Eroding Shorelines, Eroding Trust: Analysing the Interplay between State Policy, Climate Change and Social Exclusion on the Kerala Coast

Eroding Shorelines, Eroding Trust: Analysing the Interplay between State Policy, Climate Change and Social Exclusion on the Kerala Coast | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Eroding Shorelines, Eroding Trust: Analysing the Interplay between State Policy, Climate Change and Social Exclusion on the Kerala Coast Aravindh Panikkaveettil, Raj Krishna Jayaraj, Satheesan K, Sudev Puthiyedath Sukumaran, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7281739/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Home to over 800,000 traditional fishing households, Kerala has a thriving fisheries sector. The seafolk live across the state’s 593-km long coastline and have been one of the most socially and economically marginalized communities in Kerala. Of late, the lives and livelihoods of the communities has been severely disrupted by the increasing incidence of extreme weather events like tropical cyclones and tidal floods on the Kerala coast. The paper examines the status of existing coastal protection measures in Kerala, the impact of extreme weather events on the asset loss among the seafolk, and the deepening sense of mistrust that the seafolk harbour towards the State. Mixed methods have been employed, with quantitative data collected from 1271 households across the nine coastal districts of the state. Qualitative data was collected using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and non-participant methods between 2022 and 2025. The results show that continuing with hard structures like seawalls and groynes has led to severe erosion along the Kerala coast, and that villages lying downdrift of such constructions including fishing harbours were at a significantly greater risk of being devastated by extreme weather events. The findings also show that the developmental discourse in Kerala, revolving around large constructions, marginalizes the seafolk even more, displacing them from their ancestral homesteads, pushing them into crushing debt, and causing immense distress. The situation has resulted in a situation where the seafolk’s trust in the state is on a downward spiral. Coastal management extreme weather events seafolk Kerala Figures Figure 1 Introduction Travelling along Kerala’s coastline from Pozhiyūr in the South to Thalappāḍi in the North through fishing villages, one can witness contrasting scenes of prosperity and deprivation, although it is the latter that is more frequent. The nearly 600 km stretch is home to more than 820,000 individuals who belong to the traditional fishing communities of Kerala. They are generally called the Mukkuvar, although they differ culturally and linguistically across the nine coastal districts. Despite contributing to approximately 1.5 per cent of Kerala’s gross state domestic product (GSDP), the seafolk of the state continues to be one of the most vulnerable social groups. Centuries of social and economic exclusion, linked to the caste system, has pushed the fishing communities to the periphery of Kerala society (George and Domi 2002 , Sathiadas 2006, Kelkar-Khambete 2012 , Hapke and Ayyankeril 2018 ). The seafolk of Kerala lag the general population in terms of educational attainment and remain one of the state’s most educationally deprived communities, along with Dalits and Adivasis. Over the years, various Governments that have come to power in Kerala have brought in policies aimed at the emancipation of the seafolk, including employment generation through the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), the Kudumbashree and Theeramythri programmes, housing schemes, and educational support in the form of scholarships and grants. The self-help groups (SHGs) in particular, executed under the Kudumbashree Mission, have been noted to play a key role in providing alternate employment to fisherwomen and raising their level of financial autonomy (Rajeeve and Rajasenan 2015 , Vipinkumar et al. 2014 ). At the same time, technical interventions in fishing have been hit or miss, with a low penetration of information and communication technology a major problem faced by the fishermen (John 2014 , Parappurathu et al. 2017 , Sabu and Shaijumon 2014 ). While studies as noted above have focused their energies on examining the livelihood status, socio-economic condition, and role of SHGs in building female autonomy among the seafolk, hardly any have tried to examine the role of the state in the lives of the community’s climate resilience. State policies in Kerala have had a profound impact on the lives, livelihoods, and responses of the seafolk to the looming spectre of climate change. The seafolk have not been beneficiaries of Kerala’s land reforms act, and large-scale coastal erosion threatens to displace them en masse from their traditional homesteads. While the Government of Kerala has been framing policies to rehabilitate the seafolk, there is stiff resistance against the actions on the ground. The present study was undertaken to assess the reaction of Kerala’s coastal communities towards the actions of state in safeguarding their lives and identify the instances of oversight blinding the policymakers of Kerala when it comes to addressing the pressing concerns on the state’s coast. The study looks at two of the existing policies that the Government of Kerala has for the welfare of the seafolk. The first is the reliance on hard structures like seawalls, fishing harbours, and groynes for coastal management, and the second is rehabilitation under dedicated housing projects. The paper outlines how these policies, while seeming to be adequate on paper, have not been implemented in a satisfactory manner on the ground, and why inefficiencies in implementation have led to the seafolk feeling even more alienated from the State and its machinery. The core objective of the paper is to gather the views of Kerala’s coastal communities towards the State and understand how various actors conveniently put the blame of the seafolk’s hardship on climate change, when it is human interference that makes life difficult for a significant number of fishing households in the state. Data and Methods Traditional fishing communities in Kerala live in 222 villages spread across the nine coastal districts of the state. This study relies on a mixed methodology framework, drawing upon data collected from 1271 households in 52 fishing villages across all nine districts through a structured questionnaire-based survey, as well as multiple rounds of in-depth personal interviews, non-participant observation, and focus group discussions (FGDs). For the survey, approximately 40 per cent of all coastal local self-governing institutions (LSGIs) in the state were covered. The LSGIs covered in the study include five municipal corporations, seven municipalities, and thirty Gram Panchayats (GPs) or village councils. For regional comparison, the state was divided into three zones. The Southern Zone consists of the Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, and Alappuzha districts; the Central Zone comprises Ernakulam, Thrissur, and Malappuram; and the Northern Zone is spread across Kozhikode, Kannur, and Kasaragod districts. A minimum sample size of 384 was considered for each zone, and the number varied depending on the proportion of the fishing population. Thiruvananthapuram and Kozhikode districts have the largest sub-samples, while Kannur and Kasaragod have the smallest. A detailed breakup of the sampling framework use in the study is given below in Fig. 1 . For the survey, the study used a stratified random sampling method that identified the number of fishing villages in each district in the first stage. Since the study primarily focuses on the impact of extreme weather events (EWEs) and the government response to safeguard the seafolk, those villages most severely affected were identified. Extreme weather events affecting fishing communities on the Kerala coast, considered for the study, include tropical cyclones, tidal floods, storm surges, and unseasonal rough sea events like swell surges. The number of villages affected by these events was identified and stratified into urban and rural areas in the second stage. From this list of villages, roughly 25 per cent were selected carefully considering the geographical spread of the villages and the incidence of EWEs in the region. The respondents were selected through purposive sampling for the qualitative data. For the interviews, the inclusion criteria were as follows: The household should be in a fishing village downdrift of a fishing harbour/breakwater/groyne field The household should be in a village where coastal protection measures had been implemented, including seawalls, coastal afforestation, and geobags. The household should have received some assistance from the Government for housing in the last twenty years, including under AAY, PMAY, EMS Housing Scheme, LIFE Mission, or Punargaeham. Any household that did not satisfy the inclusion criteria was excluded from the interview. A total of 40 in-depth personal interviews were conducted with fishermen and their families across ten prominent fishing villages which faced severe coastal erosion. The selected villages were Pozhiyūr, Anjengo, Ālappād, Āṟāṭṭupuzha, Chellānam, Mannalāmkunnu, Ponnāni, Shanti Nagar, Peṭṭippālam, and Ajānūr. Field data collection was conducted between August 2022 and May 2025, with the survey completed by 2024 and qualitative data collected in longitudinal fashion by interviewing the same households across the three-year period. THE SHORELINE MANAGEMENT CONUNDRUM Coastal erosion and climate change loom large over the future of Kerala’s coastal communities, as they struggle to live in their traditional landholdings with each passing year. India’s west coast has traditionally not been vulnerable to tropical cyclones in comparison with the Bay of Bengal. However, recent trends indicate that the Arabian Sea is warming at an accelerated rate, leading to a spike in the number of severe and very severe tropical cyclones along the west coast (Deshpande et al. 2021, Murakami, Vecchi and Underwood 2019). It has also been predicted that cyclones in the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region are likely to shift increasingly to the Arabian Sea (AS) region from the Bay of Bengal (BoB) region due to this increased warming. The phenomenon is noted to likely occur predominantly in the post-monsoon season (Murakami, Sugi and Kitoh, 2013 ). Seafolk in Kerala have been documented to be vulnerable to climate change induced natural disasters, although such studies have predominantly taken place prior to the changes that have caused a significant upsurge in the number of cyclones in the Arabian Sea (Shyam et al 2014 , Santha 2015 ). Residing along a 600-kilometre-long coastline, they are incredibly vulnerable to natural hazards like tropical cyclones and tidal floods (Yesodhara et al, 2007 ). The lives and livelihoods of the community are also threatened by the spectre of sea level rise associated with climate change (Shyam et al 2019 , Maher 2021 ). Kerala’s seafolk have been noted to lack the capacity to adapt to a changing global climate scenario (Punya et al 2021 ). Factors such as poverty and socio-economic inequality, which are rife among seafolk in Kerala, have been associated with an acute vulnerability to climate change-induced disasters (Alam and Collins 2004, Paavola 2008 , O’Brien et al 2004 ). In the case of coastal communities in developing countries, unplanned habitation along vulnerable coasts, pursuit of economic activity in hazardous locations, and a lack of infrastructure to escape from disaster compound the vulnerability of the communities. Considering the situation where Kerala becomes increasingly prone to being affected by natural hazards like cyclones and tidal floods, and eventual rise in sea level, it is imperative that policymakers implement effective coastal management practices and make improvements to the policy as and when required. Shorelines are naturally unstable, and subject to widespread changes in the long run. Kerala’s coastal management practices, implemented over the last forty years and comprising almost exclusively of hard structures like seawalls, groynes, and breakwaters, have contributed significantly to severe coastal erosion on the coastline. These hard structures are essentially short-term solutions and have led to a scenario where 67 per cent of the shoreline in Kerala is eroding or has no natural beach remaining. In some locations, coastal afforestation using mangroves and Casuarina Equisetifolia (Windmill tree or Kāṯṯāḍimaram in Malayalam) being planted along eroding coasts. During the fieldwork, coastal afforestation practices were observed only in a few locations such as Chellānam, Vypeen, Mannalāmkunnu, Padinjāṟēkkara (North of Ponnāni harbour), Māṭṭūl, and Valiyapaṟamba. Hard structures continue to be the most favoured method of coastal management in Kerala. The main fallout of human construction along the coastline is severe erosion along the down-drift side of such structures like harbours. Most eroding locations are located immediately north or south of major fishing harbours along the down-drift side. The presence of harbours disrupts the sediment transport, leading to large-scale accretion on the other side. The field survey showed that across Kerala, locations that had seawalls had almost completely eroded coastlines. Many of these were located downdrift of fishing harbours or groyne fields, leaving them ravaged by waves especially in the monsoon season. These include areas ranging from the Southern border of Thiruvananthapuram to the eroded segments in Kasaragod. In most of these locations, the seawalls were constructed more than 30 years ago and have seen little to no maintenance. The dilapidated nature of coastal protection measures throughout Kerala are a testament to the negligence of the state’s administrative machinery. In locations like Chettuva in Kadappuram Panchayat, the entire stretch of the seawall had been reduced to smooth rounded stones that do nothing to protect the coast against tidal floods and cyclones. While a tetrapod-based seawall was recently constructed in Chellanam to protect the village from tidal floods, similar endevours in other parts of Kerala have not been undertaken with due diligence. One such case is from Ottamassery in Alappuzha, where hundreds of tetrapods were found abandoned within the compounds of nearby houses, and a single line of tetrapods was deployed along the high tide line (HTL). In one of the biggest acts of state negligence, erosion continues unabated in Alappad, Chavara, and Panmana panchayats of Kollam district, where indiscriminate mineral sand mining by two PSUs – Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) and Kerala Metals and Minerals Limited (KMML) – have eaten away at the coast and led to the forced migration of coastal communities. The Reference Manual on Climate Change Adaptation Guidelines for Coastal Protection and Management in India (Black et al, 2019 ) describes various coastal protection strategies in detail, as given in Table 1 . The manual describes these measures along an Environmental Softness Ladder (ESL). The ESL ranks protection measures on a scale of 1–12 in terms of environmental impact, where 1 represents the softest solution with least impact and 12 the hardest with the worst consequences. The ESL is meant to be used as a process, where each solution starting from the bottom rung (Environmental Impact = 1) much be fully considered and eliminated only if there are sufficient justifications, before moving higher up the ladder. The objective of the ESL is to facilitate the use of the softest possible solutions, and to ensure that hard solutions are implemented only after the softer options are fully rejected. 3.1. Fishing Harbours as the Flashpoints Our study is partially focused on analysing the impact of hard structures on coastal erosion in Kerala, and how households have been affected by the State’s developmental discourse on the coast. To analyse how the seafolk had been affected by natural hazards along the coast, we asked each household whether they suffered losses to their houses and household assets due to extreme weather events like cyclones, tidal floods, and storm surges. The damage includes structural damage to houses and loss of assets including furniture, electronic equipment, schoolbooks, kitchen utensils, and vehicles. Assets also include fishing gear like boats, engines, and nets. A binary logistic regression was used to ascertain the factors that explained the likelihood of a household suffering significant damage to their fishing and household assets in the wake of a natural disaster. The factors are categorized as physical and environmental variables, and socio-economic variables. Among the socio-economic variables, housing standard is considered a dichotomous variable, where pucca houses are defined as structures having brick and mortar walls, concrete roofs, tiles floors, and 2 or more rooms. The reference group, Kutcha, implies that a household lives in a ramshackle structure. The variable for ration card considers Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) card holders as the variable. In the Indian context, AAY card holders are considered the poorest of the poor. The reference group includes all non-AAY card holders. Detailed descriptions of the factors ate given in Table 2 . In addition to the main variables, the results of interactions between some of them were also considered during the regression. Three interactions – between erosion and seawall status; between erosion and location downdrift of fishing harbours; and between livelihood and location – were considered. Table 2 Descriptions of Variables Used Variable Description Dependent Variable EWE Damage Dummy variable indicating whether a household has suffered considerable loss of property due to an extreme weather event in the past one year. It takes the value of ‘1’ if yes, and ‘0’ otherwise. Independent Variables Physical and Environmental Variables Sea Distance Distance from the High Tide Line (HTL) to the homestead in meters Erosion Dummy variable indicating the shoreline status. =1 if eroding, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Stable/Accreting) Vanilla Coast Dummy variable indicating the absence of coastal protection measures. =1 if Yes, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: No) Seawall Status Dummy variable for a dysfunctional seawall. =1 if the seawall is eroded with wave overtopping, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Perfect Seawall) Afforestation Dummy variable for coastal afforestation. =1 if afforestation activities have been undertaken, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: No Afforestation) Downdrift Dummy variable for location of the household. =1 if the fishing village is located downdrift of a harbour, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Updrift) Socio-Economic Variables Rural Dummy variable for location of the household. =1 if the household lives in a rural area, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Urban) Pucca Dummy variable for the housing status of the household. =1 if they own a pucca house, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Kutcha) AAY Dummy variable for the household’s classification according to the poverty line. =1 if the household is classified as poorest among the poor, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Non-AAY) Dependency Dummy variable for occupation of the household. =1 if the household depends entirely on fisheries for their livelihood, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Non-dependent) Source: Primary Data The results of the regression analysis, given in Table 3 , show that among the six physical and environmental variables, three were quite significant in reducing the likelihood of damage from EWEs. These included distance from the HTL, afforestation, and vanilla coast; implying that living further from the coast, along stretches untouched by anthropogenic activities, or in areas with mangroves and other vegetation, greatly reduced hazard risk for the seafolk. Afforestation and living on virgin coasts particularly reduced the odds of damage from EWEs. The other three variables – erosion status, condition of the seawalls, and location downdrift of a fishing harbour – while not significant at the 95% level in terms of their odds ratios, all had significant marginal effects. Although none of them influenced the hazard risk significantly in isolation, a combination of these factors compounded the risk significantly. A household living along an eroding stretch of the coastline while also had poor defences against the waves saw the odds of sustaining asset loss increase by three times. The risk also rose by more than twice when the eroding stretch was located downdrift of a fishing harbour. Indicating that large-scale constructions had serious detrimental effects on adjoining stretches of the coast, jeopardising the lives and livelihoods of the seafolk. Table 3 Binary Logistic Regression Estimates Variable Odds Ratio Z Sig. [95% conf. interval] dy/dx Sig. (dy/dx) _cons 1.284 0.690 0.493 0.628 2.629 - - Physical and Environmental Variables Sea Distance 0.980 -9.400 0.000 0.976 0.984 -0.0023 0.000 Erosion 2.130 1.660 0.096 0.874 5.190 0.2543 0.000 Seawall Status 1.478 1.660 0.097 0.931 2.345 0.1148 0.001 Downdrift 1.487 1.490 0.136 0.882 2.504 0.0835 0.000 Vanilla Coast 0.229 -4.310 0.000 0.117 0.448 -0.1699 0.000 Afforestation 0.177 -6.380 0.000 0.104 0.301 -0.1997 0.000 Socio-Economic Variables Rural 2.276 2.390 0.017 1.160 4.466 0.1710 0.000 Dependency 1.346 0.950 0.344 0.727 2.492 0.1031 0.000 Pucca 0.539 -3.140 0.002 0.366 0.792 -0.0714 0.001 AAY 1.757 2.120 0.034 1.044 2.958 0.0650 0.033 Interactions Erosion*Seawall 3.058 2.380 0.017 1.217 7.684 - - Downdrift*Erosion 2.483 2.240 0.025 1.120 5.501 - - Rural*Dependency 2.290 2.100 0.036 1.056 4.963 - - McFadden R 2 0.353 AUC 0.883 Likelihood Ratio χ 2 (sig.) 499.02 (0.000) Hosmer-Lemeshow χ 2 (sig.) 9.25 (0.3213) Source: Primary Data Among the socio-economic variables, the only factor that reduced the odds of EWE-inflicted damage was owning a pucca house. Living in rural areas, being completely dependent on fisheries for a livelihood, and belonging to the most deprived class of seafolk significantly raised the odds of asset loss. The interaction between physical location (rural villages) and total dependency on fisheries is of particular importance, raising the risk of asset loss more than twice. The marginal effect of this interaction, given in Table 4 , as well as that of the other two variables in isolation, indicates that exclusion and lack of resilient infrastructure greatly increased the hazard risk faced by coastal communities. Table 4 Marginal Effects of Interactions Variable Margin S.E Z Sig. [95% conf. interval] Erosion*Seawall Status No*No 0.540 0.040 13.630 0.000 0.462 0.617 No*Yes 0.609 0.024 25.100 0.000 0.562 0.657 Yes*No 0.721 0.053 13.650 0.000 0.618 0.825 Yes*Yes 0.886 0.012 71.080 0.000 0.862 0.911 Downdrift*Erosion No*No 0.569 0.022 26.210 0.000 0.526 0.611 No*Yes 0.812 0.021 38.840 0.000 0.771 0.853 Yes*No 0.638 0.041 15.390 0.000 0.557 0.719 Yes*Yes 0.916 0.013 70.850 0.000 0.891 0.942 Rural*Dependency No*No 0.597 0.037 16.260 0.000 0.525 0.669 No*Yes 0.638 0.023 27.920 0.000 0.593 0.682 Yes*No 0.705 0.025 27.990 0.000 0.656 0.755 Yes*Yes 0.827 0.011 74.190 0.000 0.805 0.849 Source: Primary Data 3.2. Examining the Case Studies Across Kerala, communities living downdrift of fishing harbours lamented the fact their lives became a harrowing experience every monsoon after the construction of the harbour in question. During the fieldwork, some of the worst cases of a fishing harbour laying waste to a shoreline were seen in Thiruvananthapuram and Malappuram districts. The list of major erosion hotspots along the Kerala coast, and their associated fishing harbours, is given in Table 5 . Table 5 Prominent Locations where Harbours Contribute to Erosion Sl. No Location Harbour LSGI District 1 Moosodi Manjeshwar Mangalpady GP Kasaragod 2 Thayyil Mopla Bay Kannur MC Kannur 3 Pettippalam Thalayi Thalassery Municipality Kannur 4 Azhiyur Mahe Azhiyur GP Kozhikode 5 Kuriyadi Chombal Chorode GP Kozhikode 6 Poyilkavu Koyilandy Chengottukavu GP Kozhikode 7 Varakkal Puthiyappa Kozhikode MC Kozhikode 8 Gotheeswaram Vellayil Kozhikode MC Kozhikode 9 Chaliyam Beypore Kadalundi GP Kozhikode 10 Puthiyakadappuram Tanur Tanur Municipality Malappuram 11 Puthuponnani Ponnani Ponnani Municipality Malappuram 12 Veliyancode Ponnani Veliyancode GP Malappuram 13 Palappetty Ponnani Perumpadappu GP Malappuram 14 Periyambalam Ponnani Punnayurkulam GP Thrissur 15 Kara Munambam Edavilangu GP Thrissur 16 Kannamaly Chellanam Chellanam GP Ernakulam 17 Ottamassery Arthunkal Kadakkarappally GP Alappuzha 18 Purakkad Thottappally Purakkad GP Alappuzha 19 Arattupuzha Valiyazheekkal Arattupuzha GP Alappuzha 20 Alappad Valiyazheekkal Alappad GP Kollam 21 Mundakkal Thangasseri Kollam MC Kollam 22 Anjengo Muthalapozhi Anjuthengu GP Trivandrum 23 Veli to Kovalam Vizhinjam Trivandrum MC Trivandrum 24 Pozhiyūr Thengappatanam Kulathoor GP Trivandrum Source: Primary Data Starting from the southernmost point of Kerala’s coastline, at Pozhiyūr, one can witness the devastating impact of the Thengapattanam harbour constructed in Tamil Nadu. Erosion rates in Pozhiyūr, as estimated by Pradeep et al (2022) is more than 10 meters per year. The study used satellite data to make an estimate of erosion in the region, although by the accounts of the local seafolk, erosion rates were higher at more than 19 meters per year. According to Charlie (name changed), a local fisherman from Pozhiyūr, “ ever since that harbour was constructed, our lives have been a mess. We live in constant fear of the sea entering our homes any day, and many times, the seawater floods our homes in the middle of the night while we are asleep. Several rows of houses have been lost to the sea and a significant population displaced as a result. Where you see the sea today, there were rows of houses, coconut trees, and even a road with a high mast light installed at the junction. All that has been washed away today because of what political leaders call development ”. Charlie sounded exhausted and frustrated as he pointed to the remains of the high mast light which was installed at Pozhiyūr in 2018-19. Further north along the Thiruvananthapuram coastline, the fishing village of Vizhinjam stands protected behind the International Seaport that has been under construction for the past few years. Immediately south of Vizhinjam lies Azhimala, a fast-growing pilgrimage centre, and the rapidly growing Azhimala beach. The entire stretch of the coastline from Poovar to Azhimala has seen widespread accretion due to the breakwaters of the Vizhinjam port disrupting the sediment transportation. North of the Vizhinjam seaport, however, paints a grim picture, as erosion has eaten away at coastal villages like Poonthura and Valiyathura, and popular tourism destinations like Veli and Shanghumukham. The erosion in these regions has been covered extensively by the local media every year. Another village in Thiruvananthapuram that has been extensively affected by coastal erosion is Anjengo, home to the historic fort constructed by the British. Erosion in Anjengo has been attributed to the Muthalapozhi harbour, south of which there is an accreting zone along the shoreline of Katinamkulam panchayat. Immediately north of Muthalapozhi, the homes of seafolk were seen to have been severely damaged due to erosion and completely abandoned. Interestingly, some of the remaining houses were occupied by migrant workers from West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, who had come as unskilled labourers to the region. The region north of Muthalapozhi had severely eroded seawalls completely inadequate to stop the raging waves. At Anjengo, the seafolk were quite wary about our research team visiting them for data collection and expressed stiff resistance in the beginning. Joseph (name changed) was seen playing cards on the beach with his fellow fishermen when we visited Anjengo, and although apprehensive at first, he eventually warmed up to us and narrated how the harbour at Muthalapozhi had made the situation unliveable north of the structure. In his words, “ That harbour is like the work of the devil. Every other day, one of our brothers dies there, and north of it, our lives have been hellish due to the erosion. People are abandoning their homesteads and fleeing from this region today, trying to salvage whatever they have as their assets .” Further North in Malappuram district, a similar situation exists south of the Ponnani fishing harbour. The entire stretch of the coastline from Puduponnani in Malappuram to Mannalamkunnu in Thrissur has been facing significant erosion after the construction of the fishing harbour at Ponnani. Inaugurated in 2011, the harbour was intended to boost fisheries in the region and help fishing vessels operate safely. It has been constructed at the mouth of the Bharathapuzha river at a cost of approximately Rs 40 crores and comprises two breakwaters having a length 780 meters on the Northern side and 570 meters on the Southern side. While the harbour has been successful from an economic standpoint, the consequences on the coastline downdrift have been severe. At Padinjarekkara on the northern side of the harbour, the beach has been accreting greatly, while in the downdrift zone, erosion has been accelerating in Ponnani municipality, as well as Veliancode and Perumpadappu panchayats of Malappuram, and Punnayurkulam and Punnayur panchayats of Thrissur. The geographical region south of the Ponnani harbour has had seawalls along its entire length for a long time, but a lack of maintenance has led to large-scale slumping and a complete loss of the natural coastline. The existing infrastructure is inadequate to protect the homesteads of the seafolk, and every Monsoon season brings with it a fresh wave of destruction. In Palappetty, a small hamlet in Perumpadappu panchayat, the beach has been eroded so far inland that an entire graveyard belonging to the local mosque is being engulfed by the sea. Rocks were haphazardly deposited in this region by the Department of Irrigation, and this step has worsened the situation for the locals. In the words of Hassan (name changed), a resident of Palappetty, “ This entire stretch south of Ponnani will be taken by the sea at this rate. We really do not want to go away from this place where we grew up, but are stuck between a rock and a hard place. Out local graveyard, where our ancestors are buried, will soon be eroded, and we are fearful of our future here. Everything started after the harbour was constructed, and we have been asking the authorities repeatedly to ensure our lives are protected from coastal erosion, but to no avail .” REHABILITATION AS ALIENATION The level of exposure of a fishing household to natural hazards typically hinges on the homestead’s distance to the High Tide Line (HTL). HTL is defined as the line on the land up to which the highest water line reaches during the spring tide (MoEF, 2001). The Government of Kerala has identified households living within fifty meters of HTL as being vulnerable to coastal hazards. In 2019, the Punargaeham scheme was launched for the rehabilitation of these households across the state. The scheme aimed to rehabilitate 18,685 households within a span of three years. The approximate expenditure for the scheme was expected to be Rs 2450 crores over the three years, but almost six years after inception, the programme continues to be in a half-baked state. Under the Punargaeham scheme, coastal households can opt to rehabilitate away from the coast in one of three ways – either by purchasing land and constructing a new house, or by buying an existing house away from the shore, or by opting to shift to a state-sponsored flats. If the household opted to buy a piece of land, they would be given an amount of Rs. 600,000 including registration and stamp duty to buy 3 cents of land, and an additional Rs 400,000 for constructing a small house. If the household attempted to purchase an existing house away from the shoreline, they would be allotted the total sum of Rs 1,000,000. For those who opted to shift to flats, they would be given flats free of cost by the Government of Kerala. The key point of contention in the Punargaeham scheme is that a household which shifted away from the coastline had to relinquish all property on the coastline, handing it over to the Government for the creation of a buffer zone to protect against natural hazards. The households are not entitled to any other compensation for the land they hand over to the Government. Across Kerala, flats have been constructed to rehabilitate the coastal communities, with those at Pallithottam in Kollam, Muttathara in Thiruvananthapuram, and Pettippalam in Thalassery being projects that existed before Punargaeham was initiated. According to the Government of Kerala, flats are currently under construction at Muttathara and Kadakampally in Thiruvananthapuram, Mannumpuram in Alappuzha, Ponnani and Niramaruthur in Malappuram, West Hill in Kozhikode, and Koyippady in Kasaragod. As part of the current study, interviews were conducted among the recipients of flats at Pozhiyūr, Muttathara, Pallithottam, Ponnani, and Thalassery. 4.1. Shambolic Structures The Pratheeksha (Hope) flat complex at Muttathara, completed in 2018 at Muttathara in Thiruvananthapuram, stands out as one of the biggest rehabilitation initiatives undertaken by the Government of Kerala for the coastal communities. The project, which served as a precursor to Punargaeham, comprises 192 flats handed over to households previously residing in locations like Valiyathura, Cheriyathura, Valiyathope, and Kochuthope, within the Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation limits. The occupants were mostly seafolk who had lost their homes due to coastal erosion and cyclones like Ockhi. Although the flat complex looks well-constructed from the outside, closer inspection during the fieldwork revealed that this was not the case. The construction of the flats was found to be shoddy, with structural damage including large cracks along the walls and ceiling being prevalent. The floor had also cracked up in many flats, making living in them difficult for the occupants. The local drainage and waste management systems were also lacking, with stagnant water pooling in parts of the compound and exposing the residents to communicable diseases like Dengue and Chikungunya. According to Esther (name changed), one of the first residents to move into the newly constructed flats in 2018, “ We were promised a safe life here in these flats by the administration, and were happy when we moved in. However, the promises made to us have been false, and we live in buildings that have been constructed poorly. These buildings were supposed to be maintenance-free for a period of fifty years, but we had to start spending money for repairs within four months of moving in .” The structural frailties of the buildings were a common theme in Pozhiyūr, Pallithottam, and Ponnani, all of which come under the Punargaeham project. The shoddy construction was accompanied by poor wiring and plumbing work, leading to widespread incidence of unusable toilets and high electricity bills for the residents. The rather pitiful plumbing has led to a situation where water from toilets on upper floors of the building leaks onto the lower floors. To quote Shanthamma (name changed), who received the flat at Pallithottam nearly two years ago, said that “ The quality of life here is poor, and we regret moving into the flats. When we lived near the shore, only natural hazards worried us. Now we have to contend with bad housing, a lack of waste management, and anxiety about how much money we have to spend out of our pockets to renovate these structures .” The situation at Ponnani was even more problematic, with the 140 flats being constructed on a desolate, overgrown piece of land adjacent to the harbour. The locality lacks road access and street lighting and is infested with snakes and other pests. At Ponnani, like in Pallithottam and Muttathara, the absence of a waste management solution was highlighted as a major concern by the residents. Every septic tank installed in the compound was shared by around eight families, leading to regular leakages of human waste in the compound. Non-functional toilets and frequently bursting septic tanks meant that the residents were engaged in open defecation within the flat compound. The abhorrent situation at Ponnani, as explained by Aishabi (name changed), is pitiable considering how Kerala prides itself in being an open defecation free state. “ Our condition here is pitiful, we can’t even go to a toilet in peace. The men go to toilets in the harbour where they work, but what about us women and children? We cannot use public toilets and are currently forced to openly defecate in the part of the compound that is overgrown with shrubs and infested by snakes. Imagine having to live a low life like this after having lived in a good condition before moving into this hellhole .” Aishabi’s husband Abdullah (name changed) lamented their decision to move to the flat, saying that they would “ rather have died being consumed by the sea than live in such inhumane conditions .” The residents of flats build under Punargaeham did not hold back during the interviews when voicing their opinions. At both Muttathara and Ponnani, work is ongoing to construct another set of flats – 450 in Muttathara and around 200 in Ponnani. The residents of the existing flats are apprehensive about the quality of the new buildings and believe that they were cheated by the administration. The sentiment was perfectly wrapped by Philomena (name changed) a resident at Muttathara, who said that they “ are poor fishermen, and trusted the Government when they said they will give us safe houses where tidal floods and cyclones wouldn’t affect us. But we never knew we were walking into a trap from which there is no escape. We have been stripped of our happiness and our dignity by the State. Now they’re constructing another 450 or so flats under Punargaeham in this compound. I’m just praying to God that those building aren’t constructed in the same way as these .” 4.2. Displacement and Disenfranchisement The biggest point of contention that the coastal communities of Kerala have with the Punargaeham scheme is the condition that the land has to be relinquished to the state, which has absolute rights on how to use it once the household has moved away. At Pozhiyūr, Ajitha (name changed) spoke about how the community’s illiteracy and lack of awareness was exploited by the officials when they shifted to the flats. As per her account, “ Our people lack education, and we were duped by the officials who told us that we were being given new homes in a safe location. Little did we know that we would lose all access to our landholdings, and that the new flats would never belong to us. The land upon which the flat is built is Government property over which we have no rights. We cannot give out the flats for rent, nor mortgage it to take loans. We have essentially been reduced to tenants who live in Government housing without paying rent and have lost everything our ancestors had built up over generations .” The seafolk who moved into the flats regardless of the location said in the interviews that the State had reduced them to being a landless, disenfranchised group whose assets and livelihoods were robbed in daylight. Left without any land or tangible assets to monetize, the community feel betrayed by the State, and many a respondent was seen in tears when describing the scenario. Take the case of Laila (name changed), who shifted from Veliancode to the flat in Ponnani. Laila grew up on the coast, where her family had significant property and a small house, all of which was relinquished when her family moved into the flat. To quote her, “ We have been reduced to a bunch of refugees by the Government. We have not been given ownership of these flats and are now left without an address. Where will we go if the Government one day decides to evict us from these flats? We are not beneficiaries of this scheme – we are rather its victims. We have been left landless, penniless, and disenfranchised, to the point where no one is bothered to even listen to us anymore. We have been transformed into a voiceless community in Kerala today .” The Punargaeham project was also widely criticized for its approach towards compensation. Inadequate funding was often quoted as the chief reason why many households refuse to budge despite the Government’s insistence on rehabilitating them. The most common issue was the price that households had to pay to acquire land on their own, often away from the seashore. Several respondents also expressed a view that even if they purchased land, they would be unable to construct a good house for a paltry sum of Rs. 400,000. To explain the situation in the words of Krishnan (name changed), a respondent from Beypore, It is difficult to find three cents of land for a measly sum of Rs. 600,000, and then build a small house for just Rs. 400,000. We are forced to find land for cheap rates, which is nearly impossible for us. Even if we somehow manage to get some land cheaply, it is too far away from the sea, and we will be left unable to engage in fishing. And building a house for just Rupees four lakhs is difficult given the price of raw materials and the high labour charges in Kerala. It is unfair that we are only given a paltry sum of Rupees ten lakhs for rehabilitation. The Government should at least make the funds variable based on the geographic location of the households being rehabilitated . Significant delays in fund disbursal were also hurting the prospects of the Punargaeham project. Several households who had bought land or started construction of a new house are now caught in limbo. They are unable to move into a safe residence, and are forced to stay in their old dwellings close to the sea. Crushing indebtedness is also a significant problem faced by many of these households, as explained by Suresh, a fisherman from Kadakkarappally who is yet to receive the full funding under Punargaeham. “ There are significant delays in releasing the funds under Punargaeham, and several households are caught in limbo because of it. We applied for an independent house under the scheme but are yet to receive the full amount required for house construction due to funding bottlenecks. My family is therefore forced to stay in our old house, very close to the sea. We are also caught in debt and have no way to pay it off unless we get some assistance from the Government. If the funds were released on time, we could’ve done something about the loan, but I am today helpless and unable to properly care for my family .” For a state that is lauded as a pioneer in land reforms, it is rather shocking that Kerala is actively pursuing a policy wherein a traditionally marginalized community is being disenfranchised in broad daylight. Even more worrying is a feeling among the coastal communities of Kerala that they are being forcibly displaced by the state on the pretext of development and climate change mitigation. The Government of Kerala has been proposing a 615-km long highway from Pozhiyūr to Kunjathoor in Kasaragod running parallel to the Arabian Sea. The fact that the alignment of the highway falls within fifty meters of the HTL across large sections has evoked a feeling among the seafolk that the Punargaeham scheme is façade used by the State to evict them without adequate compensation and get land for a cheap price. Across Kerala, the seafolk pointed towards cases where the stones marking the alignment of the highway had already been lost due to erosion. The question therefore arises among the communities as to why they are being asked to relocate from the coast while the Government goes ahead with ambitious plans to build highways. The question was asked by Francis, a fisherman from Alappuzha, “ If the Government says that living within fifty meters of the HTL is risky, and that everything in this zone is prone to being washed away by erosion and climate change, why is there a plan to build a highway in the exact same zone? The plans seem fishy, and we feel that there are bigger forces at play that seek to displace our community in the name of development and disaster mitigation .” In Alappuzha and Kollam, the coastal communities raised an even more sinister concern, where they were afraid that the Punargaeham scheme was just a ruse to forcibly evict them and take over the land for mineral sand mining by the KMML and IREL. Santhosh (name changed), a fisherman in Arattupuzha raise this concern during the interviews, saying “ While the Punargaeham project as it is would be a welcome step to keep our families safe from natural disasters, we are afraid that the Government and these PSUs are using it simply as a ruse to evict us from our lands without giving adequate compensation. If they were to take over our lands by paying actual compensation, the cost would be very high. It is very similar in the case of the proposed coastal highway, where we are given only ten lakhs to move out for development. Why are we not given proper compensation like the people whose land was taken over for the construction of the National Highway? We suspect the Government is trying to use underhanded tactics to evict us from our land in an unfair manner .” THE EROSION OF TRUST In Kerala’s fiercely competitive political landscape where the Left parties and the Congress-led alliance used to take turns forming the Government, each political entity sought to outperform the other in showcasing their developmental agenda for the state. In the coastal belt of Kerala, this has manifested in the form of large-scale constructions including fishing harbours, breakwaters, seawalls, and groynes. These large structures act as visible symbols of development, evoking awe and admiration towards the responsible political party in the eyes of the people. Dolšak and Prakash (2018, 2022 ) have noted that construction of seawalls and hard coastal structures is an indicator of such political behaviour and that the negative spillovers from such development reduced climate resilience and raises climate vulnerability of coastal communities. Moreover, it is noted from literature that soft solutions are less appealing to local populace and the political leadership in developing contexts, and therefore hard structures are viewed as symbols of progress and development. The existing hard structures on Kerala’s coast can be considered to have adorned a political dimension, eclipsing the actual purpose of coastal protection and management. The systemic encouragement given to these structures has also meant that the state’s seafolk have been left thinking that these constructions on the coast are beneficial in the long run, and serve to protect their lives, livelihoods, and assets. Such a thought process led to the total length of seawalls in Kerala increasing by 362.5 per cent, between 1970 and 2020. Recently, there has been a heightened focus on shifting from traditional rock-base seawalls to concrete seawalls made of tetrapods like the one deployed at Chellanam. Given the negative impact of these structures on large sections of Kerala’s coastline, it can be argued that for more than fifty years from 1970 to the present day, political parties in Kerala have, in their frantic race to power, systematically destroyed the state’s coastline, leaving the lives and livelihoods of the seafolk in a precarious position. The key issues with constructing hard structures on the coastline are the substantial costs associated with the construction and periodic maintenance of the structures, and the reality that the geomorphological changes as a direct result of the construction are near-irreversible. The increased reliance on hard structures has also lulled the coastal communities of Kerala into a false sense of security, where they believe that the presence of such structures represents a long-term solution that does not displace them from their traditional way of life. In the end, the communities which suffer from the consequences of building the hard structures demand similar constructions in their area due to the false sense of security. Political parties, eager to show a developmental face to the public, engage in furthering such constructions, kicking off a vicious circle of environmental degradation and coastal erosion. When coupled with the land alienation faced by households and terms and condition of the Punargaeham project, it does not take much for a person to understand why the coastal communities feel let down by the State. In locations like Ottamassery, the community have witnessed shoddy work and absconding contractors leaving the work on the seawall half-baked. In other locations like Pozhiyūr and Ajanur, the communities feel that delay in constructing a harbour is negligence on the part of the State. Issues including the coastal highway, and the pitiful condition of families who decided to trust the State by moving into the Punargaeham flats have only made matters worse. It can be said that there is little, if any, trust left in the system among Kerala’s coastal communities. The fact that traditional fishing communities are not recognized as an indigenous group with rights over their traditional spaces as per the UN Declaration of Rights of the Indigenous People also does little to help rebuild trust. With the seafolk having no rights akin to the Forest Rights Act that protects tribal communities, they are left wide open to exploitation by corporates, the State and other parties with vested interests. Conclusion The findings of our study confirm the results of previous studies done in the Kerala context regarding coastal erosion, including Noujas and Thomas ( 2015 ), Selvan et al ( 2020 ) and Parvathy et al ( 2023 ). It can be concluded that the developmental policy of building hard structures has negatively impacted the coastline of Kerala over the past 50 years. The present study also throws open more questions than it seeks to answer. Key questions concerning the basic ownership of Kerala’s coastline, the state’s preparedness to face the challenges posed by climate change, the target of developmental activities on the coast, and the rehabilitation of climate refugees, are to be answered as the state moves towards achieving sustainable developmental goals. It is critical that the policy pursued by the State on the Kerala coast undergoes a radical change in its approach towards the community and towards the concept of development. It is imperative that the Government shift its focus from hard to soft solutions to rebuild the coastline of Kerala, while educating the coastal communities that is the sustainable way forward for the state. Although projects like Punargaeham have set out lofty targets that could have positive intentions for a vulnerable group like the seafolk, the policies have failed abjectly in implementation, generating a negative feedback loop and completely eroding any trust the seafolk had in the State. The first step towards protecting the lives and livelihoods of Kerala’s traditional seafolk has to inevitably be a trust rebuilding exercise. Across the state, the communities felt that too many bridges had been burnt over the last half century, and it is only by taking them into confidence and eliminating the information asymmetry that state will be able to take the communities into confidence when proposing developmental activities on the coast. Kerala has far too long excluded the coastal communities from its developmental discourse. It is critical that a State like Kerala, considered one of India’s most developed, and arguably its more progressive, take significant attempts to bring the coastal communities into the mainstream rather than alienate them even more. For at the end of the day, if trust is not rebuilt, the seafolk will have only one thing to say to the state, a statement that was put into words by many a fisherman, “ we were a people born with salt in our veins, and we would rather die in the lap of the sea rather than lose our essence and existence at the behest of a mechanism that does not care for us .” Declarations 7.1. Ethics Declaration The study was approved by the Approval Committee of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, where the study primarily took place. Collection of qualitative data involved use of a consent form given to participants. 7.2. Funding Declaration The authors did not receive any support from any organization for the present work. 7.3. Competing Interests The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. 7.4. Clinical Trials The clinical trials declaration is not applicable to the present study. References Alam, E. and E. Collins, 2010, Cyclone disaster vulnerability and response experiences in coastal Bangladesh, Disasters 34(4): 931–54. Black, K. P., Baba, M., Mathew, J., Chandra, S., Singh, S. S., Shankar, R., ... & Greer, R. (2019). Reference Manual on Climate Change Adaptation Guidelines for Coastal Protection and Management in India. New Delhi, India: Prepared by FCG ANZDEC (New Zealand) for the Global Environment Facility and Asian Development Bank, Volumes I . Dolšak, N., & Prakash, A. (2022). Three faces of climate justice. Annual Review of Political Science , 25(1), 283-301. Dolšak, N., & Prakash, A. (2022). Three faces of climate justice. Annual Review of Political Science , 25(1), 283-301. George, M. K., & Domi, J. (2002). Residual illiteracy in a coastal village: Poovar Village of Thiruvananthapuram district . KRPLLD, Centre for Development Studies. Hapke, H. M., & Ayyankeril, D. (2018). Gendered livelihoods in the global fish-food economy: a comparative study of three seafolk communities in Kerala, India. Maritime Studies , 17 (2), 133-143. John, J. (2014). Technological Changes in Marine Fishing and Livelihood Threats of Fisher Folk. Journal of Studies in Dynamics and Change , 1 (1), 23-28. Kelkar-Khambete, A. (2012). Traditional seafolk of Kerala—An article about their socio-economic organisation and the special relationship they share with the sea and the environment. Retrieved May, 7 , 2020. Maher, A. (2021). Troubles of the coast: Industrialization, climate change, marginality, and collective action among fishing communities in Kerala, India. The Yale Undergraduate Research Journal , 2 (1), 19. 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Socio-economic impact of information and communication technology: A case study of Kerala marine fisheries sector. International Journal of Information Dissemination and Technology , 4 (2), 124-129. Santha, S. D. (2015). Adaptation to coastal hazards: the livelihood struggles of a fishing community in Kerala, India. Disasters , 39 (1), 69-85. Sathiadhas, R. (2006). Socio Economic Scenario of Marine Fisheries in Kerala-Status and Scope for Improvement. Selvan, S. C., Kankara, R. S., Prabhu, K., & Rajan, B. (2020). Shoreline change along Kerala, south-west coast of India, using geo-spatial techniques and field measurement. Natural Hazards, 100(1), 17-38. Shyam, S. S., Joseph, L., Elizabeth James, H., Shinu, A. M., Athira, N. R., & Rosey Xavier, S. (2019). Assessing the Alternative Livelihood Options for Climate Change Vulnerable Coastal Fishing Villages in Kerala, India. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change (Previously known as British Journal of Environment & Climate Change) , 9 (4), 204-216. Shyam, S. S., Kripa, V., Zacharia, P. U., Shridhar, N., & Ambrose, T. V. (2014). Climate change awareness, preparedness, adaptation and mitigation strategies: seafolks perception in coastal Kerala. Journal of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries , 2 , 670-681. Yesodhara, E. P., Kokkal, K., and Harinarayan, P. (Ed.). (2007). State of Environment Report of Kerala 2007-Volume II: Natural Hazards . Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala. Vipinkumar, V. P., Shyam, S. S., Pushkaran, K. N., Harshan, N. K., Salini, K. P., & Sunil, P. V. (2014). Role of Self Help Groups on coastal indebtedness in marine fisheries sector–a case study from Kerala, south India. Indian Journal of Fisheries , 61 (1), 36-41. Table 1 Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Photograph 1 To 5 Photograph 1 To 5 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Photograph1to5.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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The nearly 600 km stretch is home to more than 820,000 individuals who belong to the traditional fishing communities of Kerala. They are generally called the Mukkuvar, although they differ culturally and linguistically across the nine coastal districts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite contributing to approximately 1.5 per cent of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s gross state domestic product (GSDP), the seafolk of the state continues to be one of the most vulnerable social groups. Centuries of social and economic exclusion, linked to the caste system, has pushed the fishing communities to the periphery of Kerala society (George and Domi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, Sathiadas 2006, Kelkar-Khambete \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, Hapke and Ayyankeril \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The seafolk of Kerala lag the general population in terms of educational attainment and remain one of the state\u0026rsquo;s most educationally deprived communities, along with Dalits and Adivasis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver the years, various Governments that have come to power in Kerala have brought in policies aimed at the emancipation of the seafolk, including employment generation through the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), the Kudumbashree and Theeramythri programmes, housing schemes, and educational support in the form of scholarships and grants. The self-help groups (SHGs) in particular, executed under the Kudumbashree Mission, have been noted to play a key role in providing alternate employment to fisherwomen and raising their level of financial autonomy (Rajeeve and Rajasenan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Vipinkumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, technical interventions in fishing have been hit or miss, with a low penetration of information and communication technology a major problem faced by the fishermen (John \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Parappurathu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Sabu and Shaijumon \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile studies as noted above have focused their energies on examining the livelihood status, socio-economic condition, and role of SHGs in building female autonomy among the seafolk, hardly any have tried to examine the role of the state in the lives of the community\u0026rsquo;s climate resilience. State policies in Kerala have had a profound impact on the lives, livelihoods, and responses of the seafolk to the looming spectre of climate change. The seafolk have not been beneficiaries of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s land reforms act, and large-scale coastal erosion threatens to displace them en masse from their traditional homesteads. While the Government of Kerala has been framing policies to rehabilitate the seafolk, there is stiff resistance against the actions on the ground. The present study was undertaken to assess the reaction of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastal communities towards the actions of state in safeguarding their lives and identify the instances of oversight blinding the policymakers of Kerala when it comes to addressing the pressing concerns on the state\u0026rsquo;s coast.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study looks at two of the existing policies that the Government of Kerala has for the welfare of the seafolk. The first is the reliance on hard structures like seawalls, fishing harbours, and groynes for coastal management, and the second is rehabilitation under dedicated housing projects. The paper outlines how these policies, while seeming to be adequate on paper, have not been implemented in a satisfactory manner on the ground, and why inefficiencies in implementation have led to the seafolk feeling even more alienated from the State and its machinery. The core objective of the paper is to gather the views of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastal communities towards the State and understand how various actors conveniently put the blame of the seafolk\u0026rsquo;s hardship on climate change, when it is human interference that makes life difficult for a significant number of fishing households in the state.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Data and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eTraditional fishing communities in Kerala live in 222 villages spread across the nine coastal districts of the state. This study relies on a mixed methodology framework, drawing upon data collected from 1271 households in 52 fishing villages across all nine districts through a structured questionnaire-based survey, as well as multiple rounds of in-depth personal interviews, non-participant observation, and focus group discussions (FGDs).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the survey, approximately 40 per cent of all coastal local self-governing institutions (LSGIs) in the state were covered. The LSGIs covered in the study include five municipal corporations, seven municipalities, and thirty Gram Panchayats (GPs) or village councils. For regional comparison, the state was divided into three zones. The Southern Zone consists of the Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, and Alappuzha districts; the Central Zone comprises Ernakulam, Thrissur, and Malappuram; and the Northern Zone is spread across Kozhikode, Kannur, and Kasaragod districts. A minimum sample size of 384 was considered for each zone, and the number varied depending on the proportion of the fishing population. Thiruvananthapuram and Kozhikode districts have the largest sub-samples, while Kannur and Kasaragod have the smallest. A detailed breakup of the sampling framework use in the study is given below in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the survey, the study used a stratified random sampling method that identified the number of fishing villages in each district in the first stage. Since the study primarily focuses on the impact of extreme weather events (EWEs) and the government response to safeguard the seafolk, those villages most severely affected were identified. Extreme weather events affecting fishing communities on the Kerala coast, considered for the study, include tropical cyclones, tidal floods, storm surges, and unseasonal rough sea events like swell surges. The number of villages affected by these events was identified and stratified into urban and rural areas in the second stage. From this list of villages, roughly 25 per cent were selected carefully considering the geographical spread of the villages and the incidence of EWEs in the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe respondents were selected through purposive sampling for the qualitative data. For the interviews, the inclusion criteria were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe household should be in a fishing village downdrift of a fishing harbour/breakwater/groyne field\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe household should be in a village where coastal protection measures had been implemented, including seawalls, coastal afforestation, and geobags.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe household should have received some assistance from the Government for housing in the last twenty years, including under AAY, PMAY, EMS Housing Scheme, LIFE Mission, or Punargaeham.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAny household that did not satisfy the inclusion criteria was excluded from the interview. A total of 40 in-depth personal interviews were conducted with fishermen and their families across ten prominent fishing villages which faced severe coastal erosion. The selected villages were Pozhiyūr, Anjengo, Ālappād, Āṟāṭṭupuzha, Chellānam, Mannalāmkunnu, Ponnāni, Shanti Nagar, Peṭṭippālam, and Ajānūr. Field data collection was conducted between August 2022 and May 2025, with the survey completed by 2024 and qualitative data collected in longitudinal fashion by interviewing the same households across the three-year period.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"THE SHORELINE MANAGEMENT CONUNDRUM","content":"\u003cp\u003eCoastal erosion and climate change loom large over the future of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastal communities, as they struggle to live in their traditional landholdings with each passing year. India\u0026rsquo;s west coast has traditionally not been vulnerable to tropical cyclones in comparison with the Bay of Bengal. However, recent trends indicate that the Arabian Sea is warming at an accelerated rate, leading to a spike in the number of severe and very severe tropical cyclones along the west coast (Deshpande et al. 2021, Murakami, Vecchi and Underwood 2019). It has also been predicted that cyclones in the North Indian Ocean (NIO) region are likely to shift increasingly to the Arabian Sea (AS) region from the Bay of Bengal (BoB) region due to this increased warming. The phenomenon is noted to likely occur predominantly in the post-monsoon season (Murakami, Sugi and Kitoh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeafolk in Kerala have been documented to be vulnerable to climate change induced natural disasters, although such studies have predominantly taken place prior to the changes that have caused a significant upsurge in the number of cyclones in the Arabian Sea (Shyam et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Santha \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Residing along a 600-kilometre-long coastline, they are incredibly vulnerable to natural hazards like tropical cyclones and tidal floods (Yesodhara et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The lives and livelihoods of the community are also threatened by the spectre of sea level rise associated with climate change (Shyam et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, Maher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKerala\u0026rsquo;s seafolk have been noted to lack the capacity to adapt to a changing global climate scenario (Punya et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Factors such as poverty and socio-economic inequality, which are rife among seafolk in Kerala, have been associated with an acute vulnerability to climate change-induced disasters (Alam and Collins 2004, Paavola \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, O\u0026rsquo;Brien et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In the case of coastal communities in developing countries, unplanned habitation along vulnerable coasts, pursuit of economic activity in hazardous locations, and a lack of infrastructure to escape from disaster compound the vulnerability of the communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsidering the situation where Kerala becomes increasingly prone to being affected by natural hazards like cyclones and tidal floods, and eventual rise in sea level, it is imperative that policymakers implement effective coastal management practices and make improvements to the policy as and when required. Shorelines are naturally unstable, and subject to widespread changes in the long run. Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastal management practices, implemented over the last forty years and comprising almost exclusively of hard structures like seawalls, groynes, and breakwaters, have contributed significantly to severe coastal erosion on the coastline. These hard structures are essentially short-term solutions and have led to a scenario where 67 per cent of the shoreline in Kerala is eroding or has no natural beach remaining. In some locations, coastal afforestation using mangroves and \u003cem\u003eCasuarina Equisetifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Windmill tree or \u003cem\u003eKāṯṯāḍimaram\u003c/em\u003e in Malayalam) being planted along eroding coasts. During the fieldwork, coastal afforestation practices were observed only in a few locations such as Chellānam, Vypeen, Mannalāmkunnu, Padinjāṟēkkara (North of Ponnāni harbour), Māṭṭūl, and Valiyapaṟamba. Hard structures continue to be the most favoured method of coastal management in Kerala.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main fallout of human construction along the coastline is severe erosion along the down-drift side of such structures like harbours. Most eroding locations are located immediately north or south of major fishing harbours along the down-drift side. The presence of harbours disrupts the sediment transport, leading to large-scale accretion on the other side. The field survey showed that across Kerala, locations that had seawalls had almost completely eroded coastlines. Many of these were located downdrift of fishing harbours or groyne fields, leaving them ravaged by waves especially in the monsoon season. These include areas ranging from the Southern border of Thiruvananthapuram to the eroded segments in Kasaragod. In most of these locations, the seawalls were constructed more than 30 years ago and have seen little to no maintenance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dilapidated nature of coastal protection measures throughout Kerala are a testament to the negligence of the state\u0026rsquo;s administrative machinery. In locations like Chettuva in Kadappuram Panchayat, the entire stretch of the seawall had been reduced to smooth rounded stones that do nothing to protect the coast against tidal floods and cyclones. While a tetrapod-based seawall was recently constructed in Chellanam to protect the village from tidal floods, similar endevours in other parts of Kerala have not been undertaken with due diligence. One such case is from Ottamassery in Alappuzha, where hundreds of tetrapods were found abandoned within the compounds of nearby houses, and a single line of tetrapods was deployed along the high tide line (HTL). In one of the biggest acts of state negligence, erosion continues unabated in Alappad, Chavara, and Panmana panchayats of Kollam district, where indiscriminate mineral sand mining by two PSUs \u0026ndash; Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) and Kerala Metals and Minerals Limited (KMML) \u0026ndash; have eaten away at the coast and led to the forced migration of coastal communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003eThe Reference Manual on Climate Change Adaptation Guidelines for Coastal Protection and Management in India (Black et al, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) describes various coastal protection strategies in detail, as given in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The manual describes these measures along an Environmental Softness Ladder (ESL). The ESL ranks protection measures on a scale of 1\u0026ndash;12 in terms of environmental impact, where 1 represents the softest solution with least impact and 12 the hardest with the worst consequences. The ESL is meant to be used as a process, where each solution starting from the bottom rung (Environmental Impact\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1) much be fully considered and eliminated only if there are sufficient justifications, before moving higher up the ladder. The objective of the ESL is to facilitate the use of the softest possible solutions, and to ensure that hard solutions are implemented only after the softer options are fully rejected.\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Fishing Harbours as the Flashpoints\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOur study is partially focused on analysing the impact of hard structures on coastal erosion in Kerala, and how households have been affected by the State\u0026rsquo;s developmental discourse on the coast. To analyse how the seafolk had been affected by natural hazards along the coast, we asked each household whether they suffered losses to their houses and household assets due to extreme weather events like cyclones, tidal floods, and storm surges. The damage includes structural damage to houses and loss of assets including furniture, electronic equipment, schoolbooks, kitchen utensils, and vehicles. Assets also include fishing gear like boats, engines, and nets.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA binary logistic regression was used to ascertain the factors that explained the likelihood of a household suffering significant damage to their fishing and household assets in the wake of a natural disaster. The factors are categorized as physical and environmental variables, and socio-economic variables. Among the socio-economic variables, housing standard is considered a dichotomous variable, where pucca houses are defined as structures having brick and mortar walls, concrete roofs, tiles floors, and 2 or more rooms. The reference group, Kutcha, implies that a household lives in a ramshackle structure. The variable for ration card considers Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) card holders as the variable. In the Indian context, AAY card holders are considered the poorest of the poor. The reference group includes all non-AAY card holders. Detailed descriptions of the factors ate given in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the main variables, the results of interactions between some of them were also considered during the regression. Three interactions \u0026ndash; between erosion and seawall status; between erosion and location downdrift of fishing harbours; and between livelihood and location \u0026ndash; were considered.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptions of Variables Used\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVariable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescription\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDependent Variable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEWE Damage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable indicating whether a household has suffered considerable loss of property due to an extreme weather event in the past one year. It takes the value of \u0026lsquo;1\u0026rsquo; if yes, and \u0026lsquo;0\u0026rsquo; otherwise.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndependent Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhysical and Environmental Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSea Distance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDistance from the High Tide Line (HTL) to the homestead in meters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErosion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable indicating the shoreline status. =1 if eroding, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Stable/Accreting)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVanilla Coast\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable indicating the absence of coastal protection measures. =1 if Yes, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: No)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeawall Status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for a dysfunctional seawall. =1 if the seawall is eroded with wave overtopping, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Perfect Seawall)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfforestation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for coastal afforestation. =1 if afforestation activities have been undertaken, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: No Afforestation)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDowndrift\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for location of the household. =1 if the fishing village is located downdrift of a harbour, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Updrift)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocio-Economic Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for location of the household. =1 if the household lives in a rural area, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Urban)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePucca\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for the housing status of the household. =1 if they own a pucca house, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Kutcha)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAAY\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for the household\u0026rsquo;s classification according to the poverty line. =1 if the household is classified as poorest among the poor, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Non-AAY)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDependency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDummy variable for occupation of the household. =1 if the household depends entirely on fisheries for their livelihood, otherwise 0. (Reference Group: Non-dependent)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003eSource: Primary Data\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results of the regression analysis, given in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, show that among the six physical and environmental variables, three were quite significant in reducing the likelihood of damage from EWEs. These included distance from the HTL, afforestation, and vanilla coast; implying that living further from the coast, along stretches untouched by anthropogenic activities, or in areas with mangroves and other vegetation, greatly reduced hazard risk for the seafolk. Afforestation and living on virgin coasts particularly reduced the odds of damage from EWEs. The other three variables \u0026ndash; erosion status, condition of the seawalls, and location downdrift of a fishing harbour \u0026ndash; while not significant at the 95% level in terms of their odds ratios, all had significant marginal effects. Although none of them influenced the hazard risk significantly in isolation, a combination of these factors compounded the risk significantly. A household living along an eroding stretch of the coastline while also had poor defences against the waves saw the odds of sustaining asset loss increase by three times. The risk also rose by more than twice when the eroding stretch was located downdrift of a fishing harbour. Indicating that large-scale constructions had serious detrimental effects on adjoining stretches of the coast, jeopardising the lives and livelihoods of the seafolk.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBinary Logistic Regression Estimates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVariable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSig.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[95% conf. interval]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003edy/dx\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSig. (dy/dx)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e_cons\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.284\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.690\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.493\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.628\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.629\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhysical and Environmental Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSea Distance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.980\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-9.400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.976\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.984\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErosion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.660\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.874\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2543\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeawall Status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.478\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.660\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.931\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.345\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1148\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDowndrift\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.487\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.490\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.882\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.504\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0835\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVanilla Coast\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.229\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.448\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.1699\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfforestation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.380\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.301\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocio-Economic Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.276\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.390\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.466\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1710\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDependency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.346\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.950\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.727\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.492\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePucca\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.539\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.792\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0714\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAAY\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.757\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.958\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0650\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInteractions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErosion*Seawall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.058\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.380\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.217\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.684\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDowndrift*Erosion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.483\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.501\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRural*Dependency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.963\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMcFadden R\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.353\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAUC\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.883\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLikelihood Ratio \u0026chi;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e(sig.)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e499.02 (0.000)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHosmer-Lemeshow \u0026chi;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e(sig.)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.25 (0.3213)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eSource: Primary Data\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmong the socio-economic variables, the only factor that reduced the odds of EWE-inflicted damage was owning a pucca house. Living in rural areas, being completely dependent on fisheries for a livelihood, and belonging to the most deprived class of seafolk significantly raised the odds of asset loss. The interaction between physical location (rural villages) and total dependency on fisheries is of particular importance, raising the risk of asset loss more than twice. The marginal effect of this interaction, given in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, as well as that of the other two variables in isolation, indicates that exclusion and lack of resilient infrastructure greatly increased the hazard risk faced by coastal communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarginal Effects of Interactions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVariable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMargin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS.E\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSig.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[95% conf. interval]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErosion*Seawall Status\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo*No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.630\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.462\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.617\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo*Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.609\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.657\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes*No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.721\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.650\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.618\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.825\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes*Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.862\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.911\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDowndrift*Erosion\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo*No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.569\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.526\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.611\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo*Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.812\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.840\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.771\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.853\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes*No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.638\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.390\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.557\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.719\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes*Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.916\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.850\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.891\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.942\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRural*Dependency\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo*No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.525\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.669\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo*Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.638\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.920\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.593\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.682\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes*No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.705\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.656\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.755\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes*Yes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.827\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.805\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.849\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eSource: Primary Data\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Examining the Case Studies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcross Kerala, communities living downdrift of fishing harbours lamented the fact their lives became a harrowing experience every monsoon after the construction of the harbour in question. During the fieldwork, some of the worst cases of a fishing harbour laying waste to a shoreline were seen in Thiruvananthapuram and Malappuram districts. The list of major erosion hotspots along the Kerala coast, and their associated fishing harbours, is given in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProminent Locations where Harbours Contribute to Erosion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSl. No\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLocation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHarbour\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLSGI\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDistrict\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoosodi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManjeshwar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMangalpady GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKasaragod\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThayyil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMopla Bay\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKannur MC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKannur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePettippalam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThalayi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThalassery Municipality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKannur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAzhiyur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMahe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAzhiyur GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKuriyadi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChombal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChorode GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoyilkavu\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKoyilandy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChengottukavu GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVarakkal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePuthiyappa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode MC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGotheeswaram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVellayil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode MC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChaliyam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeypore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKadalundi GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKozhikode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePuthiyakadappuram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanur Municipality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalappuram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePuthuponnani\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePonnani\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePonnani Municipality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalappuram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVeliyancode\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePonnani\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVeliyancode GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalappuram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePalappetty\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePonnani\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerumpadappu GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalappuram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeriyambalam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePonnani\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePunnayurkulam GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThrissur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKara\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMunambam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdavilangu GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThrissur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKannamaly\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChellanam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChellanam GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErnakulam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOttamassery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArthunkal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKadakkarappally GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlappuzha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePurakkad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThottappally\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePurakkad GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlappuzha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArattupuzha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValiyazheekkal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArattupuzha GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlappuzha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlappad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValiyazheekkal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlappad GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKollam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMundakkal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThangasseri\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKollam MC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKollam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnjengo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMuthalapozhi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnjuthengu GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrivandrum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVeli to Kovalam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVizhinjam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrivandrum MC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrivandrum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePozhiyūr\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThengappatanam\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKulathoor GP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrivandrum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eSource: Primary Data\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStarting from the southernmost point of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastline, at Pozhiyūr, one can witness the devastating impact of the Thengapattanam harbour constructed in Tamil Nadu. Erosion rates in Pozhiyūr, as estimated by Pradeep et al (2022) is more than 10 meters per year. The study used satellite data to make an estimate of erosion in the region, although by the accounts of the local seafolk, erosion rates were higher at more than 19 meters per year. According to Charlie (name changed), a local fisherman from Pozhiyūr, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eever since that harbour was constructed, our lives have been a mess. We live in constant fear of the sea entering our homes any day, and many times, the seawater floods our homes in the middle of the night while we are asleep. Several rows of houses have been lost to the sea and a significant population displaced as a result. Where you see the sea today, there were rows of houses, coconut trees, and even a road with a high mast light installed at the junction. All that has been washed away today because of what political leaders call development\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;. Charlie sounded exhausted and frustrated as he pointed to the remains of the high mast light which was installed at Pozhiyūr in 2018-19.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurther north along the Thiruvananthapuram coastline, the fishing village of Vizhinjam stands protected behind the International Seaport that has been under construction for the past few years. Immediately south of Vizhinjam lies Azhimala, a fast-growing pilgrimage centre, and the rapidly growing Azhimala beach. The entire stretch of the coastline from Poovar to Azhimala has seen widespread accretion due to the breakwaters of the Vizhinjam port disrupting the sediment transportation. North of the Vizhinjam seaport, however, paints a grim picture, as erosion has eaten away at coastal villages like Poonthura and Valiyathura, and popular tourism destinations like Veli and Shanghumukham. The erosion in these regions has been covered extensively by the local media every year.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnother village in Thiruvananthapuram that has been extensively affected by coastal erosion is Anjengo, home to the historic fort constructed by the British. Erosion in Anjengo has been attributed to the Muthalapozhi harbour, south of which there is an accreting zone along the shoreline of Katinamkulam panchayat. Immediately north of Muthalapozhi, the homes of seafolk were seen to have been severely damaged due to erosion and completely abandoned. Interestingly, some of the remaining houses were occupied by migrant workers from West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, who had come as unskilled labourers to the region. The region north of Muthalapozhi had severely eroded seawalls completely inadequate to stop the raging waves.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt Anjengo, the seafolk were quite wary about our research team visiting them for data collection and expressed stiff resistance in the beginning. Joseph (name changed) was seen playing cards on the beach with his fellow fishermen when we visited Anjengo, and although apprehensive at first, he eventually warmed up to us and narrated how the harbour at Muthalapozhi had made the situation unliveable north of the structure. In his words, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThat harbour is like the work of the devil. Every other day, one of our brothers dies there, and north of it, our lives have been hellish due to the erosion. People are abandoning their homesteads and fleeing from this region today, trying to salvage whatever they have as their assets\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurther North in Malappuram district, a similar situation exists south of the Ponnani fishing harbour. The entire stretch of the coastline from Puduponnani in Malappuram to Mannalamkunnu in Thrissur has been facing significant erosion after the construction of the fishing harbour at Ponnani. Inaugurated in 2011, the harbour was intended to boost fisheries in the region and help fishing vessels operate safely. It has been constructed at the mouth of the Bharathapuzha river at a cost of approximately Rs 40 crores and comprises two breakwaters having a length 780 meters on the Northern side and 570 meters on the Southern side. While the harbour has been successful from an economic standpoint, the consequences on the coastline downdrift have been severe. At Padinjarekkara on the northern side of the harbour, the beach has been accreting greatly, while in the downdrift zone, erosion has been accelerating in Ponnani municipality, as well as Veliancode and Perumpadappu panchayats of Malappuram, and Punnayurkulam and Punnayur panchayats of Thrissur.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe geographical region south of the Ponnani harbour has had seawalls along its entire length for a long time, but a lack of maintenance has led to large-scale slumping and a complete loss of the natural coastline. The existing infrastructure is inadequate to protect the homesteads of the seafolk, and every Monsoon season brings with it a fresh wave of destruction. In Palappetty, a small hamlet in Perumpadappu panchayat, the beach has been eroded so far inland that an entire graveyard belonging to the local mosque is being engulfed by the sea. Rocks were haphazardly deposited in this region by the Department of Irrigation, and this step has worsened the situation for the locals. In the words of Hassan (name changed), a resident of Palappetty, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThis entire stretch south of Ponnani will be taken by the sea at this rate. We really do not want to go away from this place where we grew up, but are stuck between a rock and a hard place. Out local graveyard, where our ancestors are buried, will soon be eroded, and we are fearful of our future here. Everything started after the harbour was constructed, and we have been asking the authorities repeatedly to ensure our lives are protected from coastal erosion, but to no avail\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"REHABILITATION AS ALIENATION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe level of exposure of a fishing household to natural hazards typically hinges on the homestead\u0026rsquo;s distance to the High Tide Line (HTL). HTL is defined as the line on the land up to which the highest water line reaches during the spring tide (MoEF, 2001). The Government of Kerala has identified households living within fifty meters of HTL as being vulnerable to coastal hazards. In 2019, the Punargaeham scheme was launched for the rehabilitation of these households across the state. The scheme aimed to rehabilitate 18,685 households within a span of three years. The approximate expenditure for the scheme was expected to be Rs 2450 crores over the three years, but almost six years after inception, the programme continues to be in a half-baked state.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnder the Punargaeham scheme, coastal households can opt to rehabilitate away from the coast in one of three ways \u0026ndash; either by purchasing land and constructing a new house, or by buying an existing house away from the shore, or by opting to shift to a state-sponsored flats. If the household opted to buy a piece of land, they would be given an amount of Rs. 600,000 including registration and stamp duty to buy 3 cents of land, and an additional Rs 400,000 for constructing a small house. If the household attempted to purchase an existing house away from the shoreline, they would be allotted the total sum of Rs 1,000,000. For those who opted to shift to flats, they would be given flats free of cost by the Government of Kerala. The key point of contention in the Punargaeham scheme is that a household which shifted away from the coastline had to relinquish all property on the coastline, handing it over to the Government for the creation of a buffer zone to protect against natural hazards. The households are not entitled to any other compensation for the land they hand over to the Government.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcross Kerala, flats have been constructed to rehabilitate the coastal communities, with those at Pallithottam in Kollam, Muttathara in Thiruvananthapuram, and Pettippalam in Thalassery being projects that existed before Punargaeham was initiated. According to the Government of Kerala, flats are currently under construction at Muttathara and Kadakampally in Thiruvananthapuram, Mannumpuram in Alappuzha, Ponnani and Niramaruthur in Malappuram, West Hill in Kozhikode, and Koyippady in Kasaragod. As part of the current study, interviews were conducted among the recipients of flats at Pozhiyūr, Muttathara, Pallithottam, Ponnani, and Thalassery.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Shambolic Structures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Pratheeksha (Hope) flat complex at Muttathara, completed in 2018 at Muttathara in Thiruvananthapuram, stands out as one of the biggest rehabilitation initiatives undertaken by the Government of Kerala for the coastal communities. The project, which served as a precursor to Punargaeham, comprises 192 flats handed over to households previously residing in locations like Valiyathura, Cheriyathura, Valiyathope, and Kochuthope, within the Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation limits. The occupants were mostly seafolk who had lost their homes due to coastal erosion and cyclones like Ockhi.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the flat complex looks well-constructed from the outside, closer inspection during the fieldwork revealed that this was not the case. The construction of the flats was found to be shoddy, with structural damage including large cracks along the walls and ceiling being prevalent. The floor had also cracked up in many flats, making living in them difficult for the occupants. The local drainage and waste management systems were also lacking, with stagnant water pooling in parts of the compound and exposing the residents to communicable diseases like Dengue and Chikungunya. According to Esther (name changed), one of the first residents to move into the newly constructed flats in 2018, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe were promised a safe life here in these flats by the administration, and were happy when we moved in. However, the promises made to us have been false, and we live in buildings that have been constructed poorly. These buildings were supposed to be maintenance-free for a period of fifty years, but we had to start spending money for repairs within four months of moving in\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe structural frailties of the buildings were a common theme in Pozhiyūr, Pallithottam, and Ponnani, all of which come under the Punargaeham project. The shoddy construction was accompanied by poor wiring and plumbing work, leading to widespread incidence of unusable toilets and high electricity bills for the residents. The rather pitiful plumbing has led to a situation where water from toilets on upper floors of the building leaks onto the lower floors. To quote Shanthamma (name changed), who received the flat at Pallithottam nearly two years ago, said that \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThe quality of life here is poor, and we regret moving into the flats. When we lived near the shore, only natural hazards worried us. Now we have to contend with bad housing, a lack of waste management, and anxiety about how much money we have to spend out of our pockets to renovate these structures\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe situation at Ponnani was even more problematic, with the 140 flats being constructed on a desolate, overgrown piece of land adjacent to the harbour. The locality lacks road access and street lighting and is infested with snakes and other pests. At Ponnani, like in Pallithottam and Muttathara, the absence of a waste management solution was highlighted as a major concern by the residents. Every septic tank installed in the compound was shared by around eight families, leading to regular leakages of human waste in the compound. Non-functional toilets and frequently bursting septic tanks meant that the residents were engaged in open defecation within the flat compound. The abhorrent situation at Ponnani, as explained by Aishabi (name changed), is pitiable considering how Kerala prides itself in being an open defecation free state. \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eOur condition here is pitiful, we can\u0026rsquo;t even go to a toilet in peace. The men go to toilets in the harbour where they work, but what about us women and children? We cannot use public toilets and are currently forced to openly defecate in the part of the compound that is overgrown with shrubs and infested by snakes. Imagine having to live a low life like this after having lived in a good condition before moving into this hellhole\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; Aishabi\u0026rsquo;s husband Abdullah (name changed) lamented their decision to move to the flat, saying that they would \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003erather have died being consumed by the sea than live in such inhumane conditions\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe residents of flats build under Punargaeham did not hold back during the interviews when voicing their opinions. At both Muttathara and Ponnani, work is ongoing to construct another set of flats \u0026ndash; 450 in Muttathara and around 200 in Ponnani. The residents of the existing flats are apprehensive about the quality of the new buildings and believe that they were cheated by the administration. The sentiment was perfectly wrapped by Philomena (name changed) a resident at Muttathara, who said that they \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eare poor fishermen, and trusted the Government when they said they will give us safe houses where tidal floods and cyclones wouldn\u0026rsquo;t affect us. But we never knew we were walking into a trap from which there is no escape. We have been stripped of our happiness and our dignity by the State. Now they\u0026rsquo;re constructing another 450 or so flats under Punargaeham in this compound. I\u0026rsquo;m just praying to God that those building aren\u0026rsquo;t constructed in the same way as these\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2. Displacement and Disenfranchisement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe biggest point of contention that the coastal communities of Kerala have with the Punargaeham scheme is the condition that the land has to be relinquished to the state, which has absolute rights on how to use it once the household has moved away. At Pozhiyūr, Ajitha (name changed) spoke about how the community\u0026rsquo;s illiteracy and lack of awareness was exploited by the officials when they shifted to the flats. As per her account, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eOur people lack education, and we were duped by the officials who told us that we were being given new homes in a safe location. Little did we know that we would lose all access to our landholdings, and that the new flats would never belong to us. The land upon which the flat is built is Government property over which we have no rights. We cannot give out the flats for rent, nor mortgage it to take loans. We have essentially been reduced to tenants who live in Government housing without paying rent and have lost everything our ancestors had built up over generations\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe seafolk who moved into the flats regardless of the location said in the interviews that the State had reduced them to being a landless, disenfranchised group whose assets and livelihoods were robbed in daylight. Left without any land or tangible assets to monetize, the community feel betrayed by the State, and many a respondent was seen in tears when describing the scenario. Take the case of Laila (name changed), who shifted from Veliancode to the flat in Ponnani. Laila grew up on the coast, where her family had significant property and a small house, all of which was relinquished when her family moved into the flat. To quote her, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe have been reduced to a bunch of refugees by the Government. We have not been given ownership of these flats and are now left without an address. Where will we go if the Government one day decides to evict us from these flats? We are not beneficiaries of this scheme \u0026ndash; we are rather its victims. We have been left landless, penniless, and disenfranchised, to the point where no one is bothered to even listen to us anymore. We have been transformed into a voiceless community in Kerala today\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Punargaeham project was also widely criticized for its approach towards compensation. Inadequate funding was often quoted as the chief reason why many households refuse to budge despite the Government\u0026rsquo;s insistence on rehabilitating them. The most common issue was the price that households had to pay to acquire land on their own, often away from the seashore. Several respondents also expressed a view that even if they purchased land, they would be unable to construct a good house for a paltry sum of Rs. 400,000. To explain the situation in the words of Krishnan (name changed), a respondent from Beypore,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt is difficult to find three cents of land for a measly sum of Rs. 600,000, and then build a small house for just Rs. 400,000. We are forced to find land for cheap rates, which is nearly impossible for us. Even if we somehow manage to get some land cheaply, it is too far away from the sea, and we will be left unable to engage in fishing. And building a house for just Rupees four lakhs is difficult given the price of raw materials and the high labour charges in Kerala. It is unfair that we are only given a paltry sum of Rupees ten lakhs for rehabilitation. The Government should at least make the funds variable based on the geographic location of the households being rehabilitated\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant delays in fund disbursal were also hurting the prospects of the Punargaeham project. Several households who had bought land or started construction of a new house are now caught in limbo. They are unable to move into a safe residence, and are forced to stay in their old dwellings close to the sea. Crushing indebtedness is also a significant problem faced by many of these households, as explained by Suresh, a fisherman from Kadakkarappally who is yet to receive the full funding under Punargaeham.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThere are significant delays in releasing the funds under Punargaeham, and several households are caught in limbo because of it. We applied for an independent house under the scheme but are yet to receive the full amount required for house construction due to funding bottlenecks. My family is therefore forced to stay in our old house, very close to the sea. We are also caught in debt and have no way to pay it off unless we get some assistance from the Government. If the funds were released on time, we could\u0026rsquo;ve done something about the loan, but I am today helpless and unable to properly care for my family\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor a state that is lauded as a pioneer in land reforms, it is rather shocking that Kerala is actively pursuing a policy wherein a traditionally marginalized community is being disenfranchised in broad daylight. Even more worrying is a feeling among the coastal communities of Kerala that they are being forcibly displaced by the state on the pretext of development and climate change mitigation. The Government of Kerala has been proposing a 615-km long highway from Pozhiyūr to Kunjathoor in Kasaragod running parallel to the Arabian Sea. The fact that the alignment of the highway falls within fifty meters of the HTL across large sections has evoked a feeling among the seafolk that the Punargaeham scheme is fa\u0026ccedil;ade used by the State to evict them without adequate compensation and get land for a cheap price. Across Kerala, the seafolk pointed towards cases where the stones marking the alignment of the highway had already been lost due to erosion. The question therefore arises among the communities as to why they are being asked to relocate from the coast while the Government goes ahead with ambitious plans to build highways. The question was asked by Francis, a fisherman from Alappuzha, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIf the Government says that living within fifty meters of the HTL is risky, and that everything in this zone is prone to being washed away by erosion and climate change, why is there a plan to build a highway in the exact same zone? The plans seem fishy, and we feel that there are bigger forces at play that seek to displace our community in the name of development and disaster mitigation\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Alappuzha and Kollam, the coastal communities raised an even more sinister concern, where they were afraid that the Punargaeham scheme was just a ruse to forcibly evict them and take over the land for mineral sand mining by the KMML and IREL. Santhosh (name changed), a fisherman in Arattupuzha raise this concern during the interviews, saying \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWhile the Punargaeham project as it is would be a welcome step to keep our families safe from natural disasters, we are afraid that the Government and these PSUs are using it simply as a ruse to evict us from our lands without giving adequate compensation. If they were to take over our lands by paying actual compensation, the cost would be very high. It is very similar in the case of the proposed coastal highway, where we are given only ten lakhs to move out for development. Why are we not given proper compensation like the people whose land was taken over for the construction of the National Highway? We suspect the Government is trying to use underhanded tactics to evict us from our land in an unfair manner\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"THE EROSION OF TRUST","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Kerala\u0026rsquo;s fiercely competitive political landscape where the Left parties and the Congress-led alliance used to take turns forming the Government, each political entity sought to outperform the other in showcasing their developmental agenda for the state. In the coastal belt of Kerala, this has manifested in the form of large-scale constructions including fishing harbours, breakwaters, seawalls, and groynes. These large structures act as visible symbols of development, evoking awe and admiration towards the responsible political party in the eyes of the people. Dolšak and Prakash (2018, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) have noted that construction of seawalls and hard coastal structures is an indicator of such political behaviour and that the negative spillovers from such development reduced climate resilience and raises climate vulnerability of coastal communities. Moreover, it is noted from literature that soft solutions are less appealing to local populace and the political leadership in developing contexts, and therefore hard structures are viewed as symbols of progress and development. The existing hard structures on Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coast can be considered to have adorned a political dimension, eclipsing the actual purpose of coastal protection and management. The systemic encouragement given to these structures has also meant that the state\u0026rsquo;s seafolk have been left thinking that these constructions on the coast are beneficial in the long run, and serve to protect their lives, livelihoods, and assets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch a thought process led to the total length of seawalls in Kerala increasing by 362.5 per cent, between 1970 and 2020. Recently, there has been a heightened focus on shifting from traditional rock-base seawalls to concrete seawalls made of tetrapods like the one deployed at Chellanam. Given the negative impact of these structures on large sections of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastline, it can be argued that for more than fifty years from 1970 to the present day, political parties in Kerala have, in their frantic race to power, systematically destroyed the state\u0026rsquo;s coastline, leaving the lives and livelihoods of the seafolk in a precarious position. The key issues with constructing hard structures on the coastline are the substantial costs associated with the construction and periodic maintenance of the structures, and the reality that the geomorphological changes as a direct result of the construction are near-irreversible. The increased reliance on hard structures has also lulled the coastal communities of Kerala into a false sense of security, where they believe that the presence of such structures represents a long-term solution that does not displace them from their traditional way of life. In the end, the communities which suffer from the consequences of building the hard structures demand similar constructions in their area due to the false sense of security. Political parties, eager to show a developmental face to the public, engage in furthering such constructions, kicking off a vicious circle of environmental degradation and coastal erosion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen coupled with the land alienation faced by households and terms and condition of the Punargaeham project, it does not take much for a person to understand why the coastal communities feel let down by the State. In locations like Ottamassery, the community have witnessed shoddy work and absconding contractors leaving the work on the seawall half-baked. In other locations like Pozhiyūr and Ajanur, the communities feel that delay in constructing a harbour is negligence on the part of the State. Issues including the coastal highway, and the pitiful condition of families who decided to trust the State by moving into the Punargaeham flats have only made matters worse. It can be said that there is little, if any, trust left in the system among Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastal communities. The fact that traditional fishing communities are not recognized as an indigenous group with rights over their traditional spaces as per the UN Declaration of Rights of the Indigenous People also does little to help rebuild trust. With the seafolk having no rights akin to the Forest Rights Act that protects tribal communities, they are left wide open to exploitation by corporates, the State and other parties with vested interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of our study confirm the results of previous studies done in the Kerala context regarding coastal erosion, including Noujas and Thomas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Selvan et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Parvathy et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It can be concluded that the developmental policy of building hard structures has negatively impacted the coastline of Kerala over the past 50 years. The present study also throws open more questions than it seeks to answer. Key questions concerning the basic ownership of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s coastline, the state\u0026rsquo;s preparedness to face the challenges posed by climate change, the target of developmental activities on the coast, and the rehabilitation of climate refugees, are to be answered as the state moves towards achieving sustainable developmental goals. It is critical that the policy pursued by the State on the Kerala coast undergoes a radical change in its approach towards the community and towards the concept of development. It is imperative that the Government shift its focus from hard to soft solutions to rebuild the coastline of Kerala, while educating the coastal communities that is the sustainable way forward for the state.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough projects like Punargaeham have set out lofty targets that could have positive intentions for a vulnerable group like the seafolk, the policies have failed abjectly in implementation, generating a negative feedback loop and completely eroding any trust the seafolk had in the State. The first step towards protecting the lives and livelihoods of Kerala\u0026rsquo;s traditional seafolk has to inevitably be a trust rebuilding exercise. Across the state, the communities felt that too many bridges had been burnt over the last half century, and it is only by taking them into confidence and eliminating the information asymmetry that state will be able to take the communities into confidence when proposing developmental activities on the coast. Kerala has far too long excluded the coastal communities from its developmental discourse. It is critical that a State like Kerala, considered one of India\u0026rsquo;s most developed, and arguably its more progressive, take significant attempts to bring the coastal communities into the mainstream rather than alienate them even more. For at the end of the day, if trust is not rebuilt, the seafolk will have only one thing to say to the state, a statement that was put into words by many a fisherman, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ewe were a people born with salt in our veins, and we would rather die in the lap of the sea rather than lose our essence and existence at the behest of a mechanism that does not care for us\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003e7.1. Ethics Declaration\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Approval Committee of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, where the study primarily took place. Collection of qualitative data involved use of a consent form given to participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e7.2. Funding Declaration\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors did not receive any support from any organization for the present work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e7.3. Competing Interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e7.4. Clinical Trials\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe clinical trials declaration is not applicable to the present study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlam, E. and E. 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K., \u0026amp; Domi, J. (2002). \u003cem\u003eResidual illiteracy in a coastal village: Poovar Village of Thiruvananthapuram district\u003c/em\u003e. KRPLLD, Centre for Development Studies.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHapke, H. M., \u0026amp; Ayyankeril, D. (2018). Gendered livelihoods in the global fish-food economy: a comparative study of three seafolk communities in Kerala, India. \u003cem\u003eMaritime Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(2), 133-143.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJohn, J. (2014). Technological Changes in Marine Fishing and Livelihood Threats of Fisher Folk. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Studies in Dynamics and Change\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(1), 23-28.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKelkar-Khambete, A. (2012). Traditional seafolk of Kerala\u0026mdash;An article about their socio-economic organisation and the special relationship they share with the sea and the environment. 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Assessing the Alternative Livelihood Options for Climate Change Vulnerable Coastal Fishing Villages in Kerala, India. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Environment and Climate Change (Previously known as British Journal of Environment \u0026amp; Climate Change)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(4), 204-216.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShyam, S. S., Kripa, V., Zacharia, P. U., Shridhar, N., \u0026amp; Ambrose, T. V. (2014). Climate change awareness, preparedness, adaptation and mitigation strategies: seafolks perception in coastal Kerala. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e, 670-681.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYesodhara, E. P., Kokkal, K., and Harinarayan, P. (Ed.). (2007). \u003cem\u003eState of Environment Report of Kerala 2007-Volume II: Natural Hazards\u003c/em\u003e. Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVipinkumar, V. P., Shyam, S. S., Pushkaran, K. N., Harshan, N. K., Salini, K. P., \u0026amp; Sunil, P. V. (2014). Role of Self Help Groups on coastal indebtedness in marine fisheries sector\u0026ndash;a case study from Kerala, south India. \u003cem\u003eIndian Journal of Fisheries\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e61\u003c/em\u003e(1), 36-41.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table 1","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"Photograph 1 To 5","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhotograph 1 To 5 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Coastal management, extreme weather events, seafolk, Kerala","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7281739/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7281739/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHome to over 800,000 traditional fishing households, Kerala has a thriving fisheries sector. The seafolk live across the state\u0026rsquo;s 593-km long coastline and have been one of the most socially and economically marginalized communities in Kerala. Of late, the lives and livelihoods of the communities has been severely disrupted by the increasing incidence of extreme weather events like tropical cyclones and tidal floods on the Kerala coast. The paper examines the status of existing coastal protection measures in Kerala, the impact of extreme weather events on the asset loss among the seafolk, and the deepening sense of mistrust that the seafolk harbour towards the State. Mixed methods have been employed, with quantitative data collected from 1271 households across the nine coastal districts of the state. Qualitative data was collected using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and non-participant methods between 2022 and 2025. The results show that continuing with hard structures like seawalls and groynes has led to severe erosion along the Kerala coast, and that villages lying downdrift of such constructions including fishing harbours were at a significantly greater risk of being devastated by extreme weather events. The findings also show that the developmental discourse in Kerala, revolving around large constructions, marginalizes the seafolk even more, displacing them from their ancestral homesteads, pushing them into crushing debt, and causing immense distress. The situation has resulted in a situation where the seafolk\u0026rsquo;s trust in the state is on a downward spiral.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Eroding Shorelines, Eroding Trust: Analysing the Interplay between State Policy, Climate Change and Social Exclusion on the Kerala Coast","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-11 13:14:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7281739/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"13be29ba-38b5-435a-9749-1d6e572307a6","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-31T13:23:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-11 13:14:01","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7281739","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7281739","identity":"rs-7281739","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}