Expanding Life Cycle Assessment boundaries through Thermodynamic Entropy: A comparative study of combustion and electric cars

Expanding Life Cycle Assessment boundaries through Thermodynamic Entropy: A comparative study of combustion and electric cars | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Expanding Life Cycle Assessment boundaries through Thermodynamic Entropy: A comparative study of combustion and electric cars Angel Cuadras, Pol Vives, Victoria J. Ovejas This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9039162/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The global transition from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as a strategy to mitigate climate change requires objective, physics-based metrics to quantify energy and environmental impacts. Traditionally, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ​) emissions have been the primary metric, often modelled through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This study proposes a novel framework based on entropy analysis to provide a unified thermodynamic evaluation of the processes involved in vehicle operation. A comparative analysis is conducted on three Volkswagen Golf variants: gasoline, diesel, and electric. The entropies associated with fuel combustion, electricity generation, CO 2 ​ emissions, atmospheric emissivity changes, and noise pollution are quantified using fundamental thermodynamic models. For the BEV, the entropy related to battery manufacturing and recycling is integrated using GREET© and EVERBATT© frameworks. Our results show that for a functional unit of 100 km, the gasoline vehicle generates an entropy of 599 kJ K⁻¹, the diesel 492 kJ K⁻¹, and the electric vehicle 352 kJ K⁻¹. Entropy emerges as a universal, multi-dimensional metric capable of reproducing established CO 2 ​ trends while incorporating previously fragmented impacts, such as atmosphere emissivity an acoustic pollution. Crucially, this entropic approach remains valid beyond the current decarbonization paradigm, providing a permanent tool for evaluating any energy transformation process. Environmental Engineering Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics entropy life cycle analysis fossil fuels internal combustion engine battery electric vehicle Full Text Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9039162","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":601183065,"identity":"b2e848c0-1526-4e0e-96c1-68632ca67941","order_by":0,"name":"Angel Cuadras","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA80lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCB2AyAYgrIAISBLUkwMkzJGthbCNCC//s9osPEhjsEvvbcx9+/DnvcB5/A/PB2zx4tEjcOVNskMCQnDjjzHNjad5th4slDrAlW+PTwnAjJ00igeFAYsONNAZpxm2HEzcw8JhJ49MifyMn/QdIy/wbacw/f84BaeH/hleLwY30YwwgLRtupLFJ8DaAbWHDq8XwRg6zRIJBsvHGM8/YrHmOpRdLHGYztpyDR4vcjfSHHz5U2MnOO57GfPNHjXUef3vzwxtv8HmfgccA6DwEN4GBGa9yEGB/gMJNIKhhFIyCUTAKRhwAABQET0L3wY5+AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4540-6640","institution":"Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Angel","middleName":"","lastName":"Cuadras","suffix":""},{"id":601183066,"identity":"6fb83347-10e3-4088-9638-6cc8be879d7d","order_by":1,"name":"Pol Vives","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pol","middleName":"","lastName":"Vives","suffix":""},{"id":601183067,"identity":"3fcb1a2b-dbd9-4502-9f0c-6331ce61ace5","order_by":2,"name":"Victoria J. 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Traditionally, carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e​) emissions have been the primary metric, often modelled through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This study proposes a novel framework based on entropy analysis to provide a unified thermodynamic evaluation of the processes involved in vehicle operation. A comparative analysis is conducted on three Volkswagen Golf variants: gasoline, diesel, and electric. The entropies associated with fuel combustion, electricity generation, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e​ emissions, atmospheric emissivity changes, and noise pollution are quantified using fundamental thermodynamic models. For the BEV, the entropy related to battery manufacturing and recycling is integrated using GREET\u0026copy; and EVERBATT\u0026copy; frameworks. Our results show that for a functional unit of 100 km, the gasoline vehicle generates an entropy of 599 kJ K⁻\u0026sup1;, the diesel 492 kJ K⁻\u0026sup1;, and the electric vehicle 352 kJ K⁻\u0026sup1;. 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