues [ 37 ], which suggests that stress mediates the effect of several risk factors on maladaptive daydreaming tendencies. Psychological dysfunction was prevalent among maladaptive daydreamers during the COVID-19 pandemic, accompanied by increased maladaptive daydreaming [ 56 ]. This indicates that individuals possessing the risk factors of maladaptive daydreaming were more prone to excessive daydreaming when their appraisal of stress was high [ 37 ]. Applying this reasoning to the present study, the heightened perception of stress during university life acts as a key facilitator of maladaptive daydreaming behavior. For instance, perceived stress fully mediating the effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming suggests that low self-esteem may not be a predictor of maladaptive daydreaming tendencies on its own; rather, it is a risk factor activated in stressful conditions. Therefore, this study builds on the framework presented by Metin and colleagues [ 37 ] to reveal the significance of the stress that is generally experienced by university students in maladaptive daydreaming tendencies, distinct from the stress of extraordinary situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of the mechanisms by which maladaptive daydreaming functions in university students. The results imply that university students gravitate towards maladaptive daydreaming for two reasons – to deal with loneliness, and to cope with the stress associated with unmet belongingness and self-esteem needs. This suggests that maladaptive daydreaming functions as a compensatory and a coping mechanism in this population. However, longitudinal research reveals that despite providing immediate relief, maladaptive daydreaming can elevate stress even after one year [ 31 ]. This suggests a complex interplay exists between the predictors and consequences of maladaptive daydreaming. The mechanisms revealed in the present study imply that the compensatory use of maladaptive daydreaming could lead to a maladaptive cycle that ultimately perpetuates maladaptive daydreaming tendencies in university students. The results of this study also have practical implications for the development of interventions for maladaptive daydreaming in university students. The interactions between loneliness, self-esteem, and perceived stress in predicting maladaptive daydreaming imply that a holistic approach is needed to address its prevalence. Such an approach would consider the immediate predictors of maladaptive daydreaming, such as loneliness, and the surrounding circumstances, such as the stressful environment. Recent studies found that mindfulness, meditation, and monitoring maladaptive daydreaming behavior through journaling could reduce its tendencies [ 40 , 57 ]. Rather than offering interventions to target maladaptive daydreaming, treatments for its underlying predictors will be more effective in curbing its impact. Additionally, this study implies that awareness of maladaptive daydreaming must be raised among university counselors and mental health practitioners to aid the recognition and treatment of the condition. Since maladaptive daydreaming is not considered a formal diagnosis, health practitioners in the university setting may not be sufficiently equipped to assist the students who struggle with the experience. The lack of recognition may lead to the dysfunction associated with maladaptive daydreaming being undermined, resulting in misdiagnosis or the prescription of ineffective treatments [ 9 , 11 ]. Although the present study did not differentiate between maladaptive and non-maladaptive daydreamers nor provided evidence for classifying it as a clinical diagnosis, the significant results suggest that maladaptive daydreaming is a prevalent issue among university students. Therefore, awareness of maladaptive daydreaming and its symptomology will ensure actions are taken when these individuals seek help. This study has a few limitations. First, although predictive models of the variables of interest were examined, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits inferences of causality. Therefore, longitudinal studies are required to verify the direction of the relationships between loneliness, self-esteem, perceived stress, and maladaptive daydreaming. It would also be interesting to investigate the relationship between these variables among other age groups and settings, to assess whether the results could be replicated. Second, the overrepresentation of female participants limits the generalizability of the results. Hence, future studies should utilize probability sampling. Finally, using the self-report MDS-16 as the sole indicator of maladaptive daydreaming restricted the interpretation of daydreaming severity, preventing the clear identification of pathological levels of this condition. Future research should use this scale in conjunction with the Structured Clinical Interview for Maladaptive Daydreaming [ 39 ]. This will enable researchers to differentiate between maladaptive and non-maladaptive daydreamers based on the recommended cut-off score and diagnostic criteria, allowing comparison between the two groups for more specific inferences to be drawn. Conclusion The limitations notwithstanding, this study brings to light the complex interplay between maladaptive daydreaming severity and its risk factors amidst elevated stress levels in university students. Although future research on the longitudinal associations between these variables is warranted, the results reveal that loneliness and low self-esteem significantly increase the vulnerability of this population to this condition. Furthermore, the mediating effect of perceived stress provides evidence that it is a central factor that facilitates the association between maladaptive daydreaming and its predictors. This study reveals the potential mechanisms by which these risk factors influence maladaptive daydreaming – directly by fulfilling unmet belongingness needs, or indirectly by increasing perceptions of stress. The central role of perceived stress has important implications for student well-being. Given the prevalence of maladaptive daydreaming symptoms in university students, this study advocates for the awareness of this condition to improve the well-being and functioning of this population. The results suggest that interventions that target stress in university students will help to mitigate the impact of loneliness and low self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming, ultimately reducing the tendency of this population to engage in this behavior. Declarations Funding The authors received financial support for data collection from Monash University Malaysia. Ethics Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all participants to take part in this study. Ethics approval Ethics approval was obtained from the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project ID: 38042). All procedures involved in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Contributions Conceptualization: Leanne Constantine and Shamsul Haque; Methodology: Leanne Constantine; Formal analysis and investigation: Leanne Constantine; Writing – original draft preparation: Leanne Constantine; Writing – review and editing: Shamsul Haque; Funding acquisition: Shamsul Haque; Resources: Shamsul Haque; Supervision: Shamsul Haque. Data availability Data will be made available upon request to the authors. References Singer JL (1966) Daydreaming: An introduction to the experimental study of inner experience. Random House, New York Singer JL (1975) The inner world of daydreaming. Harper & Row, New York Canpolat M (2022) The way university students cope with real-world problems: Daydreaming. Int J Psychol Educ Stud 9(2):417–426. https://doi.org/10.52380/ijpes.2022.9.2.686 Langens TA (2002) Daydreaming mediates between goal commitment and goal attainment in individuals high in achievement motivation. 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Front Psychiatry 13:871041. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.871041 Metin B, Somer E, Abu-Rayya HM, Schimmenti A, Göçmen B (2023) Perceived stress during the COVID-19 pandemic mediates the association between self-quarantine factors and psychological characteristics and elevated maladaptive daydreaming. Int J Ment Health Addict 21(3):1570–1582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00678-w Somer E, Lehrfeld J, Bigelsen J, Jopp DS (2016) Development and validation of the Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS). Conscious Cogn 39:77–91. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.12.001 Somer E, Soffer-Dudek N, Ross CA, Halpern N (2017) Maladaptive daydreaming: Proposed diagnostic criteria and their assessment with a structured clinical interview. Psychol Conscious: Theory Res Pract 4(2):176–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000114 Wen H, Soffer-Dudek N, Somer E (2022) Daily feelings and the affective valence of daydreams in maladaptive daydreaming: A longitudinal analysis [Advance online publication]. Psychol Conscious: Theory Res Pract. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000293 Abu-Rayya HM, Somer E, Meari-Amir S (2019) The psychometric properties of the Arabic 16-item Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS-16-AR) in a multicountry Arab sample. Psychol Conscious: Theory Res Pract 6(2):171–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000183 Schimmenti A, Sideli L, La Marca L, Gori A, Terrone G (2020) Reliability, validity, and factor structure of the Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS–16) in an Italian sample. J Pers Assess 102(5):689–701. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2019.1594240 Hays RD, DiMatteo MR (1987) A short-form measure of loneliness. J Pers Assess 51:69–81. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5101_6 Doğan T, Çötok NA, Tekin EG (2011) Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) among university students. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 15:2058–2062. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.053 Martín-Albo J, Núñiez JL, Navarro JG, Grijalvo F (2007) The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Translation and validation in university students. Span J Psychol 10(2):458–467. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600006727 Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R (1983) A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav 24(4):385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404 Anwer S, Manzar MD, Alghadir AH, Salahuddin M, Hameed UA (2020) Psychometric analysis of the Perceived Stress Scale among healthy university students. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 16:2389–2396. https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.S268582 Hayes AF (2013) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford, New York Ferrante E, Marino A, Guglielmucci F, Schimmenti A (2020) The mediating role of dissociation and shame in the relationship between emotional trauma and maladaptive daydreaming. Psychol Conscious: Theory Res Pract 9:27–39. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000253 West MJ, Somer E (2020) Empathy, emotion regulation, and creativity in immersive and maladaptive daydreaming. Imagin Cogn Pers 39(4):358–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619864277 Poerio GL, Totterdell P, Emerson L-M, Miles E (2015) Love is the triumph of the imagination: Daydreams about significant others are associated with increased happiness, love and connection. Conscious Cogn 33:135–144. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.12.011 Greenwood DN, Long CR (2009) Psychological predictors of media involvement: Solitude experiences and the need to belong. Commun Res 36(5):637–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650209338906 Greenwood DN, Long CR (2011) Attachment, belongingness needs, and relationship status predict imagined intimacy with media figures. Commun Res 38(2):278–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210362687 Somer E, Herscu O (2017) Childhood trauma, social anxiety, absorption and fantasy dependence: Two potential mediated pathways to maladaptive daydreaming. J Addict Behav Ther Rehabil 6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2324-9005.1000170 Dujić G, Antičević V, Mišetić I (2020) Contribution of maladaptive daydreaming to the level of psychological distress and coping strategies. Soc Psychiatry 48:3–19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24869/spsih.2020.3 Somer E, Abu-Rayya HM, Schimmenti A, Metin B, Brenner R, Ferrante E, Göçmen B, Marino A (2020) Heightened levels of maladaptive daydreaming are associated with COVID-19 lockdown, pre-existing psychiatric diagnoses, and intensified psychological dysfunctions: A multi-country study. Front Psychiatry 11:587455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.587455 Herscu O, Somer E, Federman A, Soffer-Dudek N (2023) Mindfulness meditation and self-monitoring reduced maladaptive daydreaming symptoms: A randomized controlled trial of a brief self-guided web-based program. J Consult Clin Psychol 91(5):285–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000790 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4538726","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":311567318,"identity":"1fe6dc8f-b3e5-4b4c-99a8-e7e98e511c24","order_by":0,"name":"Leanne Constantine","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Monash University Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Leanne","middleName":"","lastName":"Constantine","suffix":""},{"id":311567319,"identity":"76bdd55d-de15-403d-8abf-8e2ca3b56861","order_by":1,"name":"Shamsul Haque","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAx0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCTBpIQemGBuAxAHitEgYk64lsYFoLfKzm59u/Nkmkb62vffgx587GOT4biTg12Jw55jZbd42idxtZ84lS/OeYTCWJKhFIsHsNiNIy40cA2nGNobEDYS0yM9I/3YT5DCzGznGP3+2MdQT1MJwI8fsBtBhCUAtZhK8bQwJBgQddiOn7DbPOQnDbWfOmFkD9RrOPPOAoMO23fxRZiNvdrzHGOhCG3m+44QchgYkSFM+CkbBKBgFowA7AAATPkjw+2kz9QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Monash University Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shamsul","middleName":"","lastName":"Haque","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-06 08:57:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538726/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538726/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":58739639,"identity":"b72ee691-4bbe-44ca-bcaf-bf723d8d0082","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-20 13:41:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28775,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression Coefficients for Model 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4538726/v1/b741eb157d7f5cbe4d822db5.png"},{"id":58738869,"identity":"5a0c4440-3b7b-4cec-8c5c-ba3c6711c3bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-20 13:33:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28154,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression Coefficients for Model 2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4538726/v1/7fe4139071cc149fbf47d7c1.png"},{"id":61434886,"identity":"2e4324dd-6d99-44d2-ac0c-d36316aeb499","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 17:01:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":677871,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4538726/v1/3d3896f8-c243-438a-9001-4a9f659f29ca.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Maladaptive Daydreaming in University Students: The Mediating Role of Perceived Stress","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDaydreaming is a universal experience, described as a flow of thoughts unrelated to the task one is engaged in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. This can be adaptive, with functions such as promoting creativity, preparing for the future, facilitating academic achievement, and stress relief [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Freud suggested that daydreams also perform a compensatory function by satisfying an individual\u0026rsquo;s unconscious desires [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, if the tendency to daydream is not controlled, the once-adaptive functions of daydreaming can become maladaptive. Somer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] coined the term maladaptive daydreaming to describe the act of excessive daydreaming that interferes with social, occupational, and academic functioning. These daydreams can occupy over half an individual\u0026rsquo;s waking hours, with many reporting an intense urge to daydream from the moment they awaken [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Maladaptive daydreaming is characterized by vivid and immersive daydreams, often described as fantasies, which begin as early as childhood and continue throughout life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. They can involve story-like plots with fictional characters that exist in an elaborate internal world, or the imagined life experiences of ideal versions of the self [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Another distinguishing feature is that kinaesthetic movement and music can trigger and maintain maladaptive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaladaptive daydreaming is distinct from normal daydreaming due to its addictive nature, the distress it causes, and its disturbance of daily functioning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. The intense yearning, rewarding feelings, and withdrawal-like symptoms associated with maladaptive daydreaming led researchers to label it as a behavioural addiction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, some maladaptive daydreamers experience great distress due to shame and the fear of their habits being discovered by others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. The sheer amount of time spent on these fantasies and the uncontrollable urge to daydream causes distress and hinders goal accomplishment and daily tasks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Research shows that maladaptive daydreaming is distinct from other conditions with overlapping symptoms such as attention deficit, obsessive-compulsive, dissociative, and psychotic disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, 15\u0026ndash; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the condition is yet to be recognized as a diagnosable disorder.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaladaptive daydreaming compensates for loneliness \u0026ndash; a manifestation of unmet belongingness needs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Loneliness is the negative feeling individuals experience when there is a perceived discrepancy between their existing relationships and those they desire [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Many maladaptive daydreamers reported that loneliness motivates them to fantasize excessively, and research has revealed social relationships are a common theme in maladaptive daydreaming content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), those who engage in maladaptive daydreaming experience more loneliness than those who do not [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, loneliness plays a role in predicting maladaptive daydreaming among those with autism spectrum disorder traits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. However, there is a lack of quantitative research on this association among non-pathological populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaladaptive daydreaming to fulfill unmet needs continues concerning the need for esteem \u0026ndash; self-esteem in particular. Self-esteem is defined as an individual\u0026rsquo;s judgment of their feelings towards the self, which can be positive or negative [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Qualitative reports allude to the role of self-esteem in maladaptive daydreaming, describing how individuals turn to immersive fantasies as a distraction from feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. However, there is a lack of conclusive quantitative evidence for this association. A study examining maladaptive daydreaming among female survivors of childhood sexual abuse found that maladaptive daydreamers had lower self-esteem than those who did not, but this difference was not statistically significant [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. This result can be explained by the fact that regardless of the presence of maladaptive daydreaming, trauma can still affect self-esteem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Another study showed that individuals with ADHD and comorbid maladaptive daydreaming had significantly lower self-esteem than those with only ADHD [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, quantitative evidence is still needed to unravel the connection between self-esteem and maladaptive daydreaming, especially among individuals without psychiatric disorders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have highlighted the role of trauma in predicting maladaptive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. However, only a small percentage of maladaptive daydreamers reported traumatic experiences \u0026ndash; a proportion that is no different from non-maladaptive daydreamers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. This implies that trauma itself is not a necessary condition for maladaptive daydreaming, indicating that the roots of the behavior extend far deeper. Recent studies exploring the risk factors for maladaptive daydreaming amidst the COVID-19 pandemic revealed a connection between distress and immersive daydreaming, concluding that the quarantine period led to enhanced maladaptive daydreaming to cope with isolation and distress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Both childhood trauma and the pandemic share the common factor of elevated perceptions of stress [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], which could potentially be their link to maladaptive daydreaming.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived stress occurs when individuals feel that they lack the resources to handle difficult situations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Individuals will then turn to excessive daydreaming to alleviate their stress levels. Supporting this view, Musetti and colleagues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] found that maladaptive daydreaming was an immediate response to the stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, besides using maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill the unmet needs of reality, individuals may also engage in this behavior to cope with stressful situations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Present Study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity life is particularly stressful, with students perceiving high levels of stress due to study load, peer pressure, and other transitional life experiences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Loneliness and low self-esteem during this period can also significantly contribute to stress, leading to high levels of burnout, impaired academic performance, and diminished well-being [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. To cope with the elevated stress of university life, students report that they resort to daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. However, this coping mechanism can be counterproductive if the tendency to daydream becomes excessive and develops into maladaptive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher prevalence of maladaptive daydreaming among university students than among older individuals indicates that the younger cohort is more prone to it; hence, facing more consequences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Indeed, higher rates of academic impairment are found among maladaptive daydreamers than non-maladaptive daydreamers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], emphasizing the need for maladaptive daydreaming-related research on this population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePandemic-related studies confirm the notion that stressful conditions can exacerbate the relationship between maladaptive daydreaming and its risk factors, suggesting that stress plays a central role in these associations. In line with this, Metin and colleagues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] proposed that perceived stress mediates the influence of factors like depression and emotional instability on maladaptive daydreaming. By applying this theoretical framework to the context of university students, the impact of loneliness and self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming will likely be heightened via elevated stress levels. However, this relationship is yet to be examined quantitatively in the university setting. Given the influence of maladaptive daydreaming and perceived stress on academic outcomes and student well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], it is important to examine this relationship to raise awareness among this cohort. Recognizing maladaptive daydreaming and its associated factors will help develop interventions to mitigate its consequences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigated if loneliness and self-esteem could contribute to maladaptive daydreaming and if those relationships are mediated by perceived stress. We hypothesized that higher loneliness scores would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming scores (H1), and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H2). We also hypothesized that lower self-esteem scores would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming scores (H3) and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe recruited 119 participants (71.4% female, 25.2% male, and 3.4% non-binary) from a university in Malaysia. The participants were undergraduate and postgraduate students between 18 and 35 years old (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.70, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.41). This was a multi-ethnic sample, with the majority being Malaysian (53.8%) and Sri Lankan (21.8%). Participants were considered eligible if they were between 18 and 35 years of age, and students who were not studying at the university of recruitment were excluded. A priori power analyses using the software G*Power indicated that a minimum of 85 individuals would be required to attain a moderate effect size (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.15) and 80% statistical power for multiple regression analysis with four predictors (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaladaptive Daydreaming Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaladaptive daydreaming was measured using the 16-item Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale (MDS-16) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The original scale was scored on an 11-point scale ranging from 0% (\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e) to 100% (\u003cem\u003eextremely frequent\u003c/em\u003e). These responses were converted to a scale of 0 to 10 in the present study for ease, similar to other studies in maladaptive daydreaming literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The scale contains items such as \u0026ldquo;How difficult has it been for you to keep your daydreaming under control?\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; referring to the amount or intensity of daydreaming activity during the past month. An overall score was obtained by averaging the item scores, with the possible scores ranging between 0 and 10. The scores were evaluated on a continuous scale, with higher scores indicating higher maladaptive daydreaming. The MDS-16 demonstrates high reliability and has been validated among diverse populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency in the present study with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of .94.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUCLA Loneliness Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoneliness was measured using the 8-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. This was rated based on each item\u0026rsquo;s applicability to the participants on a Likert scale of 1 (\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003eoften\u003c/em\u003e). Two items were reverse scored and an overall score was calculated by summing the item scores. An example of a normally-scored item is \u0026ldquo;I lack companionship\u0026rdquo; and a reverse-scored item is \u0026ldquo;I am an outgoing person\u0026rdquo;. Possible scores ranged from 8 to 32, with higher scores indicating more loneliness. The ULS-8 shows high internal consistency and has been validated for use among university students and several ethnicities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the scale demonstrated good internal consistency with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of .86.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRosenberg Self-Esteem Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem was assessed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. This scale has 10 items, five of which are negatively worded and therefore reverse-scored. An example of a positively worded item is \u0026ldquo;I take a positive attitude towards myself\u0026rsquo;, and a negatively worded item is \u0026ldquo;I certainly feel useless at times\u0026rdquo;. All responses were rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e). An overall score ranging from 10 to 40 was calculated by summing the item scores, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. The RSE demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest reliability when administered to university students, with coefficients of .88 and .84 respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the RSE demonstrated high internal consistency with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s ɑ of .89.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePerceived Stress Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. This 10-item measure was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003every often\u003c/em\u003e). Four items were reverse-scored due to negative wording, and a total score was obtained by summing the item scores. An example of a normally worded item is \u0026ldquo;In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?\u0026rdquo;, and a negatively worded item is \u0026ldquo;In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life?\u0026rdquo;. The range of possible scores lay between 0 and 40, with higher scores indicating higher perceived stress. Studies demonstrate that the PSS-10 has good internal consistency, and convergent and divergent validity, and is appropriate for university students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. A Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of .85 was obtained for the PSS-10 in the present study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Before commencing the study, ethics approval was obtained from the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project ID: 38042). Participants were recruited via social media using a poster with a link to the study questionnaire attached to it. The questionnaire consisted of an explanatory statement of the background and aims of the study, along with details about confidentiality, anonymity, and informed consent. Questions regarding participant demographics and the four scales used in the study followed this. The scales were presented in the same order to all the participants since the option of randomization order was not available. Overall, the survey took approximately 10 minutes to complete. As an incentive, 20 Grab vouchers worth RM20 (US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e4.25) were offered to the participants on a lucky draw basis. Participation was voluntary, and withdrawal was allowed at any point during the completion of the survey. Consent was implied through the submission of the form, after which the participants were led to a separate form to sign up for the lucky draw.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics v27 with an α level of .05. Descriptive statistics were obtained for the study variables, and Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation coefficients were obtained to examine the bivariate correlations between the variables. The hypotheses were tested using mediated multiple regressions on SPSS PROCESS Macro v4.2 (Model 4) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Perceived stress was entered as the mediator and maladaptive daydreaming as the outcome variable in both models, with loneliness as the predictor in the first model and self-esteem as the predictor in the second. Since the participants had a relatively wide age range (18 to 35 years), age was added as a covariate to control for any confounding effect. Gender was also dummy-coded (because there were three categories) and added as a covariate due to the overrepresentation of females in the sample, similar to other studies in maladaptive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. H1 and H3 were addressed by examining the total effect of the relevant models, without controlling for perceived stress. H2 and H4 were then addressed by observing the direct and indirect effects of the respective models. The variance attributed to the mediation was calculated manually (i.e., the variance in the total effect that was explained by the indirect effect). The significance of the mediation was assessed by analyzing the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% confidence intervals (CI), created with 5000 bootstrap samples. The effect was considered significant if 0 was outside the CI, and non-significant if 0 was within the CI [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBivariate Correlations Between the Study Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePearson\u0026rsquo;s (zero-order) correlation coefficients revealed that loneliness had strong positive correlations with perceived stress and\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;and a strong negative correlation with self-esteem. Self-esteem had a strong negative correlation with perceived stress and a moderate negative correlation with\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming. Perceived stress had a moderate positive correlation with\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming. All these associations were statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). In terms of the covariates, the male gender had a weak positive correlation with self-esteem, and a weak negative correlation with perceived stress, relative to the female and non-binary gender groups (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05). All other correlations between the covariates and the main variables were not significant (see Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePearson\u0026rsquo;s Correlation Coefficients Between the Main Variables of Interest and the Covariates\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"624\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Loneliness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.66**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.55**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.50**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Self-esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.67**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.37**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;-.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.18*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. Perceived stress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.49**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.20*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. Maladaptive daydreaming\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. Age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. Female gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.92**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.30**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. Male gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.28%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8. Non-binary gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.48%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.52%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.12%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e*p\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05. **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMediation Analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHayes\u0026rsquo; PROCESS model 4 [48] analyzes regression pathways from (1) the predictor to the mediator; (2) the mediator to the outcome; and (3) the predictor to the outcome, both directly and indirectly. It also analyzes the total effect of the predictor on the outcome without controlling for the mediator, which is the sum of the direct and indirect effects. The direct effect shows the effect of the predictor while controlling for the mediator, and the indirect effect shows the effect of the predictor through the action of the mediator. Following this model, two mediated multiple regressions were conducted to assess whether perceived stress mediated the relationship between loneliness and\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;(Model\u0026nbsp;1) and self-esteem and MD (Model\u0026nbsp;2); with age and gender as covariates.\u0026nbsp;The male gender was used as the reference group for the gender covariate in both models.\u0026nbsp;To avoid singularity issues\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;the bootstrapping process due to the small number of non-binary individuals (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 4), these cases were excluded from the mediation models. In both models, the covariates had non-significant impacts on maladaptive daydreaming scores (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; .05 for age and gender). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Relationship Between Loneliness, Perceived Stress, and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaladaptive Daydreaming\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address H1, the total effect of loneliness on\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;was obtained from the output of the mediation analysis. Overall, a one-unit increase in loneliness scores significantly predicted a 0.21 increase in\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;scores. The total effect accounted for 25% of the variance in\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;scores (\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = .25, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 115) = 13.06, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address H2, the direct and indirect effects of loneliness on\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;scores were examined. The direct effects of loneliness and perceived stress on\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;were both statistically significant, with the model accounting for 32% of the variance in\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;scores (\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = .32, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 114) = 13.36, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). The indirect effect of loneliness on maladaptive daydreaming was also significant since the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% CI excluded zero. The indirect effect explained 34% of the total effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming scores. Since both the direct effect and indirect effects of loneliness were significant, perceived stress partially mediated the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming. The direct and indirect effects of this model are illustrated in Figure 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Relationship Between Self-Esteem, Perceived Stress, and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaladaptive Daydreaming\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address H3, the total effect of self-esteem on\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;was obtained from the output of the mediation analysis. Overall, a one-unit increase in self-esteem predicted a 0.14 decrease in\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;scores. The total effect accounted for 14% of the variance in\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;scores (\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = .14, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 115) = 6.38, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address H4, the direct and indirect effects of self-esteem on\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;were examined. The direct effect of self-esteem on\u0026nbsp;maladaptive daydreaming\u0026nbsp;was non-significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .53), whereas the direct effect of perceived stress on maladaptive daydreaming was significant. The model accounted for 25% of the variance in maladaptive daydreaming scores (\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = .25, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 114) = 9.44, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001). The indirect effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming scores was significant since the bias-corrected bootstrap 95% CI excluded zero. This indirect effect explained 80% of the total effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming scores. Since the indirect effect of self-esteem was significant but the direct effect was not, perceived stress fully mediated the relationship between self-esteem and maladaptive daydreaming. The direct and indirect effects in this model are illustrated in Figure 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRefer to Table 2 for the standardized and unstandardized regression coefficients, 95% CI, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-values, and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values for the total, direct, and indirect effects in Models 1 and 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression Coefficients for the Predictor Variables in Each Step of the Mediation Analyses\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.955128205128204%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegression pathway\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e[95% CI]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.955128205128204%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLoneliness\u0026nbsp;\u0026agrave;\u0026nbsp;Perceived stress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 0.62 [0.44, 0.80]**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceived stress\u0026nbsp;\u0026agrave;\u0026nbsp;MD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11 [0.04, 0.18]*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 0.21 [0.14, 0.28]**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDirect effect\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 0.14 [0.06, 0.21]**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07 [0.03, 0.12]*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.955128205128204%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-esteem\u0026nbsp;\u0026agrave;\u0026nbsp;Perceived stress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; -0.71 [-0.87, -0.56]**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-9.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceived stress\u0026nbsp;\u0026agrave;\u0026nbsp;MD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16 [0.08. 0.24]**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;-0.14 [-0.21, -0.07]**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDirect effect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; -0.03 [-0.11, 0.06]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.576923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.37820512820513%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.243589743589745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; -0.11 [-0.17, -0.06]*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.173076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.628205128205128%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e = unstandardized regression coefficient; \u0026beta; = standardized regression coefficient; CI = confidence interval; MD = maladaptive daydreaming.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05. **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates how loneliness and self-esteem contribute to maladaptive daydreaming through the mediating action of perceived stress. It was hypothesized that higher loneliness would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming (H1) and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H2). The results fully supported H1, but partially supported H2. It was also hypothesized that lower self-esteem would predict higher maladaptive daydreaming (H3) and that perceived stress would mediate this relationship (H4). The results fully supported both hypotheses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLoneliness, Perceived Stress, and Maladaptive Daydreaming\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany maladaptive daydreamers suggested loneliness as a motivator for excessive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Quantitative research on clinical populations confirms this relationship [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The results of the present study are consistent with these findings and contribute to the existing literature by revealing that loneliness predicts maladaptive daydreaming among a non-clinical population of university students. This relationship could be attributed to the emotional and compensatory function of daydreams. Social daydreams elicit positive emotions and feelings of connection in individuals who lack these emotions in reality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Undergraduate students are more likely to fantasize about relationships with popular media figures \u0026ndash; both platonic and romantic \u0026ndash; when they are lonely and lack such relationships in real life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, daydreams can facilitate the love and connection that the external world does not provide. However, according to our results, daydreaming to compensate for loneliness could lead to pathological daydreaming (i.e., maladaptive daydreaming). Although it cannot be confirmed that our participants\u0026rsquo; daydreams were about social relationships specifically, the results indicate that the likelihood of engaging in maladaptive daydreaming increases as unmet belongingness needs increase (i.e., as loneliness becomes more severe).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe role of perceived stress as a partial mediator in the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming suggests that loneliness affects maladaptive daydreaming both directly and indirectly. While higher loneliness predicts higher maladaptive daydreaming directly, it also does this indirectly by first increasing the perception of stress. This is consistent with research that shows that loneliness significantly increases stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] and that higher levels of stress predict maladaptive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the results demonstrate that besides engaging in more maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill their unmet belongingness needs, university students also use maladaptive daydreaming behavior to cope with the stress of their current situation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelf-Esteem, Perceived Stress, and Maladaptive Daydreaming\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe finding that lower self-esteem predicts higher maladaptive daydreaming is consistent with the studies that observed similar relationships in those with ADHD and past trauma [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], confirming that such a relationship may exist in university students as well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaladaptive daydreaming provides individuals a chance to create and live the lives of their ideal selves, so those with lower self-esteem may gravitate towards excessive daydreaming to achieve their self-related desires [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Longitudinal research shows that immersive daydreams about achievement and the ideal self can cause a significant elevation in positive emotions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence, individuals are likely to engage in maladaptive daydreaming to appease the negative emotions that their low self-esteem elicits. However, the direct effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming disappeared once perceived stress was controlled in the present study (i.e., perceived stress fully mediated this relationship). This means that low self-esteem did not directly influence maladaptive daydreaming, but predicted a consequent increase in maladaptive daydreaming by first increasing the perception of stress. This is an interesting finding as it reveals a mechanism that underlies this relationship. Past research shows that those who have lower self-esteem are more vulnerable to stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], for whom maladaptive daydreaming is a coping mechanism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the participants in the present study did not use maladaptive daydreaming to fulfill their unmet self-esteem needs directly as they did with their belongingness needs. Instead, they used maladaptive daydreaming to cope with the stress associated with these unmet needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Role of Perceived Stress\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results showed a strong link between perceived stress and maladaptive daydreaming severity \u0026ndash; supported by research demonstrating that stressful conditions lead to psychic ways of functioning to cope (i.e., excessive daydreaming) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Maladaptive daydreamers experience high emotional investment and absorption in their fantasies because of the immersive nature of their daydreams [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence, maladaptive daydreaming distracts individuals from stress by diverting their attention away from the stressful environment and towards the pleasant internal experience of their daydreams [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results align with the mechanism proposed by Metin and colleagues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], which suggests that stress mediates the effect of several risk factors on maladaptive daydreaming tendencies. Psychological dysfunction was prevalent among maladaptive daydreamers during the COVID-19 pandemic, accompanied by increased maladaptive daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. This indicates that individuals possessing the risk factors of maladaptive daydreaming were more prone to excessive daydreaming when their appraisal of stress was high [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplying this reasoning to the present study, the heightened perception of stress during university life acts as a key facilitator of maladaptive daydreaming behavior. For instance, perceived stress fully mediating the effect of self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming suggests that low self-esteem may not be a predictor of maladaptive daydreaming tendencies on its own; rather, it is a risk factor activated in stressful conditions. Therefore, this study builds on the framework presented by Metin and colleagues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] to reveal the significance of the stress that is generally experienced by university students in maladaptive daydreaming tendencies, distinct from the stress of extraordinary situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study contributes to the theoretical understanding of the mechanisms by which maladaptive daydreaming functions in university students. The results imply that university students gravitate towards maladaptive daydreaming for two reasons \u0026ndash; to deal with loneliness, and to cope with the stress associated with unmet belongingness and self-esteem needs. This suggests that maladaptive daydreaming functions as a compensatory and a coping mechanism in this population. However, longitudinal research reveals that despite providing immediate relief, maladaptive daydreaming can elevate stress even after one year [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. This suggests a complex interplay exists between the predictors and consequences of maladaptive daydreaming. The mechanisms revealed in the present study imply that the compensatory use of maladaptive daydreaming could lead to a maladaptive cycle that ultimately perpetuates maladaptive daydreaming tendencies in university students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study also have practical implications for the development of interventions for maladaptive daydreaming in university students. The interactions between loneliness, self-esteem, and perceived stress in predicting maladaptive daydreaming imply that a holistic approach is needed to address its prevalence. Such an approach would consider the immediate predictors of maladaptive daydreaming, such as loneliness, and the surrounding circumstances, such as the stressful environment. Recent studies found that mindfulness, meditation, and monitoring maladaptive daydreaming behavior through journaling could reduce its tendencies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Rather than offering interventions to target maladaptive daydreaming, treatments for its underlying predictors will be more effective in curbing its impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, this study implies that awareness of maladaptive daydreaming must be raised among university counselors and mental health practitioners to aid the recognition and treatment of the condition. Since maladaptive daydreaming is not considered a formal diagnosis, health practitioners in the university setting may not be sufficiently equipped to assist the students who struggle with the experience. The lack of recognition may lead to the dysfunction associated with maladaptive daydreaming being undermined, resulting in misdiagnosis or the prescription of ineffective treatments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the present study did not differentiate between maladaptive and non-maladaptive daydreamers nor provided evidence for classifying it as a clinical diagnosis, the significant results suggest that maladaptive daydreaming is a prevalent issue among university students. Therefore, awareness of maladaptive daydreaming and its symptomology will ensure actions are taken when these individuals seek help.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has a few limitations. First, although predictive models of the variables of interest were examined, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits inferences of causality. Therefore, longitudinal studies are required to verify the direction of the relationships between loneliness, self-esteem, perceived stress, and maladaptive daydreaming. It would also be interesting to investigate the relationship between these variables among other age groups and settings, to assess whether the results could be replicated. Second, the overrepresentation of female participants limits the generalizability of the results. Hence, future studies should utilize probability sampling. Finally, using the self-report MDS-16 as the sole indicator of maladaptive daydreaming restricted the interpretation of daydreaming severity, preventing the clear identification of pathological levels of this condition. Future research should use this scale in conjunction with the Structured Clinical Interview for Maladaptive Daydreaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. This will enable researchers to differentiate between maladaptive and non-maladaptive daydreamers based on the recommended cut-off score and diagnostic criteria, allowing comparison between the two groups for more specific inferences to be drawn.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe limitations notwithstanding, this study brings to light the complex interplay between maladaptive daydreaming severity and its risk factors amidst elevated stress levels in university students. Although future research on the longitudinal associations between these variables is warranted, the results reveal that loneliness and low self-esteem significantly increase the vulnerability of this population to this condition. Furthermore, the mediating effect of perceived stress provides evidence that it is a central factor that facilitates the association between maladaptive daydreaming and its predictors. This study reveals the potential mechanisms by which these risk factors influence maladaptive daydreaming \u0026ndash; directly by fulfilling unmet belongingness needs, or indirectly by increasing perceptions of stress. The central role of perceived stress has important implications for student well-being. Given the prevalence of maladaptive daydreaming symptoms in university students, this study advocates for the awareness of this condition to improve the well-being and functioning of this population. The results suggest that interventions that target stress in university students will help to mitigate the impact of loneliness and low self-esteem on maladaptive daydreaming, ultimately reducing the tendency of this population to engage in this behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received financial support for data collection from Monash University Malaysia.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants to take part in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthics approval was obtained from the\u0026nbsp;Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project ID: 38042). All procedures involved in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization:\u0026nbsp;Leanne Constantine and Shamsul Haque;\u0026nbsp;Methodology:\u0026nbsp;Leanne Constantine; Formal analysis and investigation:\u0026nbsp;Leanne Constantine; Writing \u0026ndash; original draft preparation:\u0026nbsp;Leanne Constantine; Writing \u0026ndash; review and editing:\u0026nbsp;Shamsul Haque; Funding acquisition:\u0026nbsp;Shamsul Haque; Resources:\u0026nbsp;Shamsul Haque; Supervision:\u0026nbsp;Shamsul Haque.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available upon request to the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSinger JL (1966) Daydreaming: An introduction to the experimental study of inner experience. 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J Consult Clin Psychol 91(5):285\u0026ndash;300. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000790\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/ccp0000790\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Maladaptive daydreaming, Loneliness, Self-esteem, Perceived stress, University students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538726/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538726/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003ePurpose\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaladaptive daydreaming is excessive daydreaming that causes distress, disrupts well-being, and thus impairs academic performance among university students. Because loneliness, low self-esteem, and stress are common risk factors for maladaptive daydreaming, we investigated whether loneliness and self-esteem predicted maladaptive daydreaming and if perceived stress mediated these relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e119 university students (71.40% female) completed the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, and Maladaptive Daydreaming Scale. The hypotheses were tested using mediated regression analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher loneliness and lower self-esteem significantly predicted maladaptive daydreaming. Perceived stress partially mediated the relationship between loneliness and maladaptive daydreaming, and fully mediated the relationship between self-esteem and maladaptive daydreaming.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity students were likely to engage in maladaptive daydreaming to compensate for unmet belongingness needs and cope with perceived stress. The mediating role of perceived stress implies that interventions that target stress may reduce maladaptive daydreaming, mitigating its consequences and improving the well-being of university students.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Maladaptive Daydreaming in University Students: The Mediating Role of Perceived Stress","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-06-20 13:33:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538726/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"630984b8-7c3c-43aa-abaf-b68b79b850a3","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 20th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-30T16:53:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-06-20 13:33:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4538726","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4538726","identity":"rs-4538726","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"WrCJVZZCHTDjtuVLN7oU0","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}