Phylogenomics resolves key relationships inRumexand uncovers a dynamic history of independently evolving sex chromosomes

Sex chromosomes have evolved independently many times across eukaryotes. Despite a considerable body of literature on the evolution of sex chromosomes, the causes and consequences of variation in the formation, degeneration, and turnover of sex chromosomes remain poorly understood. Comparative approaches in groups with sexual system variation can be valuable for understanding these questions. Plants are well-suited to such comparative studies, with many lineages containing relatively recent origins of dioecy and sex chromosomes as well as hermaphroditic close relatives. Rumex is a diverse genus of flowering plants harboring significant sexual system variation, including hermaphroditic and dioecious clades with XY sex chromosomes. Previous disagreement in the phylogenetic relationships among key species have rendered the history of sex chromosome evolution uncertain. Resolving this history is important to the development of Rumex as a system for the comparative study of sex chromosome evolution. Here, we leverage new transcriptome assemblies from 11 species representing the major clades in the genus, along with a whole-genome assembly generated for a pivotal hermaphroditic species, to further resolve the phylogeny and history of sex chromosome evolution in Rumex . Using phylogenomic approaches, we find evidence for two independent origins of sex chromosomes and introgression from unsampled taxa in the genus. Comparative genomics reveals massive chromosomal rearrangements in a dioecious species, with evidence for a complex origin of the sex chromosomes through multiple chromosomal fusions. However, we see no evidence of elevated rates of fusion on the sex chromosome in comparison with autosomes, providing no support for an adaptive hypothesis for the sex chromosome expansion. Overall, our results highlight the dynamic nature of sex chromosome systems in Rumex and illustrate the utility of the genus as a model for the comparative study of sex chromosome evolution.