Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia.

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However, while income ensures caloric sufficiency, it does not necessarily translate into complete food security, especially in terms of nutrient intake. Our study assessed the food and nutrition security of smallholder farm households in Yayu, with a particular focus on dietary diversity and hidden hunger. We found significant gaps in nutritional intake, especially for vulnerable groups such as women and children under five. Policy and Implications Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) targets food-insecure areas based on economic status, assuming that income ensures food security. However, our findings suggest that this approach may be flawed, as households in coffee-growing regions are often labeled food secure despite significant deficiencies in essential nutrients such as heme iron. This calls for a re-evaluation of food security policies in cash-crop-dominated areas to address not only income but also access to diverse and nutrient-rich foods. Recommendations 1. Enhance Nutritional Education: Implement targeted educational programs focusing on the importance of dietary diversity, particularly in coffee-producing areas. 2. Diversify Agriculture: Encourage smallholder farmers to diversify crops, integrating nutrient-dense foods alongside coffee cultivation. 3. Improve Market Access: Strengthen local markets to ensure that nutrient-rich foods are available and affordable during both surplus and shortage seasons. 4. Revise PSNP Criteria: Use localized food and nutrition data rather than income alone to identify food insecurity in cash-crop regions. Conclusion Income from coffee production in Yayu improves caloric sufficiency but does not guarantee nutritional adequacy. To combat hidden hunger, policies must move beyond income-based indicators of food security and prioritize access to diverse, nutrient-rich foods. This will ensure a more comprehensive approach to food and nutrition security in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions. 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F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157452.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Policy Brief Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] Omarsherif Mohammed Jemal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4207-7308 1 , Daniel Callo-Concha 2,3 , Meine van Noordwijk 4,5 Omarsherif Mohammed Jemal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4207-7308 1 , Daniel Callo-Concha 2,3 , Meine van Noordwijk 4,5 PUBLISHED 31 Oct 2024 Author details Author details 1 College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Arsi University, Assela, Oromia, 193, Ethiopia 2 Institute for Environmental Sciences (iES), University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany 3 Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia, 53113, Germany 4 Southeast Asia Regional Programme, World Agroforestry Centre Indonesia, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia 5 Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands Omarsherif Mohammed Jemal Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Resources, Software, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Daniel Callo-Concha Roles: Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Meine van Noordwijk Roles: Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract Background Coffee-growing communities in Yayu, Southwestern Ethiopia, are perceived to be food secure due to income from coffee production. However, while income ensures caloric sufficiency, it does not necessarily translate into complete food security, especially in terms of nutrient intake. Our study assessed the food and nutrition security of smallholder farm households in Yayu, with a particular focus on dietary diversity and hidden hunger. We found significant gaps in nutritional intake, especially for vulnerable groups such as women and children under five. Policy and Implications Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) targets food-insecure areas based on economic status, assuming that income ensures food security. However, our findings suggest that this approach may be flawed, as households in coffee-growing regions are often labeled food secure despite significant deficiencies in essential nutrients such as heme iron. This calls for a re-evaluation of food security policies in cash-crop-dominated areas to address not only income but also access to diverse and nutrient-rich foods. Recommendations 1. Enhance Nutritional Education: Implement targeted educational programs focusing on the importance of dietary diversity, particularly in coffee-producing areas. 2. Diversify Agriculture: Encourage smallholder farmers to diversify crops, integrating nutrient-dense foods alongside coffee cultivation. 3. Improve Market Access: Strengthen local markets to ensure that nutrient-rich foods are available and affordable during both surplus and shortage seasons. 4. Revise PSNP Criteria: Use localized food and nutrition data rather than income alone to identify food insecurity in cash-crop regions. Conclusion Income from coffee production in Yayu improves caloric sufficiency but does not guarantee nutritional adequacy. To combat hidden hunger, policies must move beyond income-based indicators of food security and prioritize access to diverse, nutrient-rich foods. This will ensure a more comprehensive approach to food and nutrition security in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Food security, coffee production, dietary diversity, hidden hunger, nutrition security, cash crops, Ethiopia, Yayu Biosphere Reserve Corresponding Author(s) Omarsherif Mohammed Jemal ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Omarsherif Mohammed Jemal Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: This research was funded by the German Federal Ministries of Education and Research (BMBF) and of Cooperation and Development (BMZ) under the Biomass Web Project (grant number FKZ 031 A258 A). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2024 Jemal OM et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Jemal OM, Callo-Concha D and van Noordwijk M. Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157452.1 ) First published: 31 Oct 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157452.1 ) Latest published: 31 Oct 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157452.1 ) Introduction Coffee is one of Ethiopia’s most valuable export commodities, driving significant economic growth in coffee-growing regions such as Yayu, Southwestern Ethiopia. The assumption often follows that households in these regions are food secure due to their income from coffee production. However, this policy brief challenges the notion that income alone ensures food security, particularly in terms of nutritional adequacy. The Ethiopian government’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) targets food-insecure households based on economic criteria, equating high income with food security. However, this policy framework overlooks critical dimensions of food security, such as dietary diversity and the intake of essential nutrients like heme-iron. As a result, coffee-producing regions are often excluded from food security interventions, despite evidence of “hidden hunger” or nutrient deficiencies within these communities. This brief aims to assess the disconnect between income and food security in cash-crop-dominated areas, using Yayu as a case study. The objectives are to (1) evaluate the food and nutrition security status of smallholder coffee farmers, (2) examine how participation in global coffee markets impacts household dietary diversity and nutritional intake, and (3) propose policy recommendations that address not just income, but also access to diverse and nutrient-rich foods. By highlighting the limitations of current food security policies, this brief advocates for a more comprehensive approach that goes beyond income indicators. It calls for policy adjustments that ensure coffee-growing communities can achieve both caloric sufficiency and adequate nutrition, thereby addressing Ethiopia’s broader food security and public health goals. Policy outcomes and implications Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) has been a cornerstone policy aimed at reducing food insecurity by targeting households with low income and chronic food deficits. The program focuses on enhancing household resilience through income support, public works, and asset-building initiatives, assuming that income directly translates into food security ( Berhane et al., 2014 ; Hailu and Amare, 2022 ). However, as our study in Yayu, Southwestern Ethiopia demonstrates, income from cash crops such as coffee does not automatically guarantee comprehensive food security, particularly when it comes to dietary diversity and nutritional adequacy ( Tables 1 and 2 ) ( Jemal et al., 2022 ). Table 1. Average, standard deviation, count, and proportion of three food security scores across seasons in Yayu ( Jemal et al., 2022 ) 1 . Score Category Surplus season Shortage season Mean±SD n (%) Mean±SD n (%) HHS Little to no hunger 0.01±0.1 140(100.0) 0.3±0.4 C 117(83.6) Moderate hunger N.A 0(0.0) 3.2±1.0 B 21(15.0) Severe hunger N.A 0(0.0) 6.5±0.7 A 2(1.4) Category variation N.A p<0.01 Average/total 0.01±0.1 140(100.0) 0.8±1.4 140(100.0) Seasonal variation p<0.01 HFIAS Food secure 0.2±0.4 C 99(70.7) 0.0±0.0 C 26(18.6) Mildly food insecure 4.3±1.7 B 39(27.9) 6.5±0.7 B 12(8.6) Moderately food insecure N.A 0(0.0) 12.9±2.4 A 48(34.3) Severely food insecure 19.0±0.00 A 2(1.4) 14.7±4.3 A 54(38.6) Category variation p<0.01 p<0.01 Average/total 1.6±3.0 140(100.0) 10.3±6.2 140(100.0) Seasonal variation p<0.01 HDDS Low 4.9±0.2 C 23(16.4) 4.9±0.3 C 33(23.6) Medium 6.4±0.5 B 78(55.7) 6.5±0.5 B 86(61.4) High 8.2±0.5 A 39(27.9) 8.2±0.4 A 21(15.0) Category variation p<0.01 p<0.01 Average/total 6.7±1.2 140(100.0) 6.4±1.1 140(100.0) Seasonal variation p<0.012 Table 2. Weekly Food Consumption Score of target groups across categories and seasons in Yayu ( Jemal et al., 2022 ). Target groups Category Surplus season Shortage season Mean±SD n (%) Mean±SD n (%) NBF children < five yrs. Poor - - - - Borderline 31.6±2.6 B 17(12.4) 30.2±3.3 B 15(10.7) Acceptable 56.9±12.4 A 123(87.6) 59.5±16.6 A 125(89.3) Category variation P<0.01 P<0.01 Average/total 53.5±14.2 140(100.0) 56.3±18.1 140(100.0) Season variation p = 0.018 WRA Poor - - - - Borderline 30.2±3.6 B 13(9.2) 30.2±3.2 B 15(10.7) Acceptable 54.6±12.5 A 127(90.7) 57.5±13.9 A 125(89.3) Category variation P<0.01 P<0.01 Average/total 52.4±13.4 140(100.0) 54.6±15.7 140(100.0) Season variation p = 0.046 Target group variation P = 0.686 P = 0.791 The findings from Yayu challenge the fundamental assumptions underlying PSNP. Although coffee farmers in the region are financially better off compared to other parts of Ethiopia, the high income from coffee production often leads to an over-reliance on market-purchased foods, which can be nutritionally insufficient. For example, despite 83% of households being hunger-free ( Table 2 ), more than 50% of children and women lacked access to heme-iron, an essential nutrient critical for preventing anemia and promoting overall health ( Jemal et al., 2022 ). This outcome holds important policy implications for Ethiopia. The country’s current food security strategies are largely income-based, relying on financial metrics to identify regions at risk of food insecurity. However, this approach often overlooks the issue of “hidden hunger,” where sufficient caloric intake conceals critical nutrient deficiencies. For example, in Yayu, a high-income coffee-growing region deemed food-secure by the PSNP, research revealed that 17.2% to 38.2% of children under five were stunted ( Table 3 ), and 11.1% of women of reproductive age were malnourished ( Table 4 ). While the PSNP has been effective in improving immediate food access and reducing poverty, it fails to fully address the qualitative dimensions of food security, such as nutrient intake and dietary diversity ( Berhane et al., 2014 ; Hailu and Amare, 2022 ; Jemal et al., 2022 ). Table 3. Prevalence of malnutrition of children under five years during surplus and shortage seasons in Yayu ( Jemal et al., 2022 ). Malnutrition category Prevalence of malnutrition n (%), (C.I. 95%) Surplus season Shortage season Wasted 4(2.9%)(0.1-5.6) 3(3.9%)(-0.4-8.3) Moderate 3(2.1%)(-0.3-4.5) 3(3.9%)(-0.4-8.3) Severe 1(0.7%) (-0.7-2.1) 0(0.0 %)(0.0-0.0) Underweight 7(5.0 %)(1.4-8.6) 8(10%)(3.6-17.4) Moderate 5(3.6%)(0.5-6.6) 6(7.9%)(1.8-14.0) Severe 2(1.4%)(-0.5-3.4) 2(2.6%)(-1.0-6.2) Stunted 25(17.9%)(11.5-24.2) 29(38.2%)(27.2-49.1) Moderate 23(16.4%)(10.3-22.6) 22(28.9%)(18.8-39.1) Severe 2(1.4%)(-0.5-3.4) 7(9.2%)(2.7-15.7) Table 4. Mean, proportion (%) and test of variation of BMI-based nutrition category of women of reproductive age during surplus and shortage seasons in Yayu ( Jemal et al., 2022 ). Malnutrition category Surplus season Shortage season Mean ± SD n (%) Mean ± SD n (%) Malnourished 17.8±0.6 C 14 (10.9) 17.7±0.8 C 19(13.6) Severe N.A 0(0.0) 15.8±0.1C 2 (1.7) Moderate 16.5±0.1 C 2(1.6) N.A 0(0.0) Mild 18.0±0.4 C 12(9.3) 18.0±0.4C 14(11.6) Normal 20.8± 1.4 B 113 (87.6) 20.9±1.5 B 101(83.4) Overweight 25.2 ±0.2 A 2(1.6) 26.1±2.0 A 4(3.3) Obese N.A 0(0.0) N.A 0(0.0) Category variation P <0.01 P <0.01 Average/Total 20.6±1.7 129(100.0) 20.6±2.1 121(100.0) Season variation P <0.01 Thus, a shift in policy is necessary. The PSNP and similar programs must incorporate localized nutritional assessments in addition to income-based evaluations. This would allow for a more precise identification of food-insecure households in cash-crop-dominated regions. Moreover, interventions need to focus on improving market access to nutrient-rich foods and promoting agricultural diversification, so that farmers can grow a variety of food crops alongside coffee. These adjustments will help ensure that coffee-producing households not only achieve caloric sufficiency but also meet essential dietary needs ( Jemal et al., 2022 ). In conclusion, Ethiopia’s current income-centric food security policies, such as the PSNP, are insufficient to address the full spectrum of food security challenges faced by communities in cash-crop-dominated regions like Yayu. While income from coffee production ensures caloric sufficiency, it does not necessarily lead to adequate nutrition. The findings highlight the need for policies that go beyond financial indicators and integrate localized assessments of dietary diversity and nutrient intake. By shifting focus to these qualitative aspects of food security, future interventions can better target hidden hunger and ensure that households not only have access to enough food but also to nutrient-rich and diverse diets. Adopting this more comprehensive approach will significantly improve the nutritional outcomes and overall well-being of Ethiopia’s coffee-growing communities, contributing to the country’s broader public health and development goals. Actionable recommendations Based on the findings from the Yayu case study, several targeted policy recommendations are proposed to improve food and nutrition security in coffee-growing communities. These recommendations aim to address both the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of food security, moving beyond income-based approaches and ensuring comprehensive well-being for households. The following actionable steps are recommended: 1. Revise PSNP targeting criteria The current PSNP approach, which predominantly uses income as the indicator for food security, needs revision to include localized nutritional assessments. Incorporating indicators of dietary diversity, nutrient deficiencies, and food security proxies will allow for a more accurate identification of food-insecure households in regions with high cash-crop dependence. This will ensure that vulnerable populations, particularly women and children, receive the necessary interventions. 2. Promote agricultural diversification Encourage coffee farmers to adopt agroecological practices that include the cultivation of diverse food crops alongside coffee. Government programs and NGOs should support the integration of nutrient-dense crops such as legumes, vegetables, and fruits into existing coffee systems. This would enhance household resilience to market fluctuations and ensure year-round availability of essential nutrients, particularly during lean seasons. 3. Enhance nutritional education and awareness Implement community-based educational programs that focus on the importance of dietary diversity and nutrient-rich foods. Training on how to maximize the use of locally available foods, especially during food shortage seasons, will empower households to make better dietary choices. Special focus should be placed on educating women, who are often the primary food preparers in households, about the significance of micronutrients such as iron and vitamin A. 4. Improve market access to nutrient-rich foods Strengthen infrastructure and market systems to improve access to nutrient-dense foods in coffee-growing regions. Governmental and development partners should work to ensure that nutrient-rich foods such as meats, pulses, and fortified products are affordable and available, particularly in rural areas. Expanding food distribution networks will ensure that dietary needs are met even during periods of food shortages. 5. Monitor and evaluate food security programs Establish a system of continuous monitoring and evaluation of food security programs that include both income and nutritional indicators. This will enable policymakers to track progress, identify emerging issues, and make informed adjustments to interventions. Regular assessments should be conducted in cash-crop-dominated areas to ensure that interventions are effectively addressing the nuanced food security challenges faced by these communities. By implementing these recommendations, Ethiopia’s food security policies can evolve to better meet the needs of coffee-growing communities like Yayu. The proposed actions will help bridge the gap between income and nutrition, ensuring that food security interventions contribute not only to caloric sufficiency but also to overall health and well-being. Conclusion/Discussion This policy brief highlights the disconnect between income and food security in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions, with a particular focus on Yayu. The findings underscore that while income from coffee production brings economic benefits, it does not ensure comprehensive food and nutrition security. The predominant reliance on income as a proxy for food security, as seen in the current Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP), overlooks critical issues like dietary diversity and nutrient adequacy, particularly for vulnerable groups such as women and children. The implications of these findings are significant. They suggest that policy interventions aimed solely at increasing income or boosting agricultural productivity through cash crops are insufficient to address food insecurity in its entirety. Hidden hunger, characterized by deficiencies in essential micronutrients, persists despite caloric sufficiency, especially during lean seasons. As coffee-producing households in Yayu increasingly depend on market-purchased foods, they are exposed to dietary gaps that income alone cannot bridge. This calls for a more holistic approach to food security interventions, incorporating localized data on nutritional needs and ensuring access to a variety of nutrient-dense foods. Implementing these policy changes requires a shift in Ethiopia’s food security framework. Policymakers must broaden the scope of programs like the PSNP to address both the quantity and quality of food consumed by households. This involves revising the targeting criteria to include indicators of nutritional adequacy, promoting agricultural diversification to reduce dependency on a single cash crop, and strengthening market access to ensure nutrient-rich foods are available and affordable year-round. Furthermore, community-based educational programs on dietary diversity can empower households to make better food choices, helping to close the gap between income and nutrition. In conclusion, addressing food insecurity in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions requires a multi-faceted strategy that goes beyond income generation. By implementing these comprehensive, nutrition-focused policies, Ethiopia can make significant strides toward achieving true food security for all its citizens, ensuring both caloric sufficiency and improved nutritional outcomes. Ethics and consent No ethics and consent were required. Author contributions - Omarsherif M. Jemal: Conceptualization, data collection, statistical analysis, manuscript drafting. - Daniel Callo-Concha: Study design, manuscript revision. - Meine van Noordwijk: Conceptual contributions, manuscript revision. Units, Symbols, and Mathematical scripts Standard units such as kilograms (kg) for weight, centimeters (cm) for height, and percentages (%) for prevalence were used. Z-scores were used for nutritional status assessment. Data availability No data are associated with this article. Acknowledgements The authors express gratitude to ZEF and to the Environment and Coffee Forest Forum (ECFF) and the Agricultural offices of Yayu. References Berhane G, Gilligan DO, Hoddinott J, et al. : Can social protection work in Africa? The impact of Ethiopia’s productive safety net programme. Econ. Dev. Cult. Chang. 2014; 63 : 1–26. Publisher Full Text Hailu AG, Amare ZY: Impact of productive safety net programon food security of beneficiary households in Western Ethiopia: a matching estimator approach. PLoS One. 2022; 17 : 17. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Jemal OM, Callo-Concha D, van Noordwijk M : Does income imply food security in coffee growing communities? A case study in Yayu, Southwestern Ethiopia. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2022; 6 : 1051502. Publisher Full Text Footnotes 1 All table has been reproduced with permission from Jemal et al. (2022). Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 31 Oct 2024 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Arsi University, Assela, Oromia, 193, Ethiopia 2 Institute for Environmental Sciences (iES), University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany 3 Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia, 53113, Germany 4 Southeast Asia Regional Programme, World Agroforestry Centre Indonesia, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia 5 Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands Omarsherif Mohammed Jemal Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Resources, Software, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Daniel Callo-Concha Roles: Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Meine van Noordwijk Roles: Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information This research was funded by the German Federal Ministries of Education and Research (BMBF) and of Cooperation and Development (BMZ) under the Biomass Web Project (grant number FKZ 031 A258 A). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 31 Oct 2024, 13:1304 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157452.1 Copyright © 2024 Jemal OM et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Jemal OM, Callo-Concha D and van Noordwijk M. Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157452.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 31 Oct 2024 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Guerra KK. Reviewer Report For: Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r385431 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1304/v1#referee-response-385431 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 28 May 2025 Kathleen Krzyzanowski Guerra , The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r385431 Summary: This policy brief provides a set of recommendations to bolster food security policies in cash-crop-dominated areas of Yayu, Ethiopia. Policy recommendations are derived from an analysis conducted by the authors which utilized household questionnaires, dietary survey data, and anthropometric ... Continue reading READ ALL Summary: This policy brief provides a set of recommendations to bolster food security policies in cash-crop-dominated areas of Yayu, Ethiopia. Policy recommendations are derived from an analysis conducted by the authors which utilized household questionnaires, dietary survey data, and anthropometric measurements to assess the relationship between household economic status and food/nutrition security in a coffee-producing region. This is an interesting brief and underscores the importance of conceptualizing and measuring food insecurity in ways that go beyond household financial status. A few changes can be made to strengthen the brief. Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader? Answer: PARTLY The authors do a nice job describing the assumptions driving the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) and cite literature that describes the PSNP in greater detail. Consider adding a brief sentence or two on what the PSNP provides for food insecure households; can you connect it back to the implicit argument that policies supporting adequate caloric intake are not sufficient to ensure adequate nutritional intake? There is literature that can be cited from other contexts (e.g., U.S., Canada) that demonstrates the difference between adequate caloric intake and a diversified diet that supports nutritional needs. Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Answer: PARTLY The Conclusion/Discussion section notes “the disconnect between income and food security in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions…” but based on the authors’ findings that there is a correlation between income and adequate caloric intake, would it be more accurate to note that high(er) income is not necessarily correlated with nutrition security? This connects to the point below about needing to clearly differentiate between food security and nutrition security for the reader. Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments? Answer: YES Feedback: It would be helpful for the authors to provide a brief sentence about the methods used in the analysis they reference (Jemal et al., 2022) within the ‘Policy Outcomes and Implications’ section. In addition to the methods, consider briefly noting why the analysis provides more robust evidence than existing studies, and how the findings led the authors to develop the policy recommendations. Additional feedback: Introduction, end of paragraph two: the authors note evidence of “hidden hunger” and nutrient deficiencies in communities within coffee-producing regions. Consider adding citations that demonstrate this evidence. Policy Outcomes and Implications: The third and fourth paragraphs in this section are redundant. Consider consolidating and providing additional space earlier in the section to expand on findings from the analysis. Introduction and Actionable Recommendations: Differentiate between food security and nutrition security for readers upfront. This brief hints at the difference between adequate caloric intake and sufficient nutritional intake/dietary diversity, but make clear how the two concepts, though interrelated, are distinct. Actionable Recommendations: Add clarification on “food security proxies” under recommendation 1. Actionable Recommendations: Consider adding context and relevant citations that connect to recommendation 2 (agricultural diversification) within the Introduction and/or Policy Outcomes and Implications sections. Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader? Partly Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: U.S. food policy and food security I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Guerra KK. Reviewer Report For: Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r385431 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1304/v1#referee-response-385431 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Guye A. Reviewer Report For: Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r362551 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1304/v1#referee-response-362551 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 26 Feb 2025 Ashenafi Guye , Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r362551 In general, the paper is interesting. However, I have the following suggestions and comments to improve this manuscript more. 1. Authors should state the detailed background information on the topic raised and cite the relevant and recent research ... Continue reading READ ALL In general, the paper is interesting. However, I have the following suggestions and comments to improve this manuscript more. 1. Authors should state the detailed background information on the topic raised and cite the relevant and recent research works. 2. In addition, the authors should discuss the policy issues clearly in depth to generalize at the national level. 3. Actually, income alone is not enough to guarantee the food and nutrition security of smallholder coffee producers. They may be food secured for the coffee harvesting season, however, remained food insecure for the rest of the year. The reason behind this is that farmers spend the income from coffee sales not only on diversified food consumption, but also on other expenditures like house building or educating the children. The second important reason is that coffee income is so seasonal (2 to 3 months), and coffee farmers spend their entire income on food and non-food items in that specific time period. In addition, coffee farmers do not have the culture of saving income from coffee sales. Thus, their income does not sustain for the coming season following the end of the coffee harvest (especially summer), resulting in food deficit and hunger. In addition, nutrition security goes beyond having money (cash) at hand. Therefore, income from coffee sales cannot guarantee food and nutrition security. 4. Regarding the assumption that the "Ethiopian government’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) targets food-insecure households based on economic criteria, equating high income with food security" is misleading, especially in coffee-producing communities. Hence, it needs the revision to consider those farmers producing coffee. However, my question here is, is it convincing to generalize the impact of coffee income on farmers’ food and nutrition security to the wider coffee producing communities of Ethiopia based on a specific coffee producing community (Yayu) ? 5. Authors should include the training provision on saving coffee income and using it for financial deficit season in the recommendation section. 6. Authors should recognize that coffee producers earn the least in the coffee value chain, whereas the traders and middlemen earn high. As a result, farmers might remain food insured for a long time while producing coffee. Therefore, the government should reduce the path/channel from producers to consumers to improve the income of farmers. Thus, farmers are encouraged to participate in the coffee market and improve their income and food security. Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader? Partly Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Agricultural Economics I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Guye A. Reviewer Report For: Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r362551 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1304/v1#referee-response-362551 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 31 Oct 2024 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 Version 1 31 Oct 24 read read Ashenafi Guye , Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia Kathleen Krzyzanowski Guerra , The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Guerra K. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 28 May 2025 | for Version 1 Kathleen Krzyzanowski Guerra , The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA 0 Views copyright © 2025 Guerra K. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Summary: This policy brief provides a set of recommendations to bolster food security policies in cash-crop-dominated areas of Yayu, Ethiopia. Policy recommendations are derived from an analysis conducted by the authors which utilized household questionnaires, dietary survey data, and anthropometric measurements to assess the relationship between household economic status and food/nutrition security in a coffee-producing region. This is an interesting brief and underscores the importance of conceptualizing and measuring food insecurity in ways that go beyond household financial status. A few changes can be made to strengthen the brief. Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader? Answer: PARTLY The authors do a nice job describing the assumptions driving the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) and cite literature that describes the PSNP in greater detail. Consider adding a brief sentence or two on what the PSNP provides for food insecure households; can you connect it back to the implicit argument that policies supporting adequate caloric intake are not sufficient to ensure adequate nutritional intake? There is literature that can be cited from other contexts (e.g., U.S., Canada) that demonstrates the difference between adequate caloric intake and a diversified diet that supports nutritional needs. Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Answer: PARTLY The Conclusion/Discussion section notes “the disconnect between income and food security in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions…” but based on the authors’ findings that there is a correlation between income and adequate caloric intake, would it be more accurate to note that high(er) income is not necessarily correlated with nutrition security? This connects to the point below about needing to clearly differentiate between food security and nutrition security for the reader. Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments? Answer: YES Feedback: It would be helpful for the authors to provide a brief sentence about the methods used in the analysis they reference (Jemal et al., 2022) within the ‘Policy Outcomes and Implications’ section. In addition to the methods, consider briefly noting why the analysis provides more robust evidence than existing studies, and how the findings led the authors to develop the policy recommendations. Additional feedback: Introduction, end of paragraph two: the authors note evidence of “hidden hunger” and nutrient deficiencies in communities within coffee-producing regions. Consider adding citations that demonstrate this evidence. Policy Outcomes and Implications: The third and fourth paragraphs in this section are redundant. Consider consolidating and providing additional space earlier in the section to expand on findings from the analysis. Introduction and Actionable Recommendations: Differentiate between food security and nutrition security for readers upfront. This brief hints at the difference between adequate caloric intake and sufficient nutritional intake/dietary diversity, but make clear how the two concepts, though interrelated, are distinct. Actionable Recommendations: Add clarification on “food security proxies” under recommendation 1. Actionable Recommendations: Consider adding context and relevant citations that connect to recommendation 2 (agricultural diversification) within the Introduction and/or Policy Outcomes and Implications sections. Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader? Partly Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise U.S. food policy and food security I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Guerra KK. Peer Review Report For: Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r385431) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-1304/v1#referee-response-385431 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Guye A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 26 Feb 2025 | for Version 1 Ashenafi Guye , Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia 0 Views copyright © 2025 Guye A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions In general, the paper is interesting. However, I have the following suggestions and comments to improve this manuscript more. 1. Authors should state the detailed background information on the topic raised and cite the relevant and recent research works. 2. In addition, the authors should discuss the policy issues clearly in depth to generalize at the national level. 3. Actually, income alone is not enough to guarantee the food and nutrition security of smallholder coffee producers. They may be food secured for the coffee harvesting season, however, remained food insecure for the rest of the year. The reason behind this is that farmers spend the income from coffee sales not only on diversified food consumption, but also on other expenditures like house building or educating the children. The second important reason is that coffee income is so seasonal (2 to 3 months), and coffee farmers spend their entire income on food and non-food items in that specific time period. In addition, coffee farmers do not have the culture of saving income from coffee sales. Thus, their income does not sustain for the coming season following the end of the coffee harvest (especially summer), resulting in food deficit and hunger. In addition, nutrition security goes beyond having money (cash) at hand. Therefore, income from coffee sales cannot guarantee food and nutrition security. 4. Regarding the assumption that the "Ethiopian government’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) targets food-insecure households based on economic criteria, equating high income with food security" is misleading, especially in coffee-producing communities. Hence, it needs the revision to consider those farmers producing coffee. However, my question here is, is it convincing to generalize the impact of coffee income on farmers’ food and nutrition security to the wider coffee producing communities of Ethiopia based on a specific coffee producing community (Yayu) ? 5. Authors should include the training provision on saving coffee income and using it for financial deficit season in the recommendation section. 6. Authors should recognize that coffee producers earn the least in the coffee value chain, whereas the traders and middlemen earn high. As a result, farmers might remain food insured for a long time while producing coffee. Therefore, the government should reduce the path/channel from producers to consumers to improve the income of farmers. Thus, farmers are encouraged to participate in the coffee market and improve their income and food security. Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader? Partly Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Agricultural Economics I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Guye A. Peer Review Report For: Rethinking Food and Nutrition Security: Why Income Alone Isn’t Enough in Coffee-Producing Areas of Ethiopia. [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :1304 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172901.r362551) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. 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