Predatory Behavior is Primary Predictor of Movement of Wildland-Urban Cougars

ABSTRACT While many species have suffered from the detrimental impacts of increasing human population growth, some species, such as cougars ( Puma concolor ), have been observed using human-modified landscapes. However, human-modified habitat can be a source of both increased risk and increased food availability, particularly for large carnivores. Assessing preferential use of the landscape is important for managing wildlife and can be particularly useful in transitional habitats, such as at the wildland-urban interface. Preferential use is often evaluated using resource selection functions (RSFs), but RSFs do not adequately account for the habitat available to an individual at a given time and may mask conflict or avoidance behavior. Contemporary approaches to incorporate landscape availability into the assessment of habitat preference include spatio-temporal point process models, step-selection functions, and continuous-time Markov chain (CTMC) models; in contrast with the other methods, the CTMC model allows for explicit inference on animal movement. We used the CTMC framework to model speed and directionality of movement by a population of cougars inhabiting the Front Range of Colorado, U.S.A., an area exhibiting rapid population growth and increased recreational use, as a function of individual variation and time-varying responses to landscape covariates. The time-varying framework allowed us to detect temporal variability that would be masked in a generalized linear model. We found evidence for individual- and daily temporal-variability in cougar response to landscape characteristics. Distance to nearest kill site emerged as the most important driver of movement at a population-level. We also detected seasonal differences in average response to elevation, heat loading, and distance to roads. Motility was also a function of amount of development, with cougars moving faster in developed areas than in undeveloped areas.