Cross-sectional analysis of odor exposure, household pesticides, and chlorpyrifos residues in flies in Chilean rural communities

Cross-sectional analysis of odor exposure, household pesticides, and chlorpyrifos residues in flies in Chilean rural communities | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Cross-sectional analysis of odor exposure, household pesticides, and chlorpyrifos residues in flies in Chilean rural communities Sebastián Pozo, Rocío Hojas, José Norambuena, Joaquín Toro, América Ponce, and 11 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8319430/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background The expansion of agricultural and livestock production in Chile has increased environmental and health concerns for rural communities living near these activities. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the perception of odour emissions, health conditions, and exposure to household pesticides in rural communities situated near a pig farm in the Maule Region, Chile. Methods An cross-sectional study was conducted with 82 adults residing within approximately 10 km of the “El Arbolillo” area between San Javier and Cauquenes, Maule Region, Chile. Structured questionnaires assessed odor perception, health conditions, and domestic pesticide use. Flies were collected in 17 households, and chlorpyrifos residues were analyzed using gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Results Most participants (83%) perceived odors as strong or extremely strong. Odor-related discomfort was associated with household pesticide use (69%) (p = 0.006), which was more frequent in homes located ≤ 4,319 m from the pig facility (p = 0.001). Chlorpyrifos residues were detected in flies from 68% of sampled households, with a mean concentration of 0.118 ng mg⁻¹ per insect (range: 0.025–2.449). Higher odor discomfort was associated with hypertension (OR = 3.28; 95% CI: 1.46–9.39), reflux/gastritis (OR = 3.34; 95% CI: 1.23–9.08), shortness of breath at rest (OR = 2.72; 95% CI: 1.05–7.05), and loss of appetite (OR = 2.91; 95% CI: 1.08–7.81). Household pesticide use was associated with migraine (OR = 5.06; 95% CI: 1.40–18.3), gastritis/ulcer (OR = 6.09; 95% CI: 1.53–24.3), and allergic contact eczema (OR = 5.31; 95% CI: 1.22–23.1). Conclusions The findings describe an environmental health problem affecting rural communities near the pig facility. Intense odor perception, frequent domestic pesticide use, and the presence of chlorpyrifos residues in flies indicate simultaneous exposure routes. These results highlight the need for mitigation measures, enhanced health surveillance, and strengthened environmental regulation to protect rural populations in the Maule Region. Trial registration: Not applicable. Odor annoyance pesticides chlorpyrifos rural health environmental exposure Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Contributions to the Literature This study provides the first evidence from Chile and Latin America and the Caribbean showing how strong odors, household pesticide use, and pesticide residues in flies can occur together in rural communities living near intensive pig farming. It adds to population health research by showing that people reporting stronger odor discomfort are also more likely to use insecticides at home and to report certain health conditions, helping to understand everyday exposure and coping in affected communities. By detecting chlorpyrifos in flies collected inside homes, the study suggests that insects may carry pesticides from nearby agricultural or livestock activities into residential spaces, highlighting an overlooked environmental exposure pathway relevant for public health policy. Introduction According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in 2019, agrifood systems were responsible for 17 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, accounting for 31% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [ 1 ]. It is estimated that pig manure management alone contributed 18% of these emissions [ 2 ]. The sustained growth in global meat demand, driven by population increase and greater consumption of animal-based products, limits progress toward global climate commitments [ 3 ]. In Latin America and the Caribbean, agrifood systems account for nearly half of the region's GHG emissions [ 4 ]. For example, over the past 50 years, human activity in the Amazon has led to the loss of 17% of the original forest area, with 14% of the land converted for agricultural use, mainly pasture for livestock (89%) and, to a lesser extent, crops (10%) [ 5 ]. In Chile, the forestry and agricultural sector plays a central role in the national economy. In 2022, the regions with the highest contribution to the sector’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) were O’Higgins (22.1%), Maule (17.6%), and the Metropolitan Region (11.8%) [ 6 ]. In 2021, national meat production reached 818,385.5 tonnes, with pigs accounting for 72% of all animals slaughtered. Within this production, the Maule Region ranked second in pork output, reaching 47,453.8 tonnes [ 7 ]. Among the main waste products generated by the pork industry are “slurry”, a mixture of feces, urine, and water from cleaning rearing facilities. This waste is channeled through separation and treatment systems for subsequent storage or application as fertilizer in nearby agricultural fields [ 8 , 9 ]. The intensification of pig farming has environmental impacts (Fig. 1 ), particularly regarding slurry management. Key impacts include contamination of surface and groundwater, soil degradation linked to excess nutrient accumulation, salinization, and changes in soil microbiota. The activity also releases gases such as nitrogen oxides, methane, and hydrogen sulfide, which contribute to global warming, atmospheric acidification, and unpleasant odors. In addition, it promotes the proliferation of vectors such as flies and rodents, creating further public health and ecological risks [ 8 , 10 , 11 ]. In terms of human health, physical symptoms such as nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, appetite loss, headaches, and eye and respiratory irritation have been reported. On the psychosocial level, symptoms include anxiety, depression, insomnia, distress, feelings of isolation, and weakened social cohesion [ 12 – 14 ]. To increase productivity and control pests, the agricultural sector has expanded pesticide use, with organophosphates (OPs) among the most commonly applied [ 14 ]. In Chile, the OPs with the highest sales in 2023 were chlorpyrifos, malathion, and diazinon [ 15 ]. In acute exposures, their primary toxicological mechanism is the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, leading to cholinergic syndrome [ 16 ]. In chronic or repeated low-dose exposures, proposed mechanisms include oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, disruptions in calcium homeostasis, and alterations in neurotransmitters such as serotonin and glutamate, which have been associated with cognitive impairment, depression, anxiety, and neurodevelopmental disorders [ 17 – 20 ]. In the Maule Region, particularly in the areas of San Javier and Cauquenes, a persistent socio-environmental conflict emerged after the establishment in 2008 of a pig farming facility in the “El Arbolillo” sector, approved by the Environmental Assessment Service (SEA). In 2019, the Superintendence of the Environment (SMA) filed charges citing multiple violations, including inadequate slurry management, failure to comply with biological monitoring requirements, and lack of measures to mitigate odor emissions [ 12 ]. That same year, the National Institute for Human Rights (INDH) filed a constitutional protection appeal, which was upheld by the Supreme Court, establishing that the right to live in an environment free from contamination had been infringed [ 21 , 22 ]. As a control strategy, the company applied pesticides to reduce pest populations. At the same time, many households in the area also began using them domestically in response to the massive fly infestation. The communities have reported this phenomenon as part of the ongoing conflict, highlighting the link between strong odors and the proliferation of disease vectors [ 12 ]. However, to date, no systematic assessment has been conducted to describe the relationship between odor perception and the health status of exposed residents. Given this context, the objective of the present study was to investigate the perception of odour emissions, health conditions, and exposure to household pesticides in rural communities situated near a pig farm in the Maule Region, Chile. Additionally, the study included the detection of chlorpyrifos residues in flies collected from homes situated at varying distances from the plant, with the aim of identifying potential environmental exposure pathways to this organophosphate compound. This study provides, for the first time, evidence from direct testimonies obtained using a validated odor annoyance assessment questionnaire in Chile [ 23 ]. It also characterizes household pesticide use within a context of intensified vector proliferation, particularly flies, associated with agro-industrial odor emissions. Methods Study design A cross-sectional study was conducted using a random sample of 95 adults (≥ 18 years), of both sexes, who had resided for at least one year within a 10-kilometer radius of the El Arbolillo sector. Individuals with a previous diagnosis of neurological disorders or problematic alcohol use were excluded. Fieldwork was conducted between December 2023 and January 2024. Population and participants The study population comprised residents of “El Arbolillo”, a rural locality situated between the municipalities of San Javier and Cauquenes, in the Maule Region of Chile. According to the 2024 National Census, these municipalities reported populations of 49,559 and 42,798 inhabitants, respectively [ 24 ]. Since 2008, this area has been affected by a socio-environmental conflict linked to the establishment of the “10,000-sow pig production facility San Agustín del Arbolillo”, located at kilometer 25 of the Los Conquistadores highway [ 12 ]. The communities exposed are concentrated within a 20-kilometer radius, encompassing approximately 1,299 households and 5,196 residents [ 25 ]. According to data from the “Maule Sur por la Vida” organization, around 300 people live in the closest area (El Arbolillo sector), of whom 200 are adults. Sample size was determined based on a previous study [ 26 ], which identified differences in mean cognitive performance between adults exposed and unexposed to organophosphate pesticides. Considering that and applying oversampling to increase statistical power, a minimum sample size of 60 participants was established. Variables and data collection Odor perception was assessed using the standardized questionnaire from Chilean Norm NCh 3387:2015, harmonized with German standard VDI 3883 [ 23 ]. The instrument includes letter-coded modules: Module K assesses housing context (items K1–K5), odor intensity and frequency, annoyance level (on a 0–10 thermometric scale), qualitative descriptions of the odor, and presumed sources (items K17–K22). Additional modules assess coping strategies (C), environmental concern (U), and general health status, including diagnosed diseases and non-specific symptoms (G). An additional questionnaire collected sociodemographic, occupational, environmental exposure, and general health data [ 27 ]. Variables included age, sex, education level, type of health insurance, household per capita income, occupation, years of employment, disability status, and history of pesticide exposure in domestic and occupational settings. Weight (kg) and height (m) were recorded to calculate Body Mass Index (BMI). To assess pesticide exposure, adhesive traps without chemical attractants were installed in 17 households located at varying distances from a pig farming facility. These homes, housing a total of 34 residents, were selected to capture flies and to evaluate the presence of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate pesticide banned in Chile in 2022 but still marketed until stocks were depleted, thereby remaining widely available in 2023 [ 27 ]. Chlorpyrifos has historically been used to control flies in agricultural and livestock environments. Figure 2 shows a satellite map of the El Arbolillo area, where the pig facility is located (red button in the center of the map image); the circled area indicates the sampling zone. To capture insects, black lithographed cardboard traps, eco-friendly and non-toxic, designed for integrated pest management, were used. Each unit is easy to use and can be disposed of responsibly, remaining effective for up to 30 days; in this study, they were left in place for one week in common household areas, out of reach of children and pets. The collected samples were analyzed at the Bioprocess Laboratory of the Universidad Católica del Maule using headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Volatile compounds were extracted using PDMS/CAR/DVB-coated fibers, exposed at 105°C for 40 minutes. The fibers were then introduced into a GC-MS/MS system (Thermo TSQ DUO model) operating in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode with helium as the carrier gas. Quantification of chlorpyrifos was performed using a specific calibration curve, with ion 169 m/z for qualification and 79 m/z for quantification. The method achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.6 ng/g and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 12 ng/g. Data processing was conducted using Chromeleon software, version 7.2.10. * Source: Google Earth. [Satellite image of the "El Arbolillo" sector, Maule Region]. Captured on November 15, 2023. Accessed on May 25, 2025. Location of the “El Arbolillo” sector and the pig farm (red point) Statistical analysis Descriptive analyses included measures of central tendency (mean, median), dispersion (standard deviation [SD], interquartile range [IQR]), proportions, and percentiles (25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th). Group differences were assessed using the Mann–Whitney U test. Four multivariable logistic regression models were constructed to estimate associations between odor discomfort, household pesticide use, and both diagnosed illnesses and self-reported symptoms. Odor discomfort (measured on a 1–10 scale) was dichotomized as 1 = extreme discomfort (score of 10) and 0 = low to moderate discomfort (scores 1 to 9). Household pesticide use was coded as 1 = yes (use reported) and 0 = no (no use reported). All models were adjusted for age and sex, and odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were reported. All statistical analyses were performed in Stata v19.5. To explore associations among categorical variables, including odor intensity (1 = imperceptible to 5 = extremely strong), odor annoyance (1 = not at all to 5 = extremely), odor source (1 = vehicular traffic, 2 = industry, 3 = agriculture, 9 = others), household insecticide use (0 = no, 1 = yes), loss of appetite (0 = no, 1 = yes), breathing difficulties (0 = no, 1 = yes), and gender (1 = female, 2 = male), a multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was conducted using principal normalization. A biplot was generated to display categories on a two-dimensional map, where spatial proximity indicates association. MCA was conducted in IBM SPSS v25. Additionally, structural relationships between odor intensity, odor discomfort (1 = no discomfort to 10 = extremely uncomfortable), perceived odor acceptability (0 = acceptable, 1 = not acceptable, 2 = not applicable), and perceived air pollution (0 = not affected to 4 = very affected) were examined using a graphical least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (gLASSO). Data were numerically coded, standardized as z-scores, and used to estimate both the precision and partial correlation matrices. An undirected network of direct associations was then constructed using Python 3.0 and the NetworkX library. The study protocol, including the informed consent form, was approved by the Scientific Ethics Committee of the Universidad Católica del Maule (Record No. 165/2023). The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were thoroughly informed about the study’s objectives and procedures, and their participation was entirely voluntary. We report this study according to the STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies. Results Sociodemographic characteristics The study included 82 adult participants (four participants were excluded for not meeting the minimum age criterion; three had disabilities that limited their ability to respond to the health condition questionnaires, and the remaining six did not complete at least two of the required questionnaires to assess health status or odor perception), of whom 46.3% were women and 53.7% men, with a mean age of 53.8 years (SD = 13.6). A total of 42 households were surveyed. The average duration of residence in the area was 17 years (SD = 22), ranging from 1 to 70 years. The vast majority of participants (99%) lived in owner-occupied housing. The average per capita monthly income was CLP $ 203,019 (SD = 123,630; approx. USD $ 225, SD = 137), with a minimum of CLP $ 25,000 (USD $ 28) and a maximum of CLP $ 600,000 (USD $ 667). Most participants (82.9%) were not engaged in agricultural work, except for a few small-scale producers raising sheep, poultry, or bees using agroecological methods. Eleven percent reported that their partners worked in agricultural activities. The average household size was three individuals (SD = 1.4), encompassing all age groups. Among household members, 27.3% (n = 24) were younger than 14 years, and 14% (n = 12) were between 14 and 18 years of age. Table 1 presents the distribution of participants by sex, marital status, employment status, educational level, and health insurance system. Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants* Characteristic Number of participants Percentage (%) Sex Female 38 46.3 Male 44 53.7 Marital status Married 46 56.1 Single 19 23.2 Cohabiting 8 9.8 Widowed 2 2.4 Separated or divorced 7 8.5 Employment status Currently employed 38 46.9 Retired 25 30.9 Homemaker 10 12.3 Student 2 2.5 Unemployed 6 7.4 Educational level Incomplete primary 8 9.8 Completed primary 18 22.0 Incomplete secondary 11 13.4 Completed secondary 17 20.7 Technical studies 11 13.4 Incomplete university 7 8.5 Completed university 10 12.2 Health insurance system Public 71 87.7 Private 2 2.5 None 7 8.6 Doesn’t know 1 1.2 *Note. Percentages were calculated based on a total of 82 participants. Percentage values may be subject to rounding The distance between participants’ residences and the pig farm (ranged from 2,438 meters to 10,992 meters, with a mean distance of 4,715 meters (SD = 2,225). The median distance was 4,334 meters, indicating a slightly right-skewed distribution, as a few participants lived much farther than the average. No missing data were reported for this variable. Odor perception A large proportion of participants (71%) reported constant exposure to harmful substances present in their environment. In addition, 73% believed that this exposure could negatively affect their intellectual capacity, 75% considered it could impair memory, and 70% perceived that it had already caused bodily harm. Odor-related discomfort was reported as strong or very strong by 88% of respondents. When specifically assessing odor nuisance within their homes, 91% rated it as strong or extremely strong, with 61% assigning the maximum score of 10, corresponding to extreme discomfort. On a nuisance scale ranging from 0 (no nuisance) to 10 (extreme nuisance), 83% rated odor intensity between 8 and 10. Furthermore, 91% considered the odor-related discomfort experienced in their homes to be unacceptable. Regarding perceived sources, 10% attributed the odors to agricultural activities, whereas 71% identified the pig farming industry in the area as the main source. Of the 82 participants, 81 provided qualitative descriptions of the odors they perceived. In response to the question, “Please describe in your own words the main odor nuisance,” the most frequently reported descriptions were as follows: Association with excrement (58.5%) : Most respondents associated the odor with pig manure or organic waste, using expressions such as “pig feces,” “decomposing pig manure,” and “accumulated excrement.” Intensity and unpleasant character (44.0%) : The odor was described as extremely strong, penetrating, and unbearable: “a truly unbearable smell,” “very strong, very foul.” Its persistence was emphasized, especially in the mornings or when windy, with accounts noting that “it travels for kilometers.” Decomposition or putrefaction (18.3%) : Some participants described it as “rotten” or similar to “rotten eggs,” suggesting an association with organic decay processes. Chemical or toxic odor (9.8%) : A smaller group perceived the smell as linked to “chemicals,” “gases,” “sulfur,” or “pesticides,” interpreting it as an industrial or synthetic component mixed with organic matter. Acidic or ammoniacal odor (6.1%) : Several responses mentioned an “acidic,” “bitter,” or “pungent” odor that “stings the nose” or “irritates the eyes,” consistent with compounds such as ammonia or hydrogen sulfide. Mixed or complex odor (7.3%) : Some described combinations of smells difficult to define, such as “mixture of feces and chemicals,” “slaughterhouse odor,” or “indescribable smell, like feces with something dead.” Physiological reactions (24.4%) : Several participants reported physical symptoms upon exposure, including nausea, eye irritation, headache, or faintness: “it makes you want to vomit,” “feels like fainting,” “eye burning.” Avoidance strategies (19.5%) : To reduce exposure, many indicated that they kept their homes sealed or limited outdoor activities: “we close the windows so it doesn’t enter the house,” “you can’t go outside; the air is too polluted.” In the past 12 months, the participants reported taking various actions in response to odor-related discomfort. Over half (57%) considered or formally submitted complaints to authorities, while 43% directly addressed their grievances to those responsible. Social dialogue was also prevalent, 94% of respondents discussed the issue with neighbors, friends, or relatives. Faced with persistent odor exposure, many attempted to adapt: 83% reported making efforts to cope with the situation, and a similar proportion (83%) actively sought solutions to mitigate the odor problem. Behavioral adaptations were frequently reported: 77% of participants used air fresheners, and almost all (99%) kept their windows closed to prevent odor intrusion. The issue also interfered with daily activities, as 49% avoided drying clothes outdoors due to odor exposure. Additionally, 58% expressed a sense of habituation or resignation, acknowledging the persistence of the problem despite its ongoing effects on their surroundings and quality of life. Preliminary exposure to pesticides Within the sample population, 17% reported working in agricultural activities. However, none of them indicated applying pesticides occupationally or feeling passively exposed to these substances during their work. Meanwhile, 57% of participants reported maintaining a vegetable garden or greenhouse, though in 90% of these cases, pesticides were not applied. Those who did report pesticide use mentioned substances such as sulfur or triple superphosphate, which are not classified as highly hazardous according to international standards. In the domestic context, 69% of participants stated that they use pesticides at home to combat fly infestations. The most commonly reported commercial brands and their main active compounds are summarized in Table 2 . Table 2 Pesticides used by participants at home to control flies Pesticide Name No. of Participants Percentage (%) Main Active Compound(s) Not applicable 26 32.1 — Doesn’t recall 2 2.5 — Baygon 3 3.7 Permethrin, d-allethrin Ciperkill 2 2.5 Cypermethrin Ciperkill Plus 5 6.2 Cypermethrin, tetramethrin Raid 29 35.8 Tetramethrin, d-allethrin, permethrin Raid, Sapolio 1 1.2 Raid (pyrethroids), Sapolio (d-tetramethrin, d-phenothrin, d-transallethrin) Raid, Tanax 2 2.5 Pyrethroids + Fenitrothion Raid, Tanax, Ciperkill 2 2.5 Cypermethrin + Pyrethroids + Fenitrothion Raid, Ciperkill 1 1.2 Cypermethrin + Pyrethroids Tanax 4 4.9 Fenitrothion and/or Pyrethroids (variable formulas) Tanax, Raid 4 4.9 Fenitrothion + Pyrethroids Total 81 100 — The pesticides most frequently used by participants to control flies at home contain synthetic pyrethroids (such as cypermethrin, permethrin, d-allethrin, and tetramethrin) as their primary active ingredients, and to a lesser extent, organophosphates such as fenitrothion. A statistically significant association was identified between household pesticide use and odor perception (p = 0.006). Participants who reported using pesticides for fly control exhibited higher levels of odor-related discomfort, more frequently selecting the maximum score (10) on the discomfort scale. Specifically, 61% (n = 50) of pesticide users rated odor discomfort at the highest level. In contrast, non-users reported a median discomfort score of 9 (IQR: 6–10), whereas pesticide users presented a median of 10 with a narrower interquartile range (IQR: 9–10), suggesting a more intense and homogeneous perception of malodor. This pattern is illustrated (Fig. 3 a), showing that household pesticide use was associated with higher levels of olfactory discomfort, potentially reflecting increased fly presence. The analysis also showed a statistically significant difference in residential distance to the pig farming facility according to household insecticide use (p = 0.001). Participants who reported using insecticides in their homes lived significantly closer to the facility (mean = 4,252 m; median = 3,280 m; IQR: 3,000–4,500 m) compared with those who did not use insecticides (mean = 5,805 m; median = 4,627 m; IQR: 4,000–7,500 m). This spatial pattern is illustrated (Fig. 3 b), indicating that household pesticide application was more frequent among residences located nearer to the facility, likely reflecting higher fly density. . (a) (b) (a) Level of odor-related discomfort based on household pesticide use for fly control (b) Household pesticide use for fly control according to residential distance from the pig farming facility These findings indicate that participants are exposed to intense malodors and high fly densities, which are recognized vectors of infectious agents, and that pesticide application inside homes constitutes their sole available mitigation measure (Fig. 4 ). To evaluate the potential role of synanthropic insects as carriers of pesticide residues into domestic environments, chlorpyrifos levels were analyzed in flies collected from participating households. Flies were collected using traps installed in 17 households (n = 34 individuals) to assess the presence of chlorpyrifos residues. For analytical purposes, households were classified into three distance-based tertiles from the pig farming facility: first tertile, 2,869–4,211m; second tertile, 4,293–4,953m; and third tertile, 5,702–10,992m. In total, 68% of participants were exposed to flies with detectable levels of chlorpyrifos, with a median of 0.106 ng/mg per insect (range: 0.025–2.449). Residues were detected in households located between 2,869 and 9,113 m from the facility, with no statistically significant differences between distance groups (p = 0.48), suggesting a wide dispersion. Ninety-five percent of the captured insects corresponded to Musca domestica , a species that proliferates in organic waste and animal feces. Since neither domestic insecticides nor traps contained chlorpyrifos, its presence is attributed to fly exposure in agricultural or livestock areas, from which they may transport residues into households. The finding of live flies with chlorpyrifos in the traps suggests resistance to the compound. With respect to health status and anthropometric characteristics, women had a mean weight of 72.6 kg (SD = 15.4) and a mean height of 1.57 m (SD = 0.07), while men had a mean weight of 81.1 kg (SD = 12.0) and a mean height of 1.70 m (SD = 0.06). The mean body mass index (BMI) was 29.1 kg·m⁻² (SD = 5.6) for women and 27.9 kg·m⁻² (SD = 3.6) for men, placing both groups in the overweight range. Among men, 25% had a normal BMI, 40.9% were overweight, and 34.1% were obese. Among women, 27% had a normal BMI, 29.7% were overweight, and 43.2% were obese. Regarding substance use, 6.2% reported using non-prescription drugs: 2.4% used cannabis and 3.8% used tranquilizers. Alcohol consumption was reported by 37%, though only 2.5% drank three or more times per week. Tobacco use was reported by 29.6%, with 17.5% smoking more than three times per week. As for chronic conditions, 93.9% reported having at least one diagnosed illness, and 79.3% reported having two or more. Additionally, 14.6% had a disability, most frequently physical (9.8%). The most commonly reported illnesses among participants were hypertension (43.9%), heartburn/reflux (42.7%), migraine (34.1%), and gastritis/ulcer (32.9%). Regarding self-reported health symptoms, back pain (84%), headaches or facial pain (67.1%), and bad taste or coated tongue (51.2%) were the most prevalent (Table 3 ). Table 3 Principal diagnosed illnesses and health symptoms (≥ 13% prevalence) and associated odds ratios (95% CI) by odor discomfort level from the pig farming facility, adjusted for age and sex Illness a Cases % Cases OR (95% CI) Odor discomfort level c OR (95% CI) Household pesticide use d Hypertension 36 43.9% 3.28 (1.46–9.39) 0.93 (0.32–2.71) Heartburn/Reflux 35 42.7% 3.34 (1.23–9.08) 1.55 (0.56–4.26) Migraine 28 34.1% 2.25 (0.85–5.92) 5.06 (1.40–18.3) Gastritis/Ulcer 27 32.9% 2.52 (0.90–7.05) 6.09 (1.53–24.3) Sinusitis 24 29.3% 1.09 (0.40–2.95) 1.73 (0.56–5.32) Neurodermatitis 24 29.3% 1.03 (0.27–3.90) 2.02 (0.64–6.37) Allergic contact eczema 21 25.6% 1.30 (0.26–6.41) 5.31 (1.22–23.1) Allergic rhinitis 21 25.6% 1.016 (0.42–3.18) 2.41 (0.69–8.39) Osteoarthritis 20 24.4% 1.47 (0.48–4.50) 2.82 (0.71–11.1) Other allergies 17 20.7% 1.58 (0.48–5.17) 3.99 (0.80–19.7) Asthma 16 19.5% 0.96 (0.25–3.63) 0.64 (0.16–2.53) Bronchitis 13 15.9% 1.00 (0.28–3.46) 6.06 (0.73–50.2) Urticaria 13 15.9% 0.95 (0.95 − 0.27) 2.72 (0.54–13.6) Diabetes 13 15.9% 0.91 (0.26–3.15) 2.56 (0.51–12.8) Health symptoms b Cases % Cases OR (95% CI) Odor discomfort level c OR (95% CI) Household pesticide use d Back pain 68 84% 0.97 (0.28–3.35) 2.00 (0.57-7.00) Head and facial pain 55 67.1% 1.45 (0.55–3.79) 2.18 (0.78–6.10) Bad taste/coated tongue 42 51.2% 1.34 (0.51–3.55) 1.02 (0.37–2.77) Nausea 39 48.2% 1.96 (0.76–5.02) 2.09 (0.75–5.84) Shortness of breath (no exertion) 38 46.9% 2.72 (1.05–7.05) 1.45 (0.54–3.91) Loss of appetite 33 41.3% 2.91 (1.08–7.81) 1.02 (0.37–2.77) Other symptoms 26 32.1% 1.06 (0.40–2.81) 1.07 (0.37–3.03) Vomiting 18 22.2% 3.29 (0.88–12.2) 1.28 (0.37–4.43) Loss of sensation 11 13.6% 3.11 (0.61–15.7) 1.06 (0.25–4.54) a Diagnosed and managed illnesses among participants (Participants may have more than one illness); b Physical ailments reported in the past two years (Participants may report more than one ailment); c Odor discomfort level: 0 = moderate to low unpleasant odor, 1 = extremely unpleasant odor; d Household pesticide use: 0 = No use, 1 = Reported use Among the less prevalent diseases reported in the community were food allergies and hypothyroidism, each accounting for 8.5% of cases. Less frequent conditions included dyslipidemia (6.1%), as well as cancer and spinal injuries (4.9%). Stroke and visual refraction disorders were each observed in 3.7% of participants. Finally, heart disease, hyperthyroidism, and neutropenia were rarely reported, with a frequency of 1.2%. Although these conditions are less common compared to other more prevalent illnesses in the population, their presence highlights a diversity of health problems that also require medical attention and specialized follow-up. After adjustment for age and sex, several associations were statistically significant (Table 3 ). Participants reporting high odor discomfort had higher odds of hypertension (OR = 3.28; 95% CI: 1.46–9.39) and heartburn/reflux (OR = 3.34; 95% CI: 1.23–9.08). In terms of health symptoms, high odor discomfort was also associated with greater odds of shortness of breath without exertion (OR = 2.72; 95% CI: 1.05–7.05) and loss of appetite (OR = 2.91; 95% CI: 1.08–7.81). Additionally, household pesticide use was significantly associated with several conditions. Pesticide users showed increased odds of migraine (OR = 5.06; 95% CI: 1.40–18.3), gastritis/ulcer (OR = 6.09; 95% CI: 1.53–24.3), and allergic contact eczema (OR = 5.31; 95% CI: 1.22–23.1). This biplot (Fig. 5 ) explained 64.7% of the variance in the data and showed a mean Cronbach’s alpha reliability of 0.636. On axis 1 (Dimension 1), a separation was observed between categories of low exposure perception (low odor intensity and annoyance, attribution to agricultural activities) and those of high exposure perception (high odor intensity and annoyance, attribution to the pig industry). Axis 2 (Dimension 2) distinguished between responses linked to health effects (loss of appetite, breathing difficulties) and those of lesser impact. The proximity of categories indicated that high odor intensity and annoyance were closely associated with symptoms such as loss of appetite and breathing difficulties, as well as with household pesticide use and female gender, suggesting a pattern of greater vulnerability. In contrast, low intensity and annoyance were related to attributing odor to agriculture, reflecting a lower perception of risk. The perceived level of odor was significantly associated with the discomfort it generates (r = 0.240; 95% CI: 0.048–0.481) and with odor intensity (r = 0.426; 95% CI: 0.203–0.607). In turn, odor intensity was associated with perceptions of polluted air (r = 0.378; 95% CI: 0.150–0.582), reinforcing the idea that stronger odors are perceived as indicators of poor environmental quality (Fig. 6 ). The strongest relationship was found between odor level and the degree of annoyance it produced (r = 0.503; 95% CI: 0.328–0.658), confirming that higher levels of olfactory exposure are directly associated with a more negative experience. However, no correlation was observed between odor-related discomfort and odor acceptability (r = 0.000; 95% CI: − 0.206 to 0.167), which suggests a phenomenon of adaptation or resignation among the population: although odors are highly disturbing, this does not necessarily change the perception that they can be tolerated in everyday life. Discussion The expansion of intensive pig farming in rural areas represents a transformation of local ecosystems and socio-territorial dynamics. This production model operates under a logic of accumulation by dispossession, restructuring land use through the intensive exploitation of natural resources (land, water, and energy) while externalizing environmental and health costs. This creates structural tensions between industrial practices and traditional forms of inhabiting rural territories, giving rise to socio-environmental conflicts that undermine the rights and wellbeing of local communities [ 29 ]. From an environmental perspective, industrial pig farming is a major contributor to livestock-related emissions. The fattening and breeding stages account for 60–80% of greenhouse gases (GHG) generated in the production chain, mainly through feed production and transport, as well as the anaerobic fermentation of organic waste. These emissions include methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂), all with high global warming potential. Key determinants are manure and slurry management and the type of energy used in facilities. To reduce these emissions, the literature recommends anaerobic digestion technologies for biogas production, improved waste treatment systems, and the integration of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind [ 30 , 31 ]. Evidence from different countries has shown that odor emissions from pig farming facilities are frequent in nearby communities and associated with deterioration in quality of life [ 32 , 33 ]. In the present study, odor perception was consistently reported across all evaluated localities, regardless of distance from the plant, which suggests atmospheric dispersion of volatile compounds beyond the immediate area. Residents described odors similar to feces and decomposing organic matter, clearly associating them with the activities of the pig facility. The use of measures such as keeping windows closed or applying pesticides indicates how residents manage environmental conditions perceived as unfavorable. This situation points to the need for mitigation and odor-control measures that incorporate community participation and are supported by systematic environmental health monitoring. Sustained exposure to agro-industrial odors, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), combined with the proliferation of flies, constitutes a public health concern. Previous studies have associated this type of exposure with nonspecific somatic complaints, as well as with adverse effects on mental health and overall quality of life [ 33 – 38 ]. Consistent with this evidence, higher odor perception was reported among individuals experiencing physical symptoms, particularly respiratory difficulties and loss of appetite. The elevated prevalence of diagnoses such as gastroesophageal reflux, hypertension, and migraine, together with symptoms that lacked a clear medical explanation, indicates a significant health burden. This may reflect both physiological responses to environmental exposures and the consequences of chronic stress associated with deteriorated living conditions. Although only a small proportion of participants reported working in conventional agriculture and none indicated occupational exposure as pesticide applicators, domestic use of these products was frequent and, in several cases, higher than expected for routine pest control. This practice was more common among individuals reporting greater odor-related discomfort, suggesting a reactive response to persistent fly presence rather than a standard preventive measure. In addition, pesticide use was more prevalent in households located closer to the facility, indicating that proximity to the source may contribute to higher vector density and, consequently, increase the demand for intensified domestic pesticide use This finding indicates additional environmental health concerns, as the reported products contained pyrethroids and organophosphates (OPs), substances associated with long-term health effects, including reproductive disorders, cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, neurocognitive alterations, and cancer [ 39 , 40 ]. The detection of chlorpyrifos in flies collected from households, despite the absence of this compound in domestic products or traps, indicates the presence of external environmental sources. This suggests diffuse contamination in which insects transport agrochemicals from nearby agricultural or livestock areas. The survival of flies in the traps despite detectable residues also suggests possible resistance, a phenomenon previously documented in rural settings with intensive pesticide use [ 41 ]. In previous studies conducted in this area [ 42 ], morphometric alterations have been observed in Musca domestica exposed to organophosphates, indicating reduced developmental stability and changes in wing morphology. These findings are consistent with evidence that physiological adaptations associated with resistance can also be expressed phenotypically, potentially affecting flight capacity and dispersal, and thereby contributing to the movement of contaminants across residential environments. No significant differences in chlorpyrifos levels were observed according to distance from the facility. This pattern may be explained by the high mobility of flies, which can transport residues across broad areas and reduce the ability to distinguish exposure gradients. The presence of other local pesticide application sources cannot be ruled out [ 40 – 41 ]. This finding reflects a persistent issue in Chile, given that chlorpyrifos has been banned since 2022; however, current regulations allow remaining stocks to be used until fully depleted [ 28 ]. Similar patterns have been reported in other studies that detected metabolites of pesticides, prohibited in Chile for more than a decade, in the urine of rural schoolchildren [ 12 ]. These results occur within a national context of intensive pesticide use. According to the 2023 official report on phytosanitary product sales in Chile, 53,140,392 kg/L of formulations were distributed, with the Maule Region ranking second and accounting for 16.6% of the national total [ 15 ]. This finding indicates a chemical burden for rural populations, often in areas with limited regulatory oversight and monitoring capacity. Direct intervention by the agencies responsible for enforcing this regulation is therefore needed, including measures that go beyond sanctions to include education and communication with companies and nearby communities about the health and environmental risks associated with these agrochemicals, the promotion of safer alternatives, and the dissemination of reporting mechanisms for identifying and addressing inadequate agricultural practices. Limitation From a methodological perspective, the study is limited by the availability of only a single measurement of exposure and health variables. Although the sample size is small, it represents the community and shows a balanced distribution by sex and age. The socioeconomic profile of participants, marked by low income and reduced educational attainment, reflects conditions that may constrain community capacity to address environmental and health risks. This is consistent with literature linking agrochemical exposure to structural inequalities and increased social vulnerability in rural areas [ 43 ]. One strength of this study is the active participation of local communities, which increased its social relevance and reinforced its ethical dimensions. Collaboration between territorial organizations and academic teams enabled a more accurate characterization of the situation and contributed to making an environmental health problem visible beyond the local setting. This experience demonstrates the value of research grounded in local contexts, integrating community knowledge and supporting initiatives aimed at environmental justice and the protection of collective rights. Conclusion The environmental conditions in “El Arbolillo” and nearby areas between San Javier and Cauquenes indicate a localized environmental health problem linked to intensive pig farming. The findings show that this activity produces waste and odor emissions associated with vector proliferation and frequent odor perception among residents. Households have adopted various measures, including the use of indoor pesticides, to address fly density and odor-related discomfort. The detection of chlorpyrifos residues in flies suggests that banned pesticides may remain in the environment and be transported through local ecological pathways. Together, these exposures point to an accumulated environmental burden in a setting characterized by social and health vulnerabilities. Public agencies should reinforce surveillance, environmental management, and regulatory enforcement to prevent contamination and protect community health. Priority actions include improving waste treatment, reducing odor emissions, and implementing participatory processes that involve residents in decision-making and risk monitoring. Abbreviations AChE Acetylcholinesterase BMI Body mass index CH₄ Methane CI Confidence interval CLP Chilean peso CO₂ Carbon dioxide DUA Data Use Agreement FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GC–MS/MS Gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry GHG Greenhouse gas emissions gLASSO Graphical least absolute shrinkage and selection operator HS-SPME Headspace solid-phase microextraction IBM International Business Machines INDH National Institute for Human Rights (Instituto Nacional de Derechos Humanos) INE National Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas) INN National Institute for Standardization (Instituto Nacional de Normalización) IQR Interquartile range LAC Latin America and the Caribbean LOD Limit of detection LOQ Limit of quantification MCA Multiple correspondence analysis m/z Mass-to-charge ratio N₂O Nitrous oxide NCh Chilean Standard (Norma Chilena) ODEPA Office of Agricultural Studies and Policies (Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias) OP Organophosphate OR Odds ratio PDMS/CAR/DVB Polydimethylsiloxane/Carboxen/Divinylbenzene SAG Agricultural and Livestock Service (Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero) SEA Environmental Assessment Service (Servicio de Evaluación Ambiental) SD Standard deviation SMA Superintendence of the Environment (Superintendencia del Medio Ambiente) SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SRM Selected reaction monitoring USD United States dollar VOCs Volatile organic compounds VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (Association of German Engineers) Declarations Acknowledgements We thank the residents of the El Arbolillo sector for their collaboration throughout the study. We also acknowledge the support of the community organization Maule Sur por la Vida and the National Institute of Human Rights (Instituto Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Maule Region office) for their sustained commitment to environmental and public health issues in the region. We are grateful to the local teams who assisted with field logistics, sample collection, and community coordination. Author s’ contributions S.P. participated in the conceptualization of the study, formal analysis, data interpretation, visualization, and manuscript writing. R.H., J.N., J.T., A.P., J.A., F.C., and B.F. participated in the conceptualization, data interpretation, and manuscript writing. C.V., L.Z.-V., and B.C. participated in the investigation, data curation, funding acquisition, and manuscript writing. B.L., C.C., J.P.G.-J., and N.L. participated in the investigation, formal analysis, and manuscript revision. M.T.M.-Q. conceived and supervised the study and participated in the methodology, validation, investigation, formal analysis, data curation, funding acquisition, and manuscript writing. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Funding This research is part of a broader project funded by the National Institute for Human Rights (INDH) and the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development (FONDECYT Regular No. 1240899). Availability of data and materials The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to confidentiality protections. De-identified data may be requested from the corresponding author and will be shared upon reasonable request and ethics committee approval. Additional information about the chlorpyrifos detection procedures can also be obtained by contacting the corresponding author. Ethics approval and consent to participate The study protocol and informed consent procedures were reviewed and approved by the Scientific Ethics Committee of the Universidad Católica del Maule (Record No. 165/2023). The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and local regulatory requirements. All participants received written and verbal information about the study objectives and procedures, participation was voluntary, and written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection. Consent for publication All authors consent for the publication of this research article. Competing interests No conflict of interest identified. All authors declare no competing interests. Author details 1 Medical Specialty in Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile 2 School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile 3 Master of Public Health, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile 4 Department of Agricultural Production, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8820808, Chile 5 School of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile 6 Center for Advanced Studies of Maule, Vice-Rectory for Research and Graduate Studies, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile 7 Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile 8 Oncology Center, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile 9 Epidemiology Program, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile References Food and Agriculture Organization. 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Rev Bras Epidemiol. 2020;23:e200027. 10.1590/1980-549720200 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 05 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 05 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 26 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 20 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 06 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Jan, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 29 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 23 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bárbara","middleName":"","lastName":"Figueroa","suffix":""},{"id":583383513,"identity":"6019679d-56b8-46e1-8347-174a39302715","order_by":8,"name":"Cristian Valdés","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cristian","middleName":"","lastName":"Valdés","suffix":""},{"id":583383517,"identity":"4497d1ce-8fb6-4580-9695-7d39cf827c83","order_by":9,"name":"Liliana Zúñiga-Venegas","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Liliana","middleName":"","lastName":"Zúñiga-Venegas","suffix":""},{"id":583383518,"identity":"8105f1f4-9a79-43cf-81bc-3cb1def9be3c","order_by":10,"name":"Benjamín Castillo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benjamín","middleName":"","lastName":"Castillo","suffix":""},{"id":583383519,"identity":"76d0015f-633f-481e-b0be-6b1a53a0b90a","order_by":11,"name":"Boris Lucero","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Boris","middleName":"","lastName":"Lucero","suffix":""},{"id":583383520,"identity":"94cf7ef1-0e27-47de-8560-5cde05b75a2e","order_by":12,"name":"Cynthia Carrasco","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cynthia","middleName":"","lastName":"Carrasco","suffix":""},{"id":583383521,"identity":"762bb1e2-efaf-4eba-b4cb-c0ef8f3ee966","order_by":13,"name":"Juan Pablo Gutiérrez-Jara","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Juan","middleName":"Pablo","lastName":"Gutiérrez-Jara","suffix":""},{"id":583383522,"identity":"c2c41771-a03f-4ac2-904b-9b8a2eb3da94","order_by":14,"name":"Natalia Landeros","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Católica del Maule","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Natalia","middleName":"","lastName":"Landeros","suffix":""},{"id":583383523,"identity":"70dee8f1-8842-43fa-8a47-754d2bc4356e","order_by":15,"name":"María Teresa Muñoz-Quezada","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAsUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBADOQYGHoYDD4AsPoJq2SCUMVhLAkKAsJbEBqAWBqK06M7vTpMuqKhL33D87MEDCRUM8gS1mB3j3SY94wxb7oYzeQkHEs4wGLYRpYW3jSd3ww0egwOJbQwJxNnC2yaRbgDW8o94LQYJEC0NRGnJ3WzNcybBcOaZHIMDCcckiPDL4bMbb/NU1MnzHT9j/OFDjY08PyEt6ECCVA2jYBSMglEwCrABAPdiOvH0sgXwAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"María","middleName":"Teresa","lastName":"Muñoz-Quezada","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-09 15:38:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8319430/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8319430/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101787762,"identity":"724edd31-6b30-47dd-a744-4c6a17c14fbd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 15:50:41","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":239127,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpacts on people’s health and the environment, as a result of the intensification of the pig and agricultural industry\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/3f83d7aceb234856e7dfea0f.png"},{"id":101880543,"identity":"4a0cdc16-c05f-4d94-8372-be003422f2fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-04 15:03:26","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1477584,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSatellite map of the “El Arbolillo” sector, located between the communes of San Javier and Cauquenes in the Maule Region. The pig farming facility is marked with a red dot at the center of the image*\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e* Source: Google Earth. [Satellite image of the \"El Arbolillo\" sector, Maule Region]. Captured on November 15, 2023. Accessed on May 25, 2025. Location of the “El Arbolillo” sector and the pig farm (red point)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/f24c2ed08a39ff7652ff56f5.png"},{"id":101787761,"identity":"44d749eb-8fe2-4acd-af8b-9d7d702abf28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 15:50:41","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44184,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOdor-related discomfort and household pesticide use for fly control in relation to residential distance from the pig farming facility\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u003c/strong\u003e Level of \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;odor-related discomfort based on household pesticide use for fly control\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(b)\u003c/strong\u003e Household \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;pesticide use for fly control according to residential distance from the pig \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;farming facility\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/722ca0ae2e386d7f3353170a.png"},{"id":101787765,"identity":"326276ec-d7be-4438-91da-3233f2739a34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 15:50:41","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":826750,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHigh presence of \u003cem\u003eMusca domestica\u003c/em\u003e in a household near the pig farming facility and specimens captured in adhesive traps\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/9630661c714b7f6745dd4017.png"},{"id":101787763,"identity":"924620e1-ee32-480b-af72-3bcd1d68c41a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 15:50:41","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100682,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagram of joint categories of perceptions of odor, gender, use of pesticides in the home, and health effects.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/b9e2a697ff0bc9de287f3795.png"},{"id":101787764,"identity":"38c66d38-0694-442d-973f-2b88d542efd3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 15:50:41","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97688,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUndirected network based on perceptions obtained about the odor\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/ab5cca2992640cd810284ddc.png"},{"id":101882089,"identity":"6a9cb186-7082-4369-b483-67c7bf867551","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-04 15:20:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4429111,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8319430/v1/58254b68-4ac5-470d-82fb-6aad2c79b120.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Cross-sectional analysis of odor exposure, household pesticides, and chlorpyrifos residues in flies in Chilean rural communities","fulltext":[{"header":"Contributions to the Literature","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThis study provides the first evidence from Chile and Latin America and the Caribbean showing how strong odors, household pesticide use, and pesticide residues in flies can occur together in rural communities living near intensive pig farming.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIt adds to population health research by showing that people reporting stronger odor discomfort are also more likely to use insecticides at home and to report certain health conditions, helping to understand everyday exposure and coping in affected communities.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBy detecting chlorpyrifos in flies collected inside homes, the study suggests that insects may carry pesticides from nearby agricultural or livestock activities into residential spaces, highlighting an overlooked environmental exposure pathway relevant for public health policy.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in 2019, agrifood systems were responsible for 17\u0026nbsp;billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, accounting for 31% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. It is estimated that pig manure management alone contributed 18% of these emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The sustained growth in global meat demand, driven by population increase and greater consumption of animal-based products, limits progress toward global climate commitments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Latin America and the Caribbean, agrifood systems account for nearly half of the region's GHG emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, over the past 50 years, human activity in the Amazon has led to the loss of 17% of the original forest area, with 14% of the land converted for agricultural use, mainly pasture for livestock (89%) and, to a lesser extent, crops (10%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Chile, the forestry and agricultural sector plays a central role in the national economy. In 2022, the regions with the highest contribution to the sector\u0026rsquo;s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) were O\u0026rsquo;Higgins (22.1%), Maule (17.6%), and the Metropolitan Region (11.8%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In 2021, national meat production reached 818,385.5 tonnes, with pigs accounting for 72% of all animals slaughtered. Within this production, the Maule Region ranked second in pork output, reaching 47,453.8 tonnes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the main waste products generated by the pork industry are \u0026ldquo;slurry\u0026rdquo;, a mixture of feces, urine, and water from cleaning rearing facilities. This waste is channeled through separation and treatment systems for subsequent storage or application as fertilizer in nearby agricultural fields [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe intensification of pig farming has environmental impacts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), particularly regarding slurry management. Key impacts include contamination of surface and groundwater, soil degradation linked to excess nutrient accumulation, salinization, and changes in soil microbiota. The activity also releases gases such as nitrogen oxides, methane, and hydrogen sulfide, which contribute to global warming, atmospheric acidification, and unpleasant odors. In addition, it promotes the proliferation of vectors such as flies and rodents, creating further public health and ecological risks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of human health, physical symptoms such as nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, appetite loss, headaches, and eye and respiratory irritation have been reported. On the psychosocial level, symptoms include anxiety, depression, insomnia, distress, feelings of isolation, and weakened social cohesion [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo increase productivity and control pests, the agricultural sector has expanded pesticide use, with organophosphates (OPs) among the most commonly applied [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. In Chile, the OPs with the highest sales in 2023 were chlorpyrifos, malathion, and diazinon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. In acute exposures, their primary toxicological mechanism is the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, leading to cholinergic syndrome [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. In chronic or repeated low-dose exposures, proposed mechanisms include oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, disruptions in calcium homeostasis, and alterations in neurotransmitters such as serotonin and glutamate, which have been associated with cognitive impairment, depression, anxiety, and neurodevelopmental disorders [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Maule Region, particularly in the areas of San Javier and Cauquenes, a persistent socio-environmental conflict emerged after the establishment in 2008 of a pig farming facility in the \u0026ldquo;El Arbolillo\u0026rdquo; sector, approved by the Environmental Assessment Service (SEA). In 2019, the Superintendence of the Environment (SMA) filed charges citing multiple violations, including inadequate slurry management, failure to comply with biological monitoring requirements, and lack of measures to mitigate odor emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. That same year, the National Institute for Human Rights (INDH) filed a constitutional protection appeal, which was upheld by the Supreme Court, establishing that the right to live in an environment free from contamination had been infringed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a control strategy, the company applied pesticides to reduce pest populations. At the same time, many households in the area also began using them domestically in response to the massive fly infestation. The communities have reported this phenomenon as part of the ongoing conflict, highlighting the link between strong odors and the proliferation of disease vectors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. However, to date, no systematic assessment has been conducted to describe the relationship between odor perception and the health status of exposed residents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven this context, the objective of the present study was to investigate the perception of odour emissions, health conditions, and exposure to household pesticides in rural communities situated near a pig farm in the Maule Region, Chile. Additionally, the study included the detection of chlorpyrifos residues in flies collected from homes situated at varying distances from the plant, with the aim of identifying potential environmental exposure pathways to this organophosphate compound.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study provides, for the first time, evidence from direct testimonies obtained using a validated odor annoyance assessment questionnaire in Chile [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. It also characterizes household pesticide use within a context of intensified vector proliferation, particularly flies, associated with agro-industrial odor emissions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted using a random sample of 95 adults (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;18 years), of both sexes, who had resided for at least one year within a 10-kilometer radius of the El Arbolillo sector. Individuals with a previous diagnosis of neurological disorders or problematic alcohol use were excluded. Fieldwork was conducted between December 2023 and January 2024.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePopulation and participants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population comprised residents of \u0026ldquo;El Arbolillo\u0026rdquo;, a rural locality situated between the municipalities of San Javier and Cauquenes, in the Maule Region of Chile. According to the 2024 National Census, these municipalities reported populations of 49,559 and 42,798 inhabitants, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Since 2008, this area has been affected by a socio-environmental conflict linked to the establishment of the \u0026ldquo;10,000-sow pig production facility San Agust\u0026iacute;n del Arbolillo\u0026rdquo;, located at kilometer 25 of the Los Conquistadores highway [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. The communities exposed are concentrated within a 20-kilometer radius, encompassing approximately 1,299 households and 5,196 residents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. According to data from the \u0026ldquo;Maule Sur por la Vida\u0026rdquo; organization, around 300 people live in the closest area (El Arbolillo sector), of whom 200 are adults.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample size was determined based on a previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], which identified differences in mean cognitive performance between adults exposed and unexposed to organophosphate pesticides. Considering that and applying oversampling to increase statistical power, a minimum sample size of 60 participants was established.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eVariables and data collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOdor perception was assessed using the standardized questionnaire from Chilean Norm NCh 3387:2015, harmonized with German standard VDI 3883 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. The instrument includes letter-coded modules: Module K assesses housing context (items K1\u0026ndash;K5), odor intensity and frequency, annoyance level (on a 0\u0026ndash;10 thermometric scale), qualitative descriptions of the odor, and presumed sources (items K17\u0026ndash;K22). Additional modules assess coping strategies (C), environmental concern (U), and general health status, including diagnosed diseases and non-specific symptoms (G).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn additional questionnaire collected sociodemographic, occupational, environmental exposure, and general health data [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Variables included age, sex, education level, type of health insurance, household per capita income, occupation, years of employment, disability status, and history of pesticide exposure in domestic and occupational settings. Weight (kg) and height (m) were recorded to calculate Body Mass Index (BMI).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess pesticide exposure, adhesive traps without chemical attractants were installed in 17 households located at varying distances from a pig farming facility. These homes, housing a total of 34 residents, were selected to capture flies and to evaluate the presence of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate pesticide banned in Chile in 2022 but still marketed until stocks were depleted, thereby remaining widely available in 2023 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Chlorpyrifos has historically been used to control flies in agricultural and livestock environments. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows a satellite map of the \u003cem\u003eEl Arbolillo\u003c/em\u003e area, where the pig facility is located (red button in the center of the map image); the circled area indicates the sampling zone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo capture insects, black lithographed cardboard traps, eco-friendly and non-toxic, designed for integrated pest management, were used. Each unit is easy to use and can be disposed of responsibly, remaining effective for up to 30 days; in this study, they were left in place for one week in common household areas, out of reach of children and pets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe collected samples were analyzed at the Bioprocess Laboratory of the Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule using headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Volatile compounds were extracted using PDMS/CAR/DVB-coated fibers, exposed at 105\u0026deg;C for 40 minutes. The fibers were then introduced into a GC-MS/MS system (Thermo TSQ DUO model) operating in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode with helium as the carrier gas. Quantification of chlorpyrifos was performed using a specific calibration curve, with ion 169 m/z for qualification and 79 m/z for quantification. The method achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.6 ng/g and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 12 ng/g. Data processing was conducted using Chromeleon software, version 7.2.10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e* Source: Google Earth. [Satellite image of the \"El Arbolillo\" sector, Maule Region]. Captured on November 15, 2023. Accessed on May 25, 2025. Location of the \u0026ldquo;El Arbolillo\u0026rdquo; sector and the pig farm (red point)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive analyses included measures of central tendency (mean, median), dispersion (standard deviation [SD], interquartile range [IQR]), proportions, and percentiles (25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th). Group differences were assessed using the Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test. Four multivariable logistic regression models were constructed to estimate associations between odor discomfort, household pesticide use, and both diagnosed illnesses and self-reported symptoms. Odor discomfort (measured on a 1\u0026ndash;10 scale) was dichotomized as 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;extreme discomfort (score of 10) and 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;low to moderate discomfort (scores 1 to 9). Household pesticide use was coded as 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes (use reported) and 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no (no use reported). All models were adjusted for age and sex, and odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were reported. All statistical analyses were performed in Stata v19.5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore associations among categorical variables, including odor intensity (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;imperceptible to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;extremely strong), odor annoyance (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;extremely), odor source (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;vehicular traffic, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;industry, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;agriculture, 9\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;others), household insecticide use (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes), loss of appetite (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes), breathing difficulties (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes), and gender (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;female, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;male), a multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was conducted using principal normalization. A biplot was generated to display categories on a two-dimensional map, where spatial proximity indicates association. MCA was conducted in IBM SPSS v25.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, structural relationships between odor intensity, odor discomfort (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no discomfort to 10\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;extremely uncomfortable), perceived odor acceptability (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;acceptable, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not acceptable, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not applicable), and perceived air pollution (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not affected to 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very affected) were examined using a graphical least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (gLASSO). Data were numerically coded, standardized as z-scores, and used to estimate both the precision and partial correlation matrices. An undirected network of direct associations was then constructed using Python 3.0 and the NetworkX library.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study protocol, including the informed consent form, was approved by the Scientific Ethics Committee of the Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule (Record No. 165/2023). The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were thoroughly informed about the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives and procedures, and their participation was entirely voluntary.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e We report this study according to the STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study included 82 adult participants (four participants were excluded for not meeting the minimum age criterion; three had disabilities that limited their ability to respond to the health condition questionnaires, and the remaining six did not complete at least two of the required questionnaires to assess health status or odor perception), of whom 46.3% were women and 53.7% men, with a mean age of 53.8 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.6). A total of 42 households were surveyed. The average duration of residence in the area was 17 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22), ranging from 1 to 70 years. The vast majority of participants (99%) lived in owner-occupied housing. The average per capita monthly income was CLP \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e203,019 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;123,630; approx. USD \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e225, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;137), with a minimum of CLP \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e25,000 (USD \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e28) and a maximum of CLP \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e600,000 (USD \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e667).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Most participants (82.9%) were not engaged in agricultural work, except for a few small-scale producers raising sheep, poultry, or bees using agroecological methods. Eleven percent reported that their partners worked in agricultural activities. The average household size was three individuals (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.4), encompassing all age groups. Among household members, 27.3% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24) were younger than 14 years, and 14% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12) were between 14 and 18 years of age. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the distribution of participants by sex, marital status, employment status, educational level, and health insurance system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the participants*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSex\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMarital status\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCohabiting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparated or divorced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmployment status\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrently employed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetired\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHomemaker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEducational level\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncomplete primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncomplete secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical studies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncomplete university\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted university\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHealth insurance system\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoesn\u0026rsquo;t know\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e*Note.\u003c/b\u003e Percentages were calculated based on a total of 82 participants. Percentage values may be subject to rounding\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distance between participants\u0026rsquo; residences and the pig farm (ranged from 2,438 meters to 10,992 meters, with a mean distance of 4,715 meters (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2,225). The median distance was 4,334 meters, indicating a slightly right-skewed distribution, as a few participants lived much farther than the average. No missing data were reported for this variable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOdor perception\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA large proportion of participants (71%) reported constant exposure to harmful substances present in their environment. In addition, 73% believed that this exposure could negatively affect their intellectual capacity, 75% considered it could impair memory, and 70% perceived that it had already caused bodily harm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdor-related discomfort was reported as strong or very strong by 88% of respondents. When specifically assessing odor nuisance within their homes, 91% rated it as strong or extremely strong, with 61% assigning the maximum score of 10, corresponding to extreme discomfort. On a nuisance scale ranging from 0 (no nuisance) to 10 (extreme nuisance), 83% rated odor intensity between 8 and 10. Furthermore, 91% considered the odor-related discomfort experienced in their homes to be unacceptable. Regarding perceived sources, 10% attributed the odors to agricultural activities, whereas 71% identified the pig farming industry in the area as the main source.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Of the 82 participants, 81 provided qualitative descriptions of the odors they perceived. In response to the question, \u0026ldquo;Please describe in your own words the main odor nuisance,\u0026rdquo; the most frequently reported descriptions were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAssociation with excrement (58.5%)\u003c/b\u003e: Most respondents associated the odor with pig manure or organic waste, using expressions such as \u0026ldquo;pig feces,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;decomposing pig manure,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;accumulated excrement.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntensity and unpleasant character (44.0%)\u003c/b\u003e: The odor was described as extremely strong, penetrating, and unbearable: \u0026ldquo;a truly unbearable smell,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;very strong, very foul.\u0026rdquo; Its persistence was emphasized, especially in the mornings or when windy, with accounts noting that \u0026ldquo;it travels for kilometers.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDecomposition or putrefaction (18.3%)\u003c/b\u003e: Some participants described it as \u0026ldquo;rotten\u0026rdquo; or similar to \u0026ldquo;rotten eggs,\u0026rdquo; suggesting an association with organic decay processes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChemical or toxic odor (9.8%)\u003c/b\u003e: A smaller group perceived the smell as linked to \u0026ldquo;chemicals,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;gases,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;sulfur,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;pesticides,\u0026rdquo; interpreting it as an industrial or synthetic component mixed with organic matter.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAcidic or ammoniacal odor (6.1%)\u003c/b\u003e: Several responses mentioned an \u0026ldquo;acidic,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;bitter,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;pungent\u0026rdquo; odor that \u0026ldquo;stings the nose\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;irritates the eyes,\u0026rdquo; consistent with compounds such as ammonia or hydrogen sulfide.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMixed or complex odor (7.3%)\u003c/b\u003e: Some described combinations of smells difficult to define, such as \u0026ldquo;mixture of feces and chemicals,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;slaughterhouse odor,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;indescribable smell, like feces with something dead.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhysiological reactions (24.4%)\u003c/b\u003e: Several participants reported physical symptoms upon exposure, including nausea, eye irritation, headache, or faintness: \u0026ldquo;it makes you want to vomit,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;feels like fainting,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;eye burning.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAvoidance strategies (19.5%)\u003c/b\u003e: To reduce exposure, many indicated that they kept their homes sealed or limited outdoor activities: \u0026ldquo;we close the windows so it doesn\u0026rsquo;t enter the house,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;you can\u0026rsquo;t go outside; the air is too polluted.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the past 12 months, the participants reported taking various actions in response to odor-related discomfort. Over half (57%) considered or formally submitted complaints to authorities, while 43% directly addressed their grievances to those responsible. Social dialogue was also prevalent, 94% of respondents discussed the issue with neighbors, friends, or relatives. Faced with persistent odor exposure, many attempted to adapt: 83% reported making efforts to cope with the situation, and a similar proportion (83%) actively sought solutions to mitigate the odor problem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Behavioral adaptations were frequently reported: 77% of participants used air fresheners, and almost all (99%) kept their windows closed to prevent odor intrusion. The issue also interfered with daily activities, as 49% avoided drying clothes outdoors due to odor exposure. Additionally, 58% expressed a sense of habituation or resignation, acknowledging the persistence of the problem despite its ongoing effects on their surroundings and quality of life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreliminary exposure to pesticides\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the sample population, 17% reported working in agricultural activities. However, none of them indicated applying pesticides occupationally or feeling passively exposed to these substances during their work. Meanwhile, 57% of participants reported maintaining a vegetable garden or greenhouse, though in 90% of these cases, pesticides were not applied. Those who did report pesticide use mentioned substances such as sulfur or triple superphosphate, which are not classified as highly hazardous according to international standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the domestic context, 69% of participants stated that they use pesticides at home to combat fly infestations. The most commonly reported commercial brands and their main active compounds are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePesticides used by participants at home to control flies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePesticide Name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of Participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain Active Compound(s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoesn\u0026rsquo;t recall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaygon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePermethrin, d-allethrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCiperkill\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCypermethrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCiperkill Plus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCypermethrin, tetramethrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTetramethrin, d-allethrin, permethrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaid, Sapolio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaid (pyrethroids), Sapolio (d-tetramethrin, d-phenothrin, d-transallethrin)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaid, Tanax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrethroids\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Fenitrothion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaid, Tanax, Ciperkill\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCypermethrin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Pyrethroids\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Fenitrothion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaid, Ciperkill\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCypermethrin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Pyrethroids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTanax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFenitrothion and/or Pyrethroids (variable formulas)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTanax, Raid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFenitrothion\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Pyrethroids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The pesticides most frequently used by participants to control flies at home contain synthetic pyrethroids (such as cypermethrin, permethrin, d-allethrin, and tetramethrin) as their primary active ingredients, and to a lesser extent, organophosphates such as fenitrothion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA statistically significant association was identified between household pesticide use and odor perception (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006). Participants who reported using pesticides for fly control exhibited higher levels of odor-related discomfort, more frequently selecting the maximum score (10) on the discomfort scale. Specifically, 61% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50) of pesticide users rated odor discomfort at the highest level. In contrast, non-users reported a median discomfort score of 9 (IQR: 6\u0026ndash;10), whereas pesticide users presented a median of 10 with a narrower interquartile range (IQR: 9\u0026ndash;10), suggesting a more intense and homogeneous perception of malodor. This pattern is illustrated (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea), showing that household pesticide use was associated with higher levels of olfactory discomfort, potentially reflecting increased fly presence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The analysis also showed a statistically significant difference in residential distance to the pig farming facility according to household insecticide use (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). Participants who reported using insecticides in their homes lived significantly closer to the facility (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4,252 m; median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3,280 m; IQR: 3,000\u0026ndash;4,500 m) compared with those who did not use insecticides (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5,805 m; median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4,627 m; IQR: 4,000\u0026ndash;7,500 m). This spatial pattern is illustrated (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb), indicating that household pesticide application was more frequent among residences located nearer to the facility, likely reflecting higher fly density.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e Level of odor-related discomfort based on household pesticide use for fly control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e Household pesticide use for fly control according to residential distance from the pig farming facility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings indicate that participants are exposed to intense malodors and high fly densities, which are recognized vectors of infectious agents, and that pesticide application inside homes constitutes their sole available mitigation measure (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the potential role of synanthropic insects as carriers of pesticide residues into domestic environments, chlorpyrifos levels were analyzed in flies collected from participating households. Flies were collected using traps installed in 17 households (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34 individuals) to assess the presence of chlorpyrifos residues. For analytical purposes, households were classified into three distance-based tertiles from the pig farming facility: first tertile, 2,869\u0026ndash;4,211m; second tertile, 4,293\u0026ndash;4,953m; and third tertile, 5,702\u0026ndash;10,992m.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 68% of participants were exposed to flies with detectable levels of chlorpyrifos, with a median of 0.106 ng/mg per insect (range: 0.025\u0026ndash;2.449). Residues were detected in households located between 2,869 and 9,113 m from the facility, with no statistically significant differences between distance groups (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48), suggesting a wide dispersion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNinety-five percent of the captured insects corresponded to \u003cem\u003eMusca domestica\u003c/em\u003e, a species that proliferates in organic waste and animal feces. Since neither domestic insecticides nor traps contained chlorpyrifos, its presence is attributed to fly exposure in agricultural or livestock areas, from which they may transport residues into households. The finding of live flies with chlorpyrifos in the traps suggests resistance to the compound.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith respect to health status and anthropometric characteristics, women had a mean weight of 72.6 kg (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.4) and a mean height of 1.57 m (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07), while men had a mean weight of 81.1 kg (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.0) and a mean height of 1.70 m (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06). The mean body mass index (BMI) was 29.1 kg\u0026middot;m⁻\u0026sup2; (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.6) for women and 27.9 kg\u0026middot;m⁻\u0026sup2; (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.6) for men, placing both groups in the overweight range. Among men, 25% had a normal BMI, 40.9% were overweight, and 34.1% were obese. Among women, 27% had a normal BMI, 29.7% were overweight, and 43.2% were obese.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding substance use, 6.2% reported using non-prescription drugs: 2.4% used cannabis and 3.8% used tranquilizers. Alcohol consumption was reported by 37%, though only 2.5% drank three or more times per week. Tobacco use was reported by 29.6%, with 17.5% smoking more than three times per week.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs for chronic conditions, 93.9% reported having at least one diagnosed illness, and 79.3% reported having two or more. Additionally, 14.6% had a disability, most frequently physical (9.8%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most commonly reported illnesses among participants were hypertension (43.9%), heartburn/reflux (42.7%), migraine (34.1%), and gastritis/ulcer (32.9%). Regarding self-reported health symptoms, back pain (84%), headaches or facial pain (67.1%), and bad taste or coated tongue (51.2%) were the most prevalent (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrincipal diagnosed illnesses and health symptoms (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;13% prevalence) and associated odds ratios (95% CI) by odor discomfort level from the pig farming facility, adjusted for age and sex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIllness\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Cases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdor discomfort level\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold pesticide use\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypertension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.28 (1.46\u0026ndash;9.39)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93 (0.32\u0026ndash;2.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeartburn/Reflux\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.34 (1.23\u0026ndash;9.08)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55 (0.56\u0026ndash;4.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMigraine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25 (0.85\u0026ndash;5.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5.06 (1.40\u0026ndash;18.3)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGastritis/Ulcer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52 (0.90\u0026ndash;7.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6.09 (1.53\u0026ndash;24.3)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinusitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09 (0.40\u0026ndash;2.95)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73 (0.56\u0026ndash;5.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurodermatitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03 (0.27\u0026ndash;3.90)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02 (0.64\u0026ndash;6.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAllergic contact eczema\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30 (0.26\u0026ndash;6.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5.31 (1.22\u0026ndash;23.1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAllergic rhinitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.016 (0.42\u0026ndash;3.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.41 (0.69\u0026ndash;8.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOsteoarthritis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47 (0.48\u0026ndash;4.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.82 (0.71\u0026ndash;11.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther allergies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58 (0.48\u0026ndash;5.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.99 (0.80\u0026ndash;19.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsthma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96 (0.25\u0026ndash;3.63)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64 (0.16\u0026ndash;2.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBronchitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.28\u0026ndash;3.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.06 (0.73\u0026ndash;50.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrticaria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95 (0.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72 (0.54\u0026ndash;13.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiabetes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91 (0.26\u0026ndash;3.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56 (0.51\u0026ndash;12.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHealth symptoms\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCases\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e% Cases\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOR (95% CI)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOdor discomfort level\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOR (95% CI)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold pesticide use\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBack pain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97 (0.28\u0026ndash;3.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00 (0.57-7.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead and facial pain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45 (0.55\u0026ndash;3.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.18 (0.78\u0026ndash;6.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBad taste/coated tongue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34 (0.51\u0026ndash;3.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02 (0.37\u0026ndash;2.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNausea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96 (0.76\u0026ndash;5.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09 (0.75\u0026ndash;5.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShortness of breath (no exertion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.72 (1.05\u0026ndash;7.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45 (0.54\u0026ndash;3.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss of appetite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.91 (1.08\u0026ndash;7.81)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02 (0.37\u0026ndash;2.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06 (0.40\u0026ndash;2.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07 (0.37\u0026ndash;3.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVomiting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.29 (0.88\u0026ndash;12.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28 (0.37\u0026ndash;4.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss of sensation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.11 (0.61\u0026ndash;15.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06 (0.25\u0026ndash;4.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Diagnosed and managed illnesses among participants (Participants may have more than one illness); \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Physical ailments reported in the past two years (Participants may report more than one ailment); \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e Odor discomfort level: 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;moderate to low unpleasant odor, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;extremely unpleasant odor; \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e Household pesticide use: 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;No use, 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Reported use\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the less prevalent diseases reported in the community were food allergies and hypothyroidism, each accounting for 8.5% of cases. Less frequent conditions included dyslipidemia (6.1%), as well as cancer and spinal injuries (4.9%). Stroke and visual refraction disorders were each observed in 3.7% of participants. Finally, heart disease, hyperthyroidism, and neutropenia were rarely reported, with a frequency of 1.2%. Although these conditions are less common compared to other more prevalent illnesses in the population, their presence highlights a diversity of health problems that also require medical attention and specialized follow-up.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter adjustment for age and sex, several associations were statistically significant (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Participants reporting high odor discomfort had higher odds of hypertension (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.28; 95% CI: 1.46\u0026ndash;9.39) and heartburn/reflux (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.34; 95% CI: 1.23\u0026ndash;9.08). In terms of health symptoms, high odor discomfort was also associated with greater odds of shortness of breath without exertion (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.72; 95% CI: 1.05\u0026ndash;7.05) and loss of appetite (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.91; 95% CI: 1.08\u0026ndash;7.81).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, household pesticide use was significantly associated with several conditions. Pesticide users showed increased odds of migraine (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.06; 95% CI: 1.40\u0026ndash;18.3), gastritis/ulcer (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.09; 95% CI: 1.53\u0026ndash;24.3), and allergic contact eczema (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.31; 95% CI: 1.22\u0026ndash;23.1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis biplot (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) explained 64.7% of the variance in the data and showed a mean Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha reliability of 0.636. On axis 1 (Dimension 1), a separation was observed between categories of low exposure perception (low odor intensity and annoyance, attribution to agricultural activities) and those of high exposure perception (high odor intensity and annoyance, attribution to the pig industry). Axis 2 (Dimension 2) distinguished between responses linked to health effects (loss of appetite, breathing difficulties) and those of lesser impact. The proximity of categories indicated that high odor intensity and annoyance were closely associated with symptoms such as loss of appetite and breathing difficulties, as well as with household pesticide use and female gender, suggesting a pattern of greater vulnerability. In contrast, low intensity and annoyance were related to attributing odor to agriculture, reflecting a lower perception of risk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe perceived level of odor was significantly associated with the discomfort it generates (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.240; 95% CI: 0.048\u0026ndash;0.481) and with odor intensity (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.426; 95% CI: 0.203\u0026ndash;0.607). In turn, odor intensity was associated with perceptions of polluted air (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.378; 95% CI: 0.150\u0026ndash;0.582), reinforcing the idea that stronger odors are perceived as indicators of poor environmental quality (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe strongest relationship was found between odor level and the degree of annoyance it produced (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.503; 95% CI: 0.328\u0026ndash;0.658), confirming that higher levels of olfactory exposure are directly associated with a more negative experience. However, no correlation was observed between odor-related discomfort and odor acceptability (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.000; 95% CI: \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.206 to 0.167), which suggests a phenomenon of adaptation or resignation among the population: although odors are highly disturbing, this does not necessarily change the perception that they can be tolerated in everyday life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e The expansion of intensive pig farming in rural areas represents a transformation of local ecosystems and socio-territorial dynamics. This production model operates under a logic of accumulation by dispossession, restructuring land use through the intensive exploitation of natural resources (land, water, and energy) while externalizing environmental and health costs. This creates structural tensions between industrial practices and traditional forms of inhabiting rural territories, giving rise to socio-environmental conflicts that undermine the rights and wellbeing of local communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom an environmental perspective, industrial pig farming is a major contributor to livestock-related emissions. The fattening and breeding stages account for 60\u0026ndash;80% of greenhouse gases (GHG) generated in the production chain, mainly through feed production and transport, as well as the anaerobic fermentation of organic waste. These emissions include methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂), all with high global warming potential. Key determinants are manure and slurry management and the type of energy used in facilities. To reduce these emissions, the literature recommends anaerobic digestion technologies for biogas production, improved waste treatment systems, and the integration of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence from different countries has shown that odor emissions from pig farming facilities are frequent in nearby communities and associated with deterioration in quality of life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present study, odor perception was consistently reported across all evaluated localities, regardless of distance from the plant, which suggests atmospheric dispersion of volatile compounds beyond the immediate area. Residents described odors similar to feces and decomposing organic matter, clearly associating them with the activities of the pig facility. The use of measures such as keeping windows closed or applying pesticides indicates how residents manage environmental conditions perceived as unfavorable. This situation points to the need for mitigation and odor-control measures that incorporate community participation and are supported by systematic environmental health monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustained exposure to agro-industrial odors, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), combined with the proliferation of flies, constitutes a public health concern. Previous studies have associated this type of exposure with nonspecific somatic complaints, as well as with adverse effects on mental health and overall quality of life [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34 CR35 CR36 CR37\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with this evidence, higher odor perception was reported among individuals experiencing physical symptoms, particularly respiratory difficulties and loss of appetite.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe elevated prevalence of diagnoses such as gastroesophageal reflux, hypertension, and migraine, together with symptoms that lacked a clear medical explanation, indicates a significant health burden. This may reflect both physiological responses to environmental exposures and the consequences of chronic stress associated with deteriorated living conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough only a small proportion of participants reported working in conventional agriculture and none indicated occupational exposure as pesticide applicators, domestic use of these products was frequent and, in several cases, higher than expected for routine pest control. This practice was more common among individuals reporting greater odor-related discomfort, suggesting a reactive response to persistent fly presence rather than a standard preventive measure. In addition, pesticide use was more prevalent in households located closer to the facility, indicating that proximity to the source may contribute to higher vector density and, consequently, increase the demand for intensified domestic pesticide use\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis finding indicates additional environmental health concerns, as the reported products contained pyrethroids and organophosphates (OPs), substances associated with long-term health effects, including reproductive disorders, cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, neurocognitive alterations, and cancer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe detection of chlorpyrifos in flies collected from households, despite the absence of this compound in domestic products or traps, indicates the presence of external environmental sources. This suggests diffuse contamination in which insects transport agrochemicals from nearby agricultural or livestock areas. The survival of flies in the traps despite detectable residues also suggests possible resistance, a phenomenon previously documented in rural settings with intensive pesticide use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn previous studies conducted in this area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], morphometric alterations have been observed in \u003cem\u003eMusca domestica\u003c/em\u003e exposed to organophosphates, indicating reduced developmental stability and changes in wing morphology. These findings are consistent with evidence that physiological adaptations associated with resistance can also be expressed phenotypically, potentially affecting flight capacity and dispersal, and thereby contributing to the movement of contaminants across residential environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo significant differences in chlorpyrifos levels were observed according to distance from the facility. This pattern may be explained by the high mobility of flies, which can transport residues across broad areas and reduce the ability to distinguish exposure gradients. The presence of other local pesticide application sources cannot be ruled out [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis finding reflects a persistent issue in Chile, given that chlorpyrifos has been banned since 2022; however, current regulations allow remaining stocks to be used until fully depleted [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar patterns have been reported in other studies that detected metabolites of pesticides, prohibited in Chile for more than a decade, in the urine of rural schoolchildren [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results occur within a national context of intensive pesticide use. According to the 2023 official report on phytosanitary product sales in Chile, 53,140,392 kg/L of formulations were distributed, with the Maule Region ranking second and accounting for 16.6% of the national total [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. This finding indicates a chemical burden for rural populations, often in areas with limited regulatory oversight and monitoring capacity. Direct intervention by the agencies responsible for enforcing this regulation is therefore needed, including measures that go beyond sanctions to include education and communication with companies and nearby communities about the health and environmental risks associated with these agrochemicals, the promotion of safer alternatives, and the dissemination of reporting mechanisms for identifying and addressing inadequate agricultural practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a methodological perspective, the study is limited by the availability of only a single measurement of exposure and health variables. Although the sample size is small, it represents the community and shows a balanced distribution by sex and age. The socioeconomic profile of participants, marked by low income and reduced educational attainment, reflects conditions that may constrain community capacity to address environmental and health risks. This is consistent with literature linking agrochemical exposure to structural inequalities and increased social vulnerability in rural areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e One strength of this study is the active participation of local communities, which increased its social relevance and reinforced its ethical dimensions. Collaboration between territorial organizations and academic teams enabled a more accurate characterization of the situation and contributed to making an environmental health problem visible beyond the local setting. This experience demonstrates the value of research grounded in local contexts, integrating community knowledge and supporting initiatives aimed at environmental justice and the protection of collective rights.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe environmental conditions in \u0026ldquo;El Arbolillo\u0026rdquo; and nearby areas between San Javier and Cauquenes indicate a localized environmental health problem linked to intensive pig farming. The findings show that this activity produces waste and odor emissions associated with vector proliferation and frequent odor perception among residents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHouseholds have adopted various measures, including the use of indoor pesticides, to address fly density and odor-related discomfort. The detection of chlorpyrifos residues in flies suggests that banned pesticides may remain in the environment and be transported through local ecological pathways. Together, these exposures point to an accumulated environmental burden in a setting characterized by social and health vulnerabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic agencies should reinforce surveillance, environmental management, and regulatory enforcement to prevent contamination and protect community health. Priority actions include improving waste treatment, reducing odor emissions, and implementing participatory processes that involve residents in decision-making and risk monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAChE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetylcholinesterase\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBMI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody mass index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCH₄\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethane\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfidence interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCLP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChilean peso\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCO₂\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon dioxide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDUA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Use Agreement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFAO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGC\u0026ndash;MS/MS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGas chromatography\u0026ndash;tandem mass spectrometry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGHG\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreenhouse gas emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003egLASSO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGraphical least absolute shrinkage and selection operator\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHS-SPME\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeadspace solid-phase microextraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eIBM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational Business Machines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eINDH\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Institute for Human Rights (Instituto Nacional de Derechos Humanos)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eINE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estad\u0026iacute;sticas)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eINN\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Institute for Standardization (Instituto Nacional de Normalizaci\u0026oacute;n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eIQR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterquartile range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLAC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatin America and the Caribbean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLOD\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimit of detection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLOQ\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimit of quantification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMCA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple correspondence analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003em/z\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMass-to-charge ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eN₂O\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrous oxide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNCh\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChilean Standard (Norma Chilena)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eODEPA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOffice of Agricultural Studies and Policies (Oficina de Estudios y Pol\u0026iacute;ticas Agrarias)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eOP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganophosphate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eOR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdds ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePDMS/CAR/DVB\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolydimethylsiloxane/Carboxen/Divinylbenzene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSAG\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural and Livestock Service (Servicio Agr\u0026iacute;cola y Ganadero)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSEA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Assessment Service (Servicio de Evaluaci\u0026oacute;n Ambiental)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSD\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSMA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuperintendence of the Environment (Superintendencia del Medio Ambiente)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSPSS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical Package for the Social Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSRM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelected reaction monitoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eUSD\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnited States dollar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVOCs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolatile organic compounds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVDI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerein Deutscher Ingenieure (Association of German Engineers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank the residents of the El Arbolillo sector for their collaboration throughout the study. We also acknowledge the support of the community organization Maule Sur por la Vida and the National Institute of Human Rights (Instituto Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Maule Region office) for their sustained commitment to environmental and public health issues in the region. We are grateful to the local teams who assisted with field logistics, sample collection, and community coordination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003es\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003econtributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eS.P. participated in the conceptualization of the study, formal analysis, data interpretation, visualization, and manuscript writing. R.H., J.N., J.T., A.P., J.A., F.C., and B.F. participated in the conceptualization, data interpretation, and manuscript writing. C.V., L.Z.-V., and B.C. participated in the investigation, data curation, funding acquisition, and manuscript writing. B.L., C.C., J.P.G.-J., and N.L. participated in the investigation, formal analysis, and manuscript revision. M.T.M.-Q. conceived and supervised the study and participated in the methodology, validation, investigation, formal analysis, data curation, funding acquisition, and manuscript writing. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research is part of a broader project funded by the National Institute for Human Rights (INDH) and the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development (FONDECYT Regular No. 1240899).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to confidentiality protections. De-identified data may be requested from the corresponding author and will be shared upon reasonable request and ethics committee approval.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Additional information about the chlorpyrifos detection procedures can also be obtained by contacting the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study protocol and informed consent procedures were reviewed and approved by the Scientific Ethics Committee of the Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule (Record No. 165/2023). The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and local regulatory requirements. All participants received written and verbal information about the study objectives and procedures, participation was voluntary, and written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors consent for the publication of this research article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo conflict of interest identified. All authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor details\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eMedical Specialty in Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile\u003csup\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eSchool of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile\u003csup\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eMaster of Public Health, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile\u003cbr\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Agricultural Production, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8820808, Chile\u003csup\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eSchool of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile\u003cbr\u003e\u003csup\u003e6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eCenter for Advanced Studies of Maule, Vice-Rectory for Research and Graduate Studies, Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile\u003csup\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eCenter for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile\u003cbr\u003e\u003csup\u003e8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eOncology Center, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile\u003csup\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eEpidemiology Program, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFood and Agriculture Organization. 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Rev Bras Epidemiol. 2020;23:e200027. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1590/1980-549720200\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1590/1980-549720200\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archives-of-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aoph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archives of Public Health](http://archpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13690","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13690/3","title":"Archives of Public Health","twitterHandle":"@Archpubhealth","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Odor annoyance, pesticides, chlorpyrifos, rural health, environmental exposure","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8319430/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8319430/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe expansion of agricultural and livestock production in Chile has increased environmental and health concerns for rural communities living near these activities. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the perception of odour emissions, health conditions, and exposure to household pesticides in rural communities situated near a pig farm in the Maule Region, Chile.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn cross-sectional study was conducted with 82 adults residing within approximately 10 km of the \u0026ldquo;El Arbolillo\u0026rdquo; area between San Javier and Cauquenes, Maule Region, Chile. Structured questionnaires assessed odor perception, health conditions, and domestic pesticide use. Flies were collected in 17 households, and chlorpyrifos residues were analyzed using gas chromatography\u0026ndash;tandem mass spectrometry.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Most participants (83%) perceived odors as strong or extremely strong. Odor-related discomfort was associated with household pesticide use (69%) (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006), which was more frequent in homes located\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4,319 m from the pig facility (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). Chlorpyrifos residues were detected in flies from 68% of sampled households, with a mean concentration of 0.118 ng mg⁻\u0026sup1; per insect (range: 0.025\u0026ndash;2.449). Higher odor discomfort was associated with hypertension (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.28; 95% CI: 1.46\u0026ndash;9.39), reflux/gastritis (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.34; 95% CI: 1.23\u0026ndash;9.08), shortness of breath at rest (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.72; 95% CI: 1.05\u0026ndash;7.05), and loss of appetite (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.91; 95% CI: 1.08\u0026ndash;7.81). Household pesticide use was associated with migraine (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.06; 95% CI: 1.40\u0026ndash;18.3), gastritis/ulcer (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.09; 95% CI: 1.53\u0026ndash;24.3), and allergic contact eczema (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.31; 95% CI: 1.22\u0026ndash;23.1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings describe an environmental health problem affecting rural communities near the pig facility. Intense odor perception, frequent domestic pesticide use, and the presence of chlorpyrifos residues in flies indicate simultaneous exposure routes. These results highlight the need for mitigation measures, enhanced health surveillance, and strengthened environmental regulation to protect rural populations in the Maule Region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTrial registration:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Cross-sectional analysis of odor exposure, household pesticides, and chlorpyrifos residues in flies in Chilean rural communities","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-03 15:50:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8319430/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-05T17:22:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-05T08:40:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-26T18:38:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-20T22:29:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-07T02:11:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"56079039585323948482412435973924231327","date":"2026-02-03T20:31:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"291767452552996727771243820770011921276","date":"2026-02-03T17:10:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"81644573839619462900915008610697787559","date":"2026-02-02T13:39:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"212866348462251295343752027874935008026","date":"2026-01-31T05:53:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-29T19:47:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-28T15:15:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Archives of Public Health","date":"2026-01-24T03:28:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archives-of-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aoph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archives of Public Health](http://archpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13690","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13690/3","title":"Archives of Public Health","twitterHandle":"@Archpubhealth","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ffdf8738-b14a-450a-a5c5-ed0c2e7ba1fc","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 3rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-02T09:09:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-03 15:50:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8319430","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8319430","identity":"rs-8319430","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}