Postpartum Depressive Symptoms among Bangladeshi Women: A hospital-based cross-sectional study

Postpartum Depressive Symptoms among Bangladeshi Women: A hospital-based cross-sectional study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Postpartum Depressive Symptoms among Bangladeshi Women: A hospital-based cross-sectional study Bristi Rani Saha, Mortuja Mahamud Tohan, Sayeeda Zaman, Mymuna Islam Moon, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4066808/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Postpartum depression (PPD) is a severe mental condition that generally arises among women during the initial 12 months of post-delivery. Untreated PPD might be associated with negative outcomes for mothers, children, and families. The objective of this study was to measure the prevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms among women in the Khulna region of Bangladesh and identify its potential associated factors. Methods: A hospital-based quantitative cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in Khulna, involving a sample size of 187 women who had given birth within the past 2-12 weeks. The sample was selected using a convenience sampling technique. The dependent variable chosen for the study was postpartum depression, which was measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) with a cutoff score of greater than 10. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and interdependent sample t-test were conducted to identify any mean differences of EPDS scores among sub-groups of independent variables along with binary logistic regression was done to identify the potential factors associated with increasing PPD where both univariate and multiple linear regression were done. Reliability of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was measured by using Cronbach’s alpha (0.890). Results: The overall prevalence of PPD was found 35.3%. The findings of this study reveal a significant association between PPD and various factors. Factors such as residing in urban areas, unemployment, having more than two children, dissatisfaction in marital relationships, a history of miscarriage, complications during pregnancy, exposure to stressful life events, unplanned pregnancy, experiencing post-delivery illness, difficulties with the baby's sleeping patterns, receiving minimal to occasional emotional support from family members, lack of family support for child care, and experiencing physical violence were identified as significantly risk factors related to PPD. Conclusion: This study reveals various factors associated with PPD that should be considered during the postpartum period of women. Based on the findings, the need for targeted interventions by healthcare providers and caregivers to support women during this critical phase of their lives is recommended. By addressing these factors, it is possible to improve the well-being of women and provide them with the necessary care during the postpartum period. Postpartum Depression Prevalence contributing factors Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Depression is a highly severe mental condition that negatively affects an individual’s emotions, cognition, and actions. Women experience depression at a rate that is approximately 50% higher than men ( 1 ). Depression is more common for women especially after giving birth, which is called postpartum depression. PPD is a prominent mental health disorder that generally occurs within the first year after delivery ( 2 ). It typically manifests within the first two to five weeks after delivery and can last for a year or even longer if it left untreated ( 3 ). The patient may encounter hallucinations or suicidal thoughts and exhibit a desire to harm their own life ( 4 ). PPD is often described as “the thief that steals motherhood”, because it deprives mothers of the ability to fully enjoy the experience of having a new baby ( 5 ). Many women struggle to handle this situation well and subsequently become sufferers of PPD ( 6 ). In the postpartum period women experience various kinds of physical and psychological changes. The most common symptoms of this depression include feelings of hopelessness, sorrow, nausea, changes in sleep and eating patterns, anxiety, impatience, loneliness, mental vulnerability, thoughts of harming oneself or the baby, and even suicidal thoughts may arise ( 7 ). PPD has negative impacts on mother-infant bonding as well as the growth and development of the child ( 8 ) and also harmful consequences on the partner ( 9 ), family and social relationship ( 10 , 11 ). A study found that women with PPD were less likely to provide necessary newborn care such as breastfeeding, routine sleeping, routine doctor appointments, immunizations, and ensuring the safety of the infant ( 12 ). As well as, women who experience PPD are more likely than other women to commit suicide in the later life ( 13 ). Additionally, postpartum depression symptoms might result in child neglect and child abandonment ( 14 ) and also increased the risk of malnutrition and stunting ( 15 ). Globally, PPD is influenced by various factors, including preterm or low birth weight infants, unemployment, socioeconomic disadvantage, insufficient social or emotional support, housing challenges, being a first-time parent, stress related to childcare, infant temperament, having multiple children, complications during pregnancy, sleep disruptions, low self-esteem, negative views towards pregnancy, antenatal depression or anxiety, previous history of depression, an unhappy marital relationship, a history of domestic violence, and significant adverse life events within the past year ( 16 ). Socio-demographic features are considered as potential risk factors for PPD. It includes age ( 17 ), age at marriage, educational attainment, residence, religion, job status, husband’s education, husband’s occupation, household income, perceived economic position, number of children, and marital relationship ( 18 ). Women who have two or more children are at a higher risk of experiencing depression ( 19 ). This association may be ascribed to the greater obligations and financial constraints that come with having multiple children ( 20 ). Women who had unexpected pregnancies, problems during pregnancy or labor, those who fell ill after delivery, and those whose infants became sick had statistically significant higher proportions of PPD ( 21 ). Unintended pregnancies ( 22 , 23 ), high-risk pregnancies ( 24 ), labor complications ( 9 ) and illness after childbirth ( 21 ) recent stressful life events, perceived stress, and social isolation, may have a stronger association with PPD compared to socioeconomic factors ( 25 ). Birth trauma ( 26 ), the tendency towards having a male child is linked to the occurrence of PPD specially in Asian countries ( 27 ). Women who experienced frequent crying of infants and little or no social support from their spouses or partners, may experience sleep deprivation ( 28 ), experienced miscarriage or child death ( 18 ), lower levels of satisfaction in relationships with spouses, parents, and parents-in-law ( 29 ), Violence during pregnancy ( 30 ), intimate partner violence (IPV) had a higher prevalence of postpartum depression ( 31 ). Lack of family support was cited in several studies from Pakistan, Ethiopia, and Cameroon as a risk factor for PPD ( 32 ). Some protective factors for PPD identified by previous research include but are not limited to having a planned and desired pregnancy, higher marital satisfaction, husband’s company, exclusive breastfeeding, healthy dietary behavior, and taking vitamin supplements ( 33 – 35 ). The estimated prevalence of PPD is ranging from 20–40% of women in low and middle income countries who suffer from depression either before or during the postpartum period ( 21 ). Women in impoverished countries face a higher susceptibility to PPD compared to women in developed countries. The prevalence of PPD in high-income nations ranges from 5.2–74.0%, while in low-middle income nations it ranges from 1.9–82.1% ( 16 ). The prevalence rates of PPD in Asian countries vary significantly, ranging from 3.5–63.3% ( 36 ). Among these countries, Malaysia has the lowest prevalence rate, while Pakistan has the highest prevalence rate ( 37 ). A comprehensive review and meta-analysis revealed that the occurrence rate of PPD in India was 22%. However, the prevalence ranges can be influenced by factors such as the utilization of screening tools, cultural norms, socioeconomic position, and healthcare accessibility ( 38 ). Bangladesh, a nation characterized by a significant population density and constrained resources, is currently grappling with the issue of PPD among mothers. Studies indicate that the prevalence of PPD among mothers in rural areas of Bangladesh varied between 18–35% ( 39 ). PPD is a condition that affects approximately one in seven women, often going unnoticed and untreated due to limited awareness among women and healthcare providers ( 40 ). While a few studies on PPD have been conducted in Bangladesh, they predominantly focused on Dhaka city or rural areas, and no study has specifically examined the Khulna region. Previous studies also tended to analyze correlations among a limited number of factors, overlooking the comprehensive assessment of multiple factors within a single study. Additionally, the factors associated with PPD can vary based on cultural, racial, and ethnic differences, rendering previously identified factors potentially inadequate for the Khulna region. Hence, this study aims to determine the prevalence and determinants of PPD among women in Khulna. Postpartum depression needs to be treated shortly after delivery in order to prevent or minimize its adverse consequences. For the sake of the mother, child, and family’s wellbeing, early detection, screening, and intervention are therefore essential ( 41 ). Methods Study Design, Period and Settings A cross-sectional quantitative survey was designed to conduct the study. The data was collected from August 2 to October 18, 2023 from the postpartum women who were at their 2–12 weeks postpartum ( 42 ) period attending Mother and Child Welfare Center (Maa & Shishu Kollyan Kendro), and Urban Primary Health Care Services Delivery Center for immunizing or receiving postnatal care for themselves or for their children. Both the healthcare centers are situated at Khulna city, Bangladesh. These healthcare centers are, respectively, located in the word no.23 and word no.18 in Khulna city. Population and sampling The study's target population comprised postpartum mothers in Khulna City, Bangladesh, between two and twelve weeks postpartum. To attain the objectives of the study, a sample of postpartum women were selected from two aforementioned selected maternity and child healthcare centers. These healthcare centers were selected purposively because these are one of the largest public hospitals for maternity and child healthcare services in Khulna city including child immunization service, family planning, antenatal care, postnatal care, and other primary healthcare services. Therefore, these healthcare centers served as the suitable locations for obtaining representative samples of the target population. We only recruited the postpartum women who were registered in these healthcare centers. The ‘Maa & Shishu Kollyan Kendro’ had 197 registered postpartum women, and Urban Primary Health Care Services Delivery center had 152 registered postpartum women for their children’s immunization during the data collection period. So, the total numbers of registered postpartum women in these two centers were 349. Among these 349 registered women, we tried to approach all the women; however, data were collected from 187 participants finally as these women showed interest and agreed to participate. In this regard, convenient sampling technique was applied to reach the participants. Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling that is frequently employed in population and clinical research since this sampling method frequently involves the selection of participants based on their proximity to a specific location, such as a hospital( 43 ). Inclusion criteria The inclusion criteria in this study were: recently delivered mothers within 2 to 12 weeks postpartum ( 42 ), have live baby at the time of the study and who provided consent to participate in the study. Exclusion criteria The exclusion criteria of this study were: women who were not willing to participate, and who had not given any child birth. Data collection tools and techniques A pre-tested structured questionnaire was used to collect the information about participants’ characteristics to determine possible factors associated with PPD through a face-to face interview by the first researcher. Before participating, participants were asked to provide written informed consent. Eligible mothers were approached to participate who were present in the selected hospitals during the data collection period, and data were collected to attain the calculated sample size. We administered a comprehensive five-part questionnaire to collect pertinent data. The initial part encompassed socio-demographic information, while the subsequent part focused on gathering pregnancy-related details. The third part contained birth-related information, while the fourth part captured data related to family support. The final part of the questionnaire incorporated the widely recognized Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Outcome measure PPD was the only outcome variable for this study. Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to measure postpartum depressive symptoms in the postpartum period. EPDS is a standardized questionnaire consisting of 10 items which is designed to evaluate the presence and severity of depression symptoms experienced by the respondent within the last seven days prior to the interview. The EPDS items are scored on four response categories 0, 1, 2, and 3 based on the severity of symptom, whereas items 3, 5 to 10 are reverse scored i.e. 3, 2, 1, and 0. The total score of EPDS range from 0 to 30 where higher score indicate greater presence of depressive symptoms ( 44 ). This study used an EPDS score > 10 as a cut-off point to classify the postpartum depression ( 10 , 44 ) . Independent variables The independent variables were chosen based on the literature review ( 9 , 18 , 19 , 21 , 29 , 45 ) and used to attain the objectives of the study. Table 1 List of variables of this study along with their categories Variables Category Socio-demographic Variables Age 1. 17–23 Years 2. 24–30 Years 3. > 30 Years Education Level 1. No Education 2. Primary 3. Secondary 4. Tertiary Area of Residence 1. Rural 2. Urban Religion 1. Muslim 2. Hindu 3. Christian 4. Other Employment Status 1. Unemployed 2. Employed 3. Housewife Husband’s Education 1. No education 2. Primary 3. Secondary 4. Tertiary Husband’s Occupation 1. Business 2. Formal sector 3. Informal Sector Household Income 1. 10,000–20,000 2. 21000-30,000 3. 31,000–40,000 4. More than 40,000 Number of children 1. 1 2. 2 3. > 2 Marital relationship 1. Satisfied 2. Dissatisfied Pregnancy Related Variables History of miscarriage 1. Yes 2. No Complications during pregnancy 1. Yes 2. No Stressful life event 1. Yes 2. No Intention of last pregnancy 1. Unplanned 2. Planned Place of delivery 1. Home 2. Health care center Birth Related Variables Skill birth attendants during delivery 1. Yes 2. No Mode of delivery 1. Cesarean section 2. Normal vaginal delivery Illness after delivery 1. Yes 2. No Infant illness 1. Yes 2. No Sex of the baby 1. Male 2. Female Problem of baby sleeping 1. Yes 2. No Excessive baby crying 1. Yes 2. No Family Support Related Variables Emotional support from family members Never, Often Family members take care of child Family members help in household work Husband take care of child Husband help in household task Physical violence The conceptual framework Fig. 1 elucidates the interconnections among various specific factors that the researcher intends to investigate. In other word it is the relationship between variables under study. Based on the literature review, a conceptual framework has been developed including prime concepts. The distribution of different predictor variables and their combined effects have been shown in this conceptual framework. In this framework it is shown that what factors are associated with postpartum depression. Despite strong association between predictors and PPD, each has an independent effect on outcomes. To investigate the effects, it was hypothesized that several predictors (socio-demographic factors, pregnancy related factors, birth related factors, and family support) are associated with developing outcomes (Postpartum depression) and the combination of predictors is expected to predict prevalence of PPD. Statistical Analysis The collected data were first checked, cleaned, and coded. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to describe the socio-demographic, pregnancy, birth and family support related variables which have been presented in the form of tables, percentages to show relationships. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and interdependent sample t-test were conducted to identify any mean differences of EPDS scores among sub-groups of independent variables. In addition, binary logistic regression analysis was also conducted to identify the factors associated with outcome variable and independent variables. In the result section, only the results from the adjusted regression model are reported. Reliability of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was measured by using Cronbach’s alpha (0.890). Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 used for analysis. Results Socio-demographic profile of the respondents The Table 1 , shows that among the 187 respondents, the largest proportion (42.8%) falls within the age group of 24 to 30 years, while the second largest group (40.1%) comprises respondents aged between 17 and 23. Those above 30 years old account for 17.1% of the respondents. The majority (50.8%) have completed secondary-level education, followed by 26.7% who have tertiary-level education. Those with primary education comprise 21.4% of the respondents, while 1.1% has never attended school. The study finds that 87.2% of the respondents reside in urban areas, with 73.8% identifying as Muslim. Among the respondents, the majority (73.8%) is housewives, 14.4% are unemployed after leaving their jobs due to pregnancy, and only 12.8% are currently employed. Regarding the husbands' education, 37.4% have completed tertiary education, and 51.9% are engaged in informal sector occupations. Regarding income, 31.6% of the respondents fall into the lowest income range (10,000–20,000), and 58.3% have only one child. Most respondents (82.4%) report satisfaction in their marital relationships, while 17.6% express dissatisfaction. Pregnancy Related Information of the Respondents Pregnancy related information of the respondents shows that 85.6% of the postpartum women had not any miscarriage history, almost half (42.2%) of women faced complications during pregnancy, one third of the respondents (37.4%) had a stressful life event while they were pregnant, 66.8% of the pregnancies of the respondents were planned, whereas 32.2% of the respondents' intentions for their most recent pregnancy were unplanned. The percentage of deliveries that took place at health care centers was 89.8%. Birth Related Information of the Respondents It is encouraging to see that the percentage of people gaining access to birthing facility is growing. 96.8% gave birth in the presence of skilled birth attendants and 79.1% of women gave birth through the use of a cesarean section, while just 20.9% of women gave birth through the use of a normal vaginal delivery.27.3% of women faced maternal illness after giving birth, 35.3% of mothers’ experienced infant illness who had been hospitalized during their postpartum period. In all, the vast majority of the infants were male (53.5%), 38.0% of postpartum women experienced problem with baby sleeping, 21.4% of postpartum women experienced excessive baby crying. Family support related information of the respondents Majority of the respondents, 54.5% often received emotional support from family members, 36.9% of the respondents’ family members never taken care of the child, while 55.1% of the respondents often get family members help in household work. In the meantime, 55.6% of the respondents' husbands often take care of child. Moreover 78.6% indicated that they never received help from their husbands in household work and 7.55% of the respondents often faced physical violence from their partner. Prevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms among women The total prevalence of postpartum depression among women who participated in this study is depicted in Fig. 2 . The graph indicates that the prevalence of postpartum depression among women is 35.3%. On the contrary, 64.7% of the women who participated in this study are regarded as the non-depressed group. Table 2 Comparison of PPD scores across categories of independent variables Variables Frequency & Percentage Mean SD Sig. 95%CI Age of the respondents Lower Upper 17–23 75 (40.1%) 8.92 5.835 0.120 7.58 10.26 24–30 80 (42.8%) 9.94 6.249 8.55 11.33 > 30 32 (17.1%) 11.56 6.278 9.30 13.83 Education No Education 2 (1.1%) 10.00 8.485 0.165 -66.24 86.24 Primary 40 (21.4%) 10.55 6.397 8.50 12.60 Secondary 95 (50.8%) 8.83 5.569 7.70 9.97 Tertiary 50 (26.7%) 11.06 6.717 9.15 12.97 Area of residence Rural 24 (12.8%) 11.71 5.287 0.104 9.48 13.94 Urban 163 (87.2%) 9.53 6.208 8.57 10.49 Religion Muslim 138(73.8%) 9.75 6.038 0.820 8.73 10.76 Hindu 49(26.25%) 9.98 6.437 8.13 11.83 Employment status Unemployed 25 (13.4%) 12.84 7.723 0.002 9.65 16.03 Employed 24 (12.8%) 11.92 6.057 9.36 14.47 Housewife 138 (73.8%) 8.89 5.575 7.95 9.83 Husband’s education No Education 24 (12.8%) 12.38 6.807 0.112 9.50 15.25 Primary 37 (19.8%) 8.49 5.210 6.75 10.22 Secondary 56 (29.9%) 9.64 6.354 7.94 11.34 Tertiary 70 (37.4%) 9.76 6.016 8.32 11.19 Husband’s occupation Business 47 (25.1%) 11.26 6.476 0.028 9.35 13.16 Formal Sector 43 (23.0%) 10.79 6.278 8.86 12.72 Informal Sector 97 (51.9%) 8.67 5.715 7.52 9.82 Household Income 10,000–20,000 59 (31.6%) 10.80 5.947 0.158 9.25 12.35 21,000–30,000 55 (29.4%) 8.55 6.301 6.84 10.25 31,000–40,000 36 (19.3%) 9.14 4.829 7.50 10.77 More than 40,000 37 (19.8%) 10.76 7.029 8.41 13.10 Number of children 1 109(58.3%) 9.07 6.155 0.057 7.90 10.24 2 65 (34.8%) 10.40 6.007 8.91 11.89 > 2 13 (7.0%) 13.00 5.553 9.64 16.36 Marital relationship Satisfied 154(82.4%) 8.50 5.299 0.000 7.66 9.34 Dissatisfied 33(17.6%) 15.91 6.115 13.74 18.08 History of miscarriage Yes 27 (14.4%) 11.74 6.584 0.076 9.14 14.35 No 160 (85.6%) 9.48 6.008 8.54 10.42 Complications during pregnancy Yes 79 (42.2%) 11.54 6.427 0.001 10.10 12.98 No 108 (57.8%) 8.54 5.596 7.47 9.60 Stressful life event Yes 70 (37.4%) 13.07 6.619 0.000 11.49 14.65 No 117 (62.6%) 7.85 4.887 6.96 8.75 Intention of last pregnancy Unplanned 62 (33.2%) 12.21 7.218 0.000 10.38 14.04 Planned 125 (66.8%) 8.62 5.136 7.71 9.53 Place of delivery Home 19 (10.2%) 9.37 5.325 0.743 6.80 11.94 Health care center 168 (89.8%) 9.86 6.225 8.91 10.81 Skill birth attendance during delivery Yes 181 (96.8%) 9.76 6.190 0.537 8.85 10.66 No 6 (3.2%) 11.33 3.830 7.31 15.35 Mode of delivery Cesarean section 148 (79.1%) 9.84 6.325 0.895 8.81 10.87 Normal vaginal delivery 39 (20.9%) 9.69 5.391 7.94 11.44 Illness after delivery Yes 51 (27.3%) 12.76 5.421 0.000 11.24 14.29 No 136 (72.7%) 8.70 6.026 7.68 9.72 Infant Illness yes 66 (35.3%) 11.23 6.305 0.019 9.68 12.78 No 121 (64.7%) 9.03 5.913 7.97 10.10 Sex of the baby Male 87 (46.5%) 9.99 6.143 0.707 8.68 11.30 Female 100 (53.5%) 9.65 6.142 8.43 10.87 Problem with baby sleeping Yes 71 (38.0%) 13.54 6.540 0.000 11.99 15.08 No 116 (62.0%) 7.53 4.569 6.69 8.37 Excessive baby crying Yes 40 (21.4%) 14.60 7.175 0.000 12.31 16.89 No 147 (78.6%) 8.50 5.108 7.67 9.34 Emotional support from family members Never 85 (45.5%) 12.38 6.517 0.000 10.97 13.78 Often 102 (54.5%) 7.67 4.863 6.71 8.62 Family members take care of child Never 69 (36.9%) 13.33 6.621 0.000 11.74 14.92 Often 118 (63.1%) 7.75 4.754 6.88 8.61 Family members help in household work Never 84 (44.9%) 12.25 6.613 0.000 10.81 13.69 Often 103 (55.1%) 7.82 4.896 6.86 8.77 Husband take care of child Never 83 (44.4%) 11.87 6.463 0.000 10.46 13.28 Often 104 (55.6%) 8.16 5.330 7.13 9.20 Husband help in household work Never 147 (78.6%) 10.27 6.240 0.050 9.25 11.28 Often 40 (21.4%) 8.13 5.445 6.38 9.87 Physical Violence Never 173 (92.5%) 9.04 5.503 0.000 8.21 9.87 Often 14 (7.5%) 19.29 5.663 16.02 22.56 The results of a one-way ANOVA analysis in Table 2 show the certain factors that have a significant impact on postpartum depression (PPD). Unemployed women have high prevalence of postpartum depression (mean PPD 12.84) than women who were employed (mean PPD 11.92) or housewife (mean PPD 8.89). Similarly, women whose husband’s occupation were business (mean PPD 11.26) and women who were dissatisfied (mean PPD 15.91) in their marital relationship being significantly more depressed than other groups. Among the pregnancy related information, Women who were facing complications during pregnancy (mean PPD 11.54), have stressful life event (mean PPD 13.07), whose intention of the last pregnancy was unplanned (mean PPD 12.21) being significantly more depressed than those who were not facing complications (mean PPD 8.54) during pregnancy, those who were not facing stressful life event (mean PPD 7.85) in their pregnancy period and women whose intention of the last pregnancy was planned (mean PPD 8.62) respectively. Among the birth related variables, illness after delivery (mean PPD 12.76), infant illness (mean PPD 11.23), problem of baby sleeping (mean PPD 13.54) and women who faced excessive baby crying (mean PPD 14.60) have significantly more depression. Emotional support from family members plays an important role in the prevalence of postpartum depression. Women who never received emotional support (mean PPD 12.38) from family members are significantly more depressed than those who often received emotional support from family members (mean PPD 7.67). Similarly, women are significantly more depressed whose family member never taken care of their child (mean PPD 13.33), whose family members never (mean PPD 12.25) helped in household work, women whose husband never taken care of child (mean PPD 11.87), whose husband never (mean PPD 10.27) helped in household work and finally women who often faced physical violence from partner (mean PPD 19.29) being significantly more depressed and scored more than double compare to the women who never faced physical violence (mean PPD 9.04). Table 3 Factors associated with PPD among women by binary logistic regression Variables UOR (95% CI) P-Value AOR (95% CI) P-Value Age of the respondents 18–24 Years (Ref.) 1 1 24–30 Years 1.55(0.76–3.18) 0.231 0.95(0.19–4.65) 0.950 ≥ 30 Years 2.34(0.96–5.68) 0.062 0.93(0.12–7.01) 0.948 Education level No education, primary (Ref.) 1 1 Secondary 0.43 (0.20–0.93) 0.031 0.21 (0.10–2.03) 0.094 Tertiary 0.95 (0.42–2.17) 0.905 0.37(0.11–22.91) 0.370 Area of residence Rural (Ref.) 1 1 Urban 0.73 (0.31–1.76) 0.485 1.31 (1.10–2.55) 0.028 Religion Muslim (Ref.) 1 1 Hindu 0.81(0.40–1.64) 0.562 0.19 (0.55–2.15) 0.806 Employment status Unemployed 4.10(1.69–9.92) 0.002 4.33(1.14–12.79) 0.013 Employed 3.82(1.56–9.35) 0.003 0.25(0.03–2.19) 0.212 Housewife (Ref.) 1 1 Husband’s education No Education 2.71(1.06–6.94) 0.038 6.44 (0.32–13.29) 0.224 Primary 0.69(0.27–1.76) 0.438 4.90 (0.36–67.39) 0.235 Secondary 0.85(0.38–1.90) 0.698 1.23 (0.19–7.89) 0.830 Tertiary (Ref.) 1 1 Husband’s occupation Business 2.21(1.05–4.67) 0.037 0.08(0.00-1.88) 0.115 Formal Sector 1.46(0.65–3.27) 0.355 0.02(0.00-1.25) 0.064 Informal Sector (Ref.) 1 1 Household Income 10,000–20,000 (Ref.) 1 1 21,000–30,000 0.56(0.25–1.27) 0.165 0.40(0.05–3.07) 0.378 31,000–40,000 0.44(0.16–1.17) 0.098 0.26(0.02–3.33) 0.298 More than 40,000 1.10(0.47–2.58) 0.824 0.95(0.03–33.26) 0.978 Number of children 1 (Ref.) 1 1 2 1.35(0.68–2.67) 0.389 0.41 (0.20–2.87) 0.217 > 2 1.69 (1.55–18.86) 0.008 4.86(1.47–16.12) 0.010 Marital relationship Satisfied (Ref.) 1 1 Dissatisfied 10.59(4.27–26.27) < 0.001 1.16 (1.00-2.32) 0.002 History of miscarriage Yes 1.16 (1.13–7.39) 0.006 1.11 (1.00-1.40) 0.017 No (Ref.) 1 1 Complications during pregnancy Yes 2.52(1.32–4.79) 0.005 4.10(1.05–15.99) 0.042 No (Ref.) 1 1 Stressful life event Yes 2.87(1.35–12.63) < 0.001 2.11(1.00-3.15) 0.007 No (Ref.) 1 1 Intention of last pregnancy Unplanned 3.35(1.73–6.47) < 0.001 1.05(1.51–5.39) 0.001 Planned (Ref.) 1 1 Place of delivery Home (Ref.) 1 1 Health care center 0.89(0.32–2.48) 0.827 1.38(0.53–3.62) 0.514 Skill birth attendance during delivery Yes (Ref.) 1 1 No 3.29(0.02–45.26) 0.385 1.34(0.68–21.54) 0.126 Mode of delivery Cesarean section (Ref.) 1 1 Normal vaginal delivery 0.92(0.43–1.98) 0.834 0.17(0.05–2.46) 0.642 Illness after delivery Yes 1.62(2.54–10.05) < 0.001 1.04(1.03–1.63) 0.022 No (Ref.) 1 1 Infant Illness Yes 1.69(0.87–3.17) 0.125 0.48(0.37–3.09) 0.133 No (Ref.) 1 1 Sex of the baby Male (Ref.) 1 Female 0.97(0.53–1.77) 0.928 Problem with baby sleeping Yes 6.21(3.21–12.01) < 0.001 8.68 (4.29–21.43) 0.005 No (Ref.) 1 1 Excessive baby crying Yes 4.97(2.36–10.46) < 0.001 3.61(0.22–59.18) 0.369 No (Ref.) 1 1 Emotional support from family members Never 1.11(1.01–1.43) 0.050 4.84(2.53–9.25) < 0.001 Often (Ref.) 1 1 Family members take care of child Never 6.83(3.51–13.31) < 0.001 2.01(1.11–2.31) 0.017 Often (Ref.) 1 1 Family members help in household work Never 5.02(2.62–9.63) < 0.001 3.66 (0.37–42.75) 0.122 Often (Ref.) 1 1 Husband take care of child Never 3.79(2.01–7.13) < 0.001 5.93(0.09–38.46) 0.395 Often (Ref.) 1 1 Husband help in household work Never 1.85(0.84–4.07) 0.128 1.42(0.06–28.41) 0.509 Often (Ref.) 1 1 Physical Violence Never (Ref.) 1 1 Often 3.38(3.75–30.82) 0.001 8.86(5.69–87.25) 0.015 In Table 3 it is evident that postpartum depression has significant causal relationship with several independent variables. Women who live in urban area (AOR = 1.31, 95% CI = 1.10–2.55, P = 0.028) are more likely to have postpartum depression than the women who live in rural area. Unemployed women (AOR = 4.33, 95% CI = 1.14–12.79, P = 0.013) are 4.33 times more depressed than the employed and housewife women. Women who have more than two children (AOR = 4.86, 95% CI = 1.47–16.12, P = 0.010) are 4.86 times more likely to have postpartum depression in contrast to those who have less than two children. Women who are dissatisfied (AOR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.00-2.32, P = 0.002) in their marital relationship are 1.16 times more depressed than the women group who are satisfied in their marital relationship. Women with history of miscarriage (AOR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.00-1.40, P = 0.017) are more likely to have depression compared to the women with no miscarriage history. Respondents who faced complications during pregnancy (AOR = 4.10, 95% CI = 1.05–15.99, P = 0.042) is prone to have postpartum depression than the counterpart of respondents who did not face complications during pregnancy. The prevalence of postpartum depression is 2.11 times higher in the women group who faced stressful life event during pregnancy (AOR = 2.11, 95% CI = 1.00-3.15, P = 0.007) compare to the women group who did not face stressful life event during pregnancy. Women whose intention of the last pregnancy was unplanned (AOR = 1.05, 95% CI = 1.51–5.39, P = 0.001) are more depressed than women group whose pregnancy was planned. Respondents who faced illness after delivery (AOR = 1.04, 95% CI = 1.03–1.63, P = 0.022) are more likely to face postpartum depression compared to those who did not face illness. Women who faced problem with baby sleeping (AOR = 8.68, 95% CI = 4.29–21.43, P = 0.005) are 8.68 times more likely to have depression compared to the women who did not face problem with baby sleeping. Women who never received emotional support from family members (AOR = 4.84, 95% CI = 2.53–9.25, P = < 0.001) are 4.84 times more depressed than those who often received emotional support from family members. Women are comparatively more depressed whose family member never take care of their child (AOR = 2.01, 95% CI 1.11–2.31, P = 0.017) than whose family member often care of child. Similarly, PPD is more common for women who often faced physical violence (AOR = 8.86, 95% CI = 5.69–87.25, P = 0.015). Respondents who experienced physical violence are 8.86 times more depressed compare to the women who did not experience physical violence. On the other hand, age of the respondents, education level, religion, husband’s education, husband’s occupation, household income, place of delivery, skill birth attendant during delivery, mode of delivery, infant illness, sex of the baby, excessive baby crying, family members’ help in household work, husband take care of child husband’s help in household work do not seem to have a significant effect on postpartum depression. Discussion This section provides specific information and supporting arguments that bridge the current findings with empirical evidence. Main determinants of postpartum depression are highlighted, along with supportive arguments. The current study was undertaken to explore the prevalence and determinants that contribute to PPD in women who have given birth within 2–12 weeks. The overall prevalence rate of PPD found 35.3%. This prevalence rate is close to the findings of a similar study conducted in Nepal (30%) ( 14 ), Upper East Region of Ghana (34.7%) ( 42 ), urban Slums of Dhaka (39.4%) and Bangladesh( 18 ). The explanatory variables that were shown to have a significant association with PPD were area of residence, employment status, number of children, marital relationship, history of miscarriage, complications during pregnancy, stressful life event, intention of last pregnancy, illness after delivery, problem with baby sleeping, emotional support from family members, family members take care of child and physical violence. The result of this study suggests that women who live in urban area had a higher risk of being depressed than the women who live in rural area probably as a result of stressful urban lifestyles, lack of social bonding in urban area and financial pressure. Previous studies also found that women residing in urban area exhibited a greater incidence of postpartum depression compare to the women who live in rural area ( 46 , 47 ). In contrast, some previous studies also identified that the rural women are comparatively more depressed than urban women due to lower access to healthcare services, lower education facilities, lower socioeconomic status, and poor lifestyle ( 48 – 50 ). This study also found employment status as a significant determinant of postpartum depression. It has found in the present study that unemployed women are more likely to have PPD which is aligned with the findings of the previous study who also claimed that depression was more prevalent among women who were employed but subsequently resigned from their jobs due to pregnancy ( 18 ). This would be due to loss of earnings, detachment from the workplace, and a decline in social interactions. Number of children has found as the statistically significant predictor for increasing the prevalence of postpartum depression. It has found in the present study that women with more than two children possess high risk of PPD. Previous study also found that the prevalence of PPD was greater among women who had two or more children ( 19 ). The potential cause may be a higher level of maternal stress due to the care and duty for their existing children. Another study also claimed that the presence of two or more living children is also linked to postpartum depression, maybe because women with multiple children have a higher number of responsibilities and financial worries ( 10 , 20 ). This study affirmed that marital relationship is the highly statistically significant associated risk factor for developing PPD among women which is aligned with the findings of the previous study who also argued that a correlation exists between marital satisfaction and PPD ( 51 ). According to the present study women who were dissatisfied in their marital relationship being more depressed than who were satisfied in their marital relationship. This may be because of marital dissatisfaction hinders the establishment of a proper emotional bond between couples. Consequently, it increases the likelihood of experiencing PPD. Another study also claimed that the dissatisfaction experienced by spouses can lead to significant frustration within the family unit. Undoubtedly, this has detrimental consequences for communities, families, and individuals ( 51 ). History of miscarriage is another prime associated risk factor for PPD of this study; this outcome aligns with the findings of prior research ( 18 , 52 ). Being afraid of a repeat miscarriage or the death of a child has been shown to be a contributing cause to depression throughout the postpartum period. Healthcare practitioners should take into account the previous experience of loss as a contributing factor to susceptibility of depression during subsequent pregnancies and the early postpartum period ( 53 ). Complications during pregnancy has found as the statistically significant predictor for increasing the prevalence of PPD. It has found in this study that women who faced complications during pregnancy were more like to suffer from postpartum depression. Previous studies also claimed that various pregnancy and delivery obstacles provide a potential threat to women's mental well-being throughout the postpartum period ( 9 , 24 , 54 , 55 ). The likely reason for this might be related to the concern regarding the impact of complications during pregnancy on the delivery and postpartum period. Stressful life events refer to occurrences and circumstances that induce emotional or bodily distress, exhaustion, anxiety, worry, irritation, mixed feelings, or uncertainty ( 56 ). The present study denotes that stressful life event is the highly significant risk factor for developing PPD. This statistical result is supported by the previously done studies ( 14 , 25 , 57 ). Events that cause stress, such as experiencing the maternal blues on the seventh day after birth ( 58 ) difficulties in marital relationship, recent stressful events, and depression during pregnancy were highly indicative indicators of PPD ( 59 ). Pregnancy is an extremely stressful stage for women, combined with other stressful life events; it increases the likelihood of developing PPD. Intension of the last pregnancy is also a significant risk factor associated with postpartum depression. The incidence of unplanned pregnancy is significantly greater in the depressed group compared to the non-depressed group. This finding is supported by the previously done studies where researchers identified that unplanned pregnancy had a significant impact on the intensity of postpartum depression among women ( 9 , 19 , 31 ). The prime reason might be factors such as the additional economic burdens associated with a newborn, the mental preparedness for accepting the role of a mother, social stigma and the incapacity to handle the responsibilities( 23 ). Unintended pregnancy can negatively affect the quality of the intimate association, leading to an increased likelihood of postpartum depression among this population ( 22 ). This study has shown that illness after delivery is one of the factors that influenced the prevalence of PPD which is aligned with the findings of the previous studies which also claimed that mothers who got ill after giving birth had a higher likelihood to develop PPD because of their physical condition ( 21 , 60 ). This could be associated with the impact of physical health issues on psychological health ( 61 ). Problem with baby sleeping has been found to be a significant determinant of postpartum depression. Postpartum women who experience difficulties with their baby's sleep have been found to have a greater possibility of developing depressive symptoms. This study result has been supported by earlier study( 62 , 63 ) in which investigators discovered that infant sleep difficulties are strongly associated with PPD. Present study affirmed that emotional support from family members is highly statistically significant associated risk factors for developing postpartum depression. This finding is aligned with the previous study who also claimed that the presence of family support has a statistically significant correlation with PPD, which is influenced by both pregnancy status and self-efficacy ( 9 ). Women, who do not receive emotional support from family members, experience a notable increase in depressive symptoms. Another previous study also found that there was a substantial correlation between higher levels of PPD and poorer levels of satisfaction in women's family connections, particularly with their partners, families, and parents-in-law ( 29 ). Present study has found that family members’ help in taken care of child is significantly correlated to the PPD. It has found that women whose family members never take care of child are more likely to suffer from PPD. This findings is supported by the previously done studies ( 9 , 64 ) where researcher found that the level of care felt from the mother-in-law and the quality of interpersonal interactions with other family members had a significant impacts on postpartum depression. Physical violence is also another associated risk factor for the prevalence of postpartum depression. This study confirms the findings of prior research ( 45 , 65 ) that physical violence is a significant risk factor for PPD. Experiencing physical violence during pregnancy can potentially increase the likelihood of women developing physical and emotional issues in the future. Hence, physical violence might serve as a contributing element that leads to PPD. Limitations Firstly, this research primarily adopts quantitative methods for data collection and analysis. While quantitative approaches provide numerical data, they may not capture the contextual richness of PPD. The inclusion of qualitative methods, such as interviews or focus group discussions, could offer a more comprehensive understanding of this study. Secondly, this research was conducted using a cross-sectional approach, which only allowed for the evaluation of correlation rather than establishing a causal relationship between the studied variables. Thirdly, a small number of samples were gathered from two hospitals from women who delivered live births, which may limit the findings and generalizability of the study. Fourthly, a self-administered EPDS scale was utilized to evaluate PPD. Self-report assessments are susceptible to bias, which could have influenced our findings. Finally, limited financial resources may pose challenges regarding data collection, sample recruitment, and comprehensive analysis. These constraints could potentially impact the breadth and depth of the findings. Conclusion The study conducted in the Khulna region of Bangladesh reveals a higher prevalence of PPD among women. Significant determinants of PPD include factors such as area of residence, unemployment status, having more than two children, dissatisfied marital relationship, history of miscarriage, complications during pregnancy, stressful life events, unplanned pregnancy, illness after delivery, problems with baby sleeping, never getting emotional support from family members, family members never take care of the child, and physical violence. However, factors such as age, education level, religion, husband's education and occupation, household income, place of delivery, skilled birth attendance, mode of delivery, infant illness, baby's sex, excessive baby crying, family members' help in household work, and husband's involvement in take care of child and help in household work were not found to be associated with postpartum depression. These findings underscore the importance of addressing the identified factors though community intervention and expert counseling to reduce the prevalence of PPD and improve mental health outcomes of postpartum women. As the current study was done on postpartum women visiting two health centers due to time and resource paucity further extensive research is needed to explore the causal relationship between PPD and the identified risk factors with a large sample. Declarations Ethical Approval: This study is produced as the partial fulfillment of the first author’s Bachelor of Social Science degree in Development Studies, from Khulna University, Bangladesh, endorsed by the supervisor that we didn’t violate any ethical standard carrying out the research from data collection to study design, even, no clinical data have been collected and used for this study, in addition, Khulna University Ethical Clearance Committee has been approved this study protocol (KUECC-2023-09-61). Declaration of competing interest: No competing interest declared. Found: No funding was awarded for this study. Consent for publication: Not required Data sharing statement: The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Contributions: BRS contributed to the design of the manuscript, development of the protocol, and data analysis plan and provided oversight and interpretation of the analyses, and a critical review and draft the primary manuscript. MAR contributed to the design of the study, development of the protocol, study design, and contributed to the revision. MMT contributed to data analysis and writing the manuscript draft and contributed to the revision. SZ and MIM contributed to the review of the relevant literature review, table preparation, and writing of the manuscript draft. SK and MHH , provided oversight and interpretation of the analyses, and a critical review of the manuscript. 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Antenatal psychosocial risk factors associated with adverse postpartum family outcomes. C Can Med Assoc J. 1996;154(6):785. Muneer A, Minhas FA, Nizami AT, Mujeeb F, Usmani AT. Frequency and associated factors for postnatal depression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2009;19(4):236–9. Ohrnberger J, Fichera E, Sutton M. The relationship between physical and mental health: A mediation analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2017;195:42–9. Hiscock H, Wake M. Infant sleep problems and postnatal depression: a community-based study. Pediatrics. 2001;107(6):1317–22. Kempler L, Sharpe L, Miller CB, Bartlett DJ. Do psychosocial sleep interventions improve infant sleep or maternal mood in the postnatal period? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev. 2016;29:15–22. Qi W, Liu Y, Lv H, Ge J, Meng Y, Zhao N, et al. Effects of family relationship and social support on the mental health of Chinese postpartum women. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2022;22(1):65. Doulatian M, Hesami K, Shams J, Alavi MH. Relationship between violence during pregnancy and postpartum depression. 2010; Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4066808","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":288503289,"identity":"2704838a-797e-421c-8b86-d101b12a975c","order_by":0,"name":"Bristi Rani Saha","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bristi","middleName":"Rani","lastName":"Saha","suffix":""},{"id":288503290,"identity":"42eaaa6f-d6a7-42c6-86a7-721ec53447c9","order_by":1,"name":"Mortuja Mahamud Tohan","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNCDBCDmBzMK8KpjbIAzQFokQdwEA2K1gEiDA2ASt3rd9t7nj3n+2Mmbtzc/f/Cg4o698fnViR8eGDDI84sdwKrF7Mxxw2YenmTDOWeOGTYknHmWuO3G280SQIcZzpydgF3LjTTGZh4J5gQJiQTDhsS2wwlmN85uAGlJMLiNT4tBfYKE/POPIC32xjPObv5BWEvCYaAtPGBbGDfw927Db8uZY4wz5xw4bjiDJ6dwRsKZw4kzbvBus0gwkMDtl+NtDB/e/KmWl2A/vuHjj4rD9vz9Zzff/FFhI88vjV0LFiABVilBrHIQ4D9AiupRMApGwSgYAQAAM7RkFWTj6Y0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mortuja","middleName":"Mahamud","lastName":"Tohan","suffix":""},{"id":288503291,"identity":"f94ec727-5cca-4fd7-8bba-5cf1e96a4430","order_by":2,"name":"Sayeeda Zaman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sayeeda","middleName":"","lastName":"Zaman","suffix":""},{"id":288503292,"identity":"f30196f3-4b38-4a92-86dd-e8abc6600109","order_by":3,"name":"Mymuna Islam Moon","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mymuna","middleName":"Islam","lastName":"Moon","suffix":""},{"id":288503293,"identity":"057206b6-7d3c-4025-bc5f-a7620939798b","order_by":4,"name":"Md. Amirul Islam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Amirul","lastName":"Islam","suffix":""},{"id":288503294,"identity":"1ebf600a-7bc9-44a2-a9dc-5056d998d6c2","order_by":5,"name":"Md. Hasan Howlader","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Hasan","lastName":"Howlader","suffix":""},{"id":288503295,"identity":"1e98ca18-5f8b-4761-8de1-14c3ba194005","order_by":6,"name":"Satyajit Kundu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Patuakhali Science and Technology University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Satyajit","middleName":"","lastName":"Kundu","suffix":""},{"id":288503296,"identity":"1307a38a-d66a-403d-8465-9362686984cb","order_by":7,"name":"Md. Ashfikur Rahman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khulna University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Ashfikur","lastName":"Rahman","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-10 17:32:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4066808/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4066808/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54311832,"identity":"b4ed9f94-5f16-43ab-af79-0378b2ed4b15","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-08 17:18:23","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79810,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual Framework of the Study\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4066808/v1/f8d8de9d07f331c5601d926e.png"},{"id":54311833,"identity":"b4af8d87-6ae2-46dd-b210-73b7fcc5fbde","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-08 17:18:23","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6339,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePostpartum Depression of the Respondents\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4066808/v1/c88a38febc7025cd22e6e7c6.png"},{"id":64410023,"identity":"8566625c-2432-40d1-b614-c7080f916d17","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-12 19:22:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1678637,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4066808/v1/cbff8599-c5a2-4a55-890b-56dc5401415c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Postpartum Depressive Symptoms among Bangladeshi Women: A hospital-based cross-sectional study","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eDepression is a highly severe mental condition that negatively affects an individual\u0026rsquo;s emotions, cognition, and actions. Women experience depression at a rate that is approximately 50% higher than men (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Depression is more common for women especially after giving birth, which is called postpartum depression. PPD is a prominent mental health disorder that generally occurs within the first year after delivery (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). It typically manifests within the first two to five weeks after delivery and can last for a year or even longer if it left untreated (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The patient may encounter hallucinations or suicidal thoughts and exhibit a desire to harm their own life (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). PPD is often described as \u0026ldquo;the thief that steals motherhood\u0026rdquo;, because it deprives mothers of the ability to fully enjoy the experience of having a new baby (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Many women struggle to handle this situation well and subsequently become sufferers of PPD (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). In the postpartum period women experience various kinds of physical and psychological changes. The most common symptoms of this depression include feelings of hopelessness, sorrow, nausea, changes in sleep and eating patterns, anxiety, impatience, loneliness, mental vulnerability, thoughts of harming oneself or the baby, and even suicidal thoughts may arise (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). PPD has negative impacts on mother-infant bonding as well as the growth and development of the child (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) and also harmful consequences on the partner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), family and social relationship (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). A study found that women with PPD were less likely to provide necessary newborn care such as breastfeeding, routine sleeping, routine doctor appointments, immunizations, and ensuring the safety of the infant (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). As well as, women who experience PPD are more likely than other women to commit suicide in the later life (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, postpartum depression symptoms might result in child neglect and child abandonment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e) and also increased the risk of malnutrition and stunting (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobally, PPD is influenced by various factors, including preterm or low birth weight infants, unemployment, socioeconomic disadvantage, insufficient social or emotional support, housing challenges, being a first-time parent, stress related to childcare, infant temperament, having multiple children, complications during pregnancy, sleep disruptions, low self-esteem, negative views towards pregnancy, antenatal depression or anxiety, previous history of depression, an unhappy marital relationship, a history of domestic violence, and significant adverse life events within the past year (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Socio-demographic features are considered as potential risk factors for PPD. It includes age (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e), age at marriage, educational attainment, residence, religion, job status, husband\u0026rsquo;s education, husband\u0026rsquo;s occupation, household income, perceived economic position, number of children, and marital relationship (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Women who have two or more children are at a higher risk of experiencing depression (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). This association may be ascribed to the greater obligations and financial constraints that come with having multiple children (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Women who had unexpected pregnancies, problems during pregnancy or labor, those who fell ill after delivery, and those whose infants became sick had statistically significant higher proportions of PPD (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). Unintended pregnancies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e), high-risk pregnancies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e), labor complications (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e) and illness after childbirth (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e) recent stressful life events, perceived stress, and social isolation, may have a stronger association with PPD compared to socioeconomic factors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Birth trauma (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e), the tendency towards having a male child is linked to the occurrence of PPD specially in Asian countries (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Women who experienced frequent crying of infants and little or no social support from their spouses or partners, may experience sleep deprivation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e), experienced miscarriage or child death (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e), lower levels of satisfaction in relationships with spouses, parents, and parents-in-law (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e), Violence during pregnancy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e), intimate partner violence (IPV) had a higher prevalence of postpartum depression (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). Lack of family support was cited in several studies from Pakistan, Ethiopia, and Cameroon as a risk factor for PPD (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). Some protective factors for PPD identified by previous research include but are not limited to having a planned and desired pregnancy, higher marital satisfaction, husband\u0026rsquo;s company, exclusive breastfeeding, healthy dietary behavior, and taking vitamin supplements (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe estimated prevalence of PPD is ranging from 20\u0026ndash;40% of women in low and middle income countries who suffer from depression either before or during the postpartum period (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). Women in impoverished countries face a higher susceptibility to PPD compared to women in developed countries. The prevalence of PPD in high-income nations ranges from 5.2\u0026ndash;74.0%, while in low-middle income nations it ranges from 1.9\u0026ndash;82.1% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). The prevalence rates of PPD in Asian countries vary significantly, ranging from 3.5\u0026ndash;63.3% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). Among these countries, Malaysia has the lowest prevalence rate, while Pakistan has the highest prevalence rate (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). A comprehensive review and meta-analysis revealed that the occurrence rate of PPD in India was 22%. However, the prevalence ranges can be influenced by factors such as the utilization of screening tools, cultural norms, socioeconomic position, and healthcare accessibility (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e). Bangladesh, a nation characterized by a significant population density and constrained resources, is currently grappling with the issue of PPD among mothers. Studies indicate that the prevalence of PPD among mothers in rural areas of Bangladesh varied between 18\u0026ndash;35% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPD is a condition that affects approximately one in seven women, often going unnoticed and untreated due to limited awareness among women and healthcare providers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). While a few studies on PPD have been conducted in Bangladesh, they predominantly focused on Dhaka city or rural areas, and no study has specifically examined the Khulna region. Previous studies also tended to analyze correlations among a limited number of factors, overlooking the comprehensive assessment of multiple factors within a single study. Additionally, the factors associated with PPD can vary based on cultural, racial, and ethnic differences, rendering previously identified factors potentially inadequate for the Khulna region. Hence, this study aims to determine the prevalence and determinants of PPD among women in Khulna. Postpartum depression needs to be treated shortly after delivery in order to prevent or minimize its adverse consequences. For the sake of the mother, child, and family\u0026rsquo;s wellbeing, early detection, screening, and intervention are therefore essential (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design, Period and Settings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional quantitative survey was designed to conduct the study. The data was collected from August 2 to October 18, 2023 from the postpartum women who were at their 2\u0026ndash;12 weeks postpartum (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e) period attending Mother and Child Welfare Center (Maa \u0026amp; Shishu Kollyan Kendro), and Urban Primary Health Care Services Delivery Center for immunizing or receiving postnatal care for themselves or for their children. Both the healthcare centers are situated at Khulna city, Bangladesh. These healthcare centers are, respectively, located in the word no.23 and word no.18 in Khulna city.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePopulation and sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study's target population comprised postpartum mothers in Khulna City, Bangladesh, between two and twelve weeks postpartum. To attain the objectives of the study, a sample of postpartum women were selected from two aforementioned selected maternity and child healthcare centers. These healthcare centers were selected purposively because these are one of the largest public hospitals for maternity and child healthcare services in Khulna city including child immunization service, family planning, antenatal care, postnatal care, and other primary healthcare services. Therefore, these healthcare centers served as the suitable locations for obtaining representative samples of the target population. We only recruited the postpartum women who were registered in these healthcare centers. The \u0026lsquo;Maa \u0026amp; Shishu Kollyan Kendro\u0026rsquo; had 197 registered postpartum women, and Urban Primary Health Care Services Delivery center had 152 registered postpartum women for their children\u0026rsquo;s immunization during the data collection period. So, the total numbers of registered postpartum women in these two centers were 349. Among these 349 registered women, we tried to approach all the women; however, data were collected from 187 participants finally as these women showed interest and agreed to participate. In this regard, convenient sampling technique was applied to reach the participants. Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling that is frequently employed in population and clinical research since this sampling method frequently involves the selection of participants based on their proximity to a specific location, such as a hospital(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria in this study were: recently delivered mothers within 2 to 12 weeks postpartum (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e), have live baby at the time of the study and who provided consent to participate in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe exclusion criteria of this study were: women who were not willing to participate, and who had not given any child birth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData collection tools and techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA pre-tested structured questionnaire was used to collect the information about participants\u0026rsquo; characteristics to determine possible factors associated with PPD through a face-to face interview by the first researcher. Before participating, participants were asked to provide written informed consent. Eligible mothers were approached to participate who were present in the selected hospitals during the data collection period, and data were collected to attain the calculated sample size. We administered a comprehensive five-part questionnaire to collect pertinent data. The initial part encompassed socio-demographic information, while the subsequent part focused on gathering pregnancy-related details. The third part contained birth-related information, while the fourth part captured data related to family support. The final part of the questionnaire incorporated the widely recognized Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOutcome measure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPD was the only outcome variable for this study. Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to measure postpartum depressive symptoms in the postpartum period. EPDS is a standardized questionnaire consisting of 10 items which is designed to evaluate the presence and severity of depression symptoms experienced by the respondent within the last seven days prior to the interview. The EPDS items are scored on four response categories 0, 1, 2, and 3 based on the severity of symptom, whereas items 3, 5 to 10 are reverse scored i.e. 3, 2, 1, and 0. The total score of EPDS range from 0 to 30 where higher score indicate greater presence of depressive symptoms (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). This study used an EPDS score\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 as a cut-off point to classify the postpartum depression (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e) .\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIndependent variables\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe independent variables were chosen based on the literature review (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e) and used to attain the objectives of the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of variables of this study along with their categories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocio-demographic Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 17\u0026ndash;23 Years\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 24\u0026ndash;30 Years\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30 Years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation Level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. No Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Tertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea of Residence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Rural\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Urban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Muslim\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Hindu\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Christian\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Other\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Unemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Employed\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Housewife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHusband\u0026rsquo;s Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. No education\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Primary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Tertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHusband\u0026rsquo;s Occupation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Business\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Formal sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Informal Sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold Income\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 10,000\u0026ndash;20,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 21000-30,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. 31,000\u0026ndash;40,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. More than 40,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Satisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Dissatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePregnancy Related Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistory of miscarriage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComplications during pregnancy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStressful life event\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntention of last pregnancy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Unplanned\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Planned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlace of delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Home\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Health care center\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBirth Related Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkill birth attendants during delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMode of delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Cesarean section\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Normal vaginal delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIllness after delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfant illness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of the baby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Male\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblem of baby sleeping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive baby crying\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Yes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. No\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Support Related Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional support from family members\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever, Often\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily members take care of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily members help in household work\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHusband take care of child\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHusband help in household task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conceptual framework Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e elucidates the interconnections among various specific factors that the researcher intends to investigate. In other word it is the relationship between variables under study. Based on the literature review, a conceptual framework has been developed including prime concepts. The distribution of different predictor variables and their combined effects have been shown in this conceptual framework. In this framework it is shown that what factors are associated with postpartum depression. Despite strong association between predictors and PPD, each has an independent effect on outcomes. To investigate the effects, it was hypothesized that several predictors (socio-demographic factors, pregnancy related factors, birth related factors, and family support) are associated with developing outcomes (Postpartum depression) and the combination of predictors is expected to predict prevalence of PPD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe collected data were first checked, cleaned, and coded. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to describe the socio-demographic, pregnancy, birth and family support related variables which have been presented in the form of tables, percentages to show relationships. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and interdependent sample t-test were conducted to identify any mean differences of EPDS scores among sub-groups of independent variables. In addition, binary logistic regression analysis was also conducted to identify the factors associated with outcome variable and independent variables. In the result section, only the results from the adjusted regression model are reported. Reliability of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was measured by using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha (0.890). Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocio-demographic profile of the respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, shows that among the 187 respondents, the largest proportion (42.8%) falls within the age group of 24 to 30 years, while the second largest group (40.1%) comprises respondents aged between 17 and 23. Those above 30 years old account for 17.1% of the respondents. The majority (50.8%) have completed secondary-level education, followed by 26.7% who have tertiary-level education. Those with primary education comprise 21.4% of the respondents, while 1.1% has never attended school. The study finds that 87.2% of the respondents reside in urban areas, with 73.8% identifying as Muslim. Among the respondents, the majority (73.8%) is housewives, 14.4% are unemployed after leaving their jobs due to pregnancy, and only 12.8% are currently employed. Regarding the husbands' education, 37.4% have completed tertiary education, and 51.9% are engaged in informal sector occupations. Regarding income, 31.6% of the respondents fall into the lowest income range (10,000\u0026ndash;20,000), and 58.3% have only one child. Most respondents (82.4%) report satisfaction in their marital relationships, while 17.6% express dissatisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePregnancy Related Information of the Respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePregnancy related information of the respondents shows that 85.6% of the postpartum women had not any miscarriage history, almost half (42.2%) of women faced complications during pregnancy, one third of the respondents (37.4%) had a stressful life event while they were pregnant, 66.8% of the pregnancies of the respondents were planned, whereas 32.2% of the respondents' intentions for their most recent pregnancy were unplanned. The percentage of deliveries that took place at health care centers was 89.8%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBirth Related Information of the Respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is encouraging to see that the percentage of people gaining access to birthing facility is growing. 96.8% gave birth in the presence of skilled birth attendants and 79.1% of women gave birth through the use of a cesarean section, while just 20.9% of women gave birth through the use of a normal vaginal delivery.27.3% of women faced maternal illness after giving birth, 35.3% of mothers\u0026rsquo; experienced infant illness who had been hospitalized during their postpartum period. In all, the vast majority of the infants were male (53.5%), 38.0% of postpartum women experienced problem with baby sleeping, 21.4% of postpartum women experienced excessive baby crying.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFamily support related information of the respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Majority of the respondents, 54.5% often received emotional support from family members, 36.9% of the respondents\u0026rsquo; family members never taken care of the child, while 55.1% of the respondents often get family members help in household work. In the meantime, 55.6% of the respondents' husbands often take care of child. Moreover 78.6% indicated that they never received help from their husbands in household work and 7.55% of the respondents often faced physical violence from their partner.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePrevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms among women\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total prevalence of postpartum depression among women who participated in this study is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The graph indicates that the prevalence of postpartum depression among women is 35.3%. On the contrary, 64.7% of the women who participated in this study are regarded as the non-depressed group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of PPD scores across categories of independent variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency \u0026amp; Percentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of the respondents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 (40.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.835\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (42.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.249\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (17.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (1.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.485\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-66.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.397\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (50.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (26.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.717\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArea of residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (12.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.287\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163 (87.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuslim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138(73.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.820\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHindu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49(26.25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.437\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (13.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.723\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (12.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousewife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138 (73.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.575\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband\u0026rsquo;s education\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (12.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.807\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 (19.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56 (29.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (37.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband\u0026rsquo;s occupation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (25.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal Sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43 (23.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal Sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97 (51.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.715\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold Income\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,000\u0026ndash;20,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59 (31.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.947\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21,000\u0026ndash;30,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55 (29.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.301\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31,000\u0026ndash;40,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (19.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.829\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 40,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 (19.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of children\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109(58.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65 (34.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (7.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital relationship\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154(82.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.299\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDissatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33(17.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHistory of miscarriage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27 (14.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.584\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160 (85.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComplications during pregnancy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79 (42.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108 (57.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.596\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStressful life event\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (37.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.619\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117 (62.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntention of last pregnancy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnplanned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62 (33.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlanned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125 (66.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.136\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (10.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.743\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth care center\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168 (89.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.225\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSkill birth attendance during delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e181 (96.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.190\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.537\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 (3.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.830\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMode of delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCesarean section\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148 (79.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.895\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal vaginal delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (20.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.391\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIllness after delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51 (27.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.421\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136 (72.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInfant Illness\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eyes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66 (35.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121 (64.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.913\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of the baby\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87 (46.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.707\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 (53.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProblem with baby sleeping\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71 (38.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.540\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116 (62.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExcessive baby crying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e147 (78.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmotional support from family members\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (45.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.517\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102 (54.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily members take care of child\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (36.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.621\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118 (63.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.754\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily members help in household work\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84 (44.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103 (55.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.896\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband take care of child\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (44.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.463\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104 (55.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband help in household work\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e147 (78.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhysical Violence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173 (92.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (7.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.663\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of a one-way ANOVA analysis in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e show the certain factors that have a significant impact on postpartum depression (PPD). Unemployed women have high prevalence of postpartum depression (mean PPD 12.84) than women who were employed (mean PPD 11.92) or housewife (mean PPD 8.89). Similarly, women whose husband\u0026rsquo;s occupation were business (mean PPD 11.26) and women who were dissatisfied (mean PPD 15.91) in their marital relationship being significantly more depressed than other groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the pregnancy related information, Women who were facing complications during pregnancy (mean PPD 11.54), have stressful life event (mean PPD 13.07), whose intention of the last pregnancy was unplanned (mean PPD 12.21) being significantly more depressed than those who were not facing complications (mean PPD 8.54) during pregnancy, those who were not facing stressful life event (mean PPD 7.85) in their pregnancy period and women whose intention of the last pregnancy was planned (mean PPD 8.62) respectively. Among the birth related variables, illness after delivery (mean PPD 12.76), infant illness (mean PPD 11.23), problem of baby sleeping (mean PPD 13.54) and women who faced excessive baby crying (mean PPD 14.60) have significantly more depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional support from family members plays an important role in the prevalence of postpartum depression. Women who never received emotional support (mean PPD 12.38) from family members are significantly more depressed than those who often received emotional support from family members (mean PPD 7.67). Similarly, women are significantly more depressed whose family member never taken care of their child (mean PPD 13.33), whose family members never (mean PPD 12.25) helped in household work, women whose husband never taken care of child (mean PPD 11.87), whose husband never (mean PPD 10.27) helped in household work and finally women who often faced physical violence from partner (mean PPD 19.29) being significantly more depressed and scored more than double compare to the women who never faced physical violence (mean PPD 9.04).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors associated with PPD among women by binary logistic regression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge of the respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;24 Years (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u0026ndash;30 Years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55(0.76\u0026ndash;3.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95(0.19\u0026ndash;4.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;30 Years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34(0.96\u0026ndash;5.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93(0.12\u0026ndash;7.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.948\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo education,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eprimary (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43 (0.20\u0026ndash;0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21 (0.10\u0026ndash;2.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95 (0.42\u0026ndash;2.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.905\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37(0.11\u0026ndash;22.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.370\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArea of residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73 (0.31\u0026ndash;1.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.485\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31 (1.10\u0026ndash;2.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuslim (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHindu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81(0.40\u0026ndash;1.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19 (0.55\u0026ndash;2.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.806\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10(1.69\u0026ndash;9.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.33(1.14\u0026ndash;12.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.82(1.56\u0026ndash;9.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25(0.03\u0026ndash;2.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousewife (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband\u0026rsquo;s education\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.71(1.06\u0026ndash;6.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.44 (0.32\u0026ndash;13.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69(0.27\u0026ndash;1.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.438\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.90 (0.36\u0026ndash;67.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85(0.38\u0026ndash;1.90)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.698\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23 (0.19\u0026ndash;7.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.830\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband\u0026rsquo;s occupation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.21(1.05\u0026ndash;4.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08(0.00-1.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal Sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46(0.65\u0026ndash;3.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.355\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02(0.00-1.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal Sector (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold Income\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,000\u0026ndash;20,000 (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21,000\u0026ndash;30,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56(0.25\u0026ndash;1.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40(0.05\u0026ndash;3.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31,000\u0026ndash;40,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44(0.16\u0026ndash;1.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26(0.02\u0026ndash;3.33)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 40,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10(0.47\u0026ndash;2.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95(0.03\u0026ndash;33.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.978\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of children\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35(0.68\u0026ndash;2.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.389\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41 (0.20\u0026ndash;2.87)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.69 (1.55\u0026ndash;18.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.86(1.47\u0026ndash;16.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital relationship\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDissatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.59(4.27\u0026ndash;26.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16 (1.00-2.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHistory of miscarriage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16 (1.13\u0026ndash;7.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11 (1.00-1.40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComplications during pregnancy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52(1.32\u0026ndash;4.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10(1.05\u0026ndash;15.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStressful life event\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87(1.35\u0026ndash;12.63)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.11(1.00-3.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntention of last pregnancy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnplanned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35(1.73\u0026ndash;6.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05(1.51\u0026ndash;5.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlanned (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth care center\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89(0.32\u0026ndash;2.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.827\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38(0.53\u0026ndash;3.62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.514\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSkill birth attendance during delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.29(0.02\u0026ndash;45.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.385\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34(0.68\u0026ndash;21.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMode of delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCesarean section (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal vaginal delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92(0.43\u0026ndash;1.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.834\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17(0.05\u0026ndash;2.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.642\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIllness after delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62(2.54\u0026ndash;10.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04(1.03\u0026ndash;1.63)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInfant Illness\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.69(0.87\u0026ndash;3.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48(0.37\u0026ndash;3.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of the baby\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97(0.53\u0026ndash;1.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.928\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProblem with baby sleeping\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.21(3.21\u0026ndash;12.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.68 (4.29\u0026ndash;21.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExcessive baby crying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.97(2.36\u0026ndash;10.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.61(0.22\u0026ndash;59.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmotional support from family members\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11(1.01\u0026ndash;1.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.84(2.53\u0026ndash;9.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily members take care of child\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.83(3.51\u0026ndash;13.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.01(1.11\u0026ndash;2.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily members help in household work\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.02(2.62\u0026ndash;9.63)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.66 (0.37\u0026ndash;42.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband take care of child\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.79(2.01\u0026ndash;7.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.93(0.09\u0026ndash;38.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.395\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHusband help in household work\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.85(0.84\u0026ndash;4.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42(0.06\u0026ndash;28.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.509\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhysical Violence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever (Ref.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.38(3.75\u0026ndash;30.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.86(5.69\u0026ndash;87.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e it is evident that postpartum depression has significant causal relationship with several independent variables. Women who live in urban area (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.31, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.10\u0026ndash;2.55, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028) are more likely to have postpartum depression than the women who live in rural area. Unemployed women (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.33, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.14\u0026ndash;12.79, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013) are 4.33 times more depressed than the employed and housewife women. Women who have more than two children (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.86, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.47\u0026ndash;16.12, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010) are 4.86 times more likely to have postpartum depression in contrast to those who have less than two children. Women who are dissatisfied (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.16, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.00-2.32, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002) in their marital relationship are 1.16 times more depressed than the women group who are satisfied in their marital relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen with history of miscarriage (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.11, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.00-1.40, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017) are more likely to have depression compared to the women with no miscarriage history. Respondents who faced complications during pregnancy (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.10, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.05\u0026ndash;15.99, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.042) is prone to have postpartum depression than the counterpart of respondents who did not face complications during pregnancy. The prevalence of postpartum depression is 2.11 times higher in the women group who faced stressful life event during pregnancy (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.11, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.00-3.15, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007) compare to the women group who did not face stressful life event during pregnancy. Women whose intention of the last pregnancy was unplanned (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.05, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.51\u0026ndash;5.39, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) are more depressed than women group whose pregnancy was planned. Respondents who faced illness after delivery (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.04, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.03\u0026ndash;1.63, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022) are more likely to face postpartum depression compared to those who did not face illness. Women who faced problem with baby sleeping (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.68, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.29\u0026ndash;21.43, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005) are 8.68 times more likely to have depression compared to the women who did not face problem with baby sleeping. Women who never received emotional support from family members (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.84, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.53\u0026ndash;9.25, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) are 4.84 times more depressed than those who often received emotional support from family members. Women are comparatively more depressed whose family member never take care of their child (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.01, 95% CI 1.11\u0026ndash;2.31, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017) than whose family member often care of child. Similarly, PPD is more common for women who often faced physical violence (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.86, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.69\u0026ndash;87.25, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015). Respondents who experienced physical violence are 8.86 times more depressed compare to the women who did not experience physical violence. On the other hand, age of the respondents, education level, religion, husband\u0026rsquo;s education, husband\u0026rsquo;s occupation, household income, place of delivery, skill birth attendant during delivery, mode of delivery, infant illness, sex of the baby, excessive baby crying, family members\u0026rsquo; help in household work, husband take care of child husband\u0026rsquo;s help in household work do not seem to have a significant effect on postpartum depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section provides specific information and supporting arguments that bridge the current findings with empirical evidence. Main determinants of postpartum depression are highlighted, along with supportive arguments. The current study was undertaken to explore the prevalence and determinants that contribute to PPD in women who have given birth within 2\u0026ndash;12 weeks. The overall prevalence rate of PPD found 35.3%. This prevalence rate is close to the findings of a similar study conducted in Nepal (30%) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e), Upper East Region of Ghana (34.7%) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e), urban Slums of Dhaka (39.4%) and Bangladesh(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). The explanatory variables that were shown to have a significant association with PPD were area of residence, employment status, number of children, marital relationship, history of miscarriage, complications during pregnancy, stressful life event, intention of last pregnancy, illness after delivery, problem with baby sleeping, emotional support from family members, family members take care of child and physical violence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe result of this study suggests that women who live in urban area had a higher risk of being depressed than the women who live in rural area probably as a result of stressful urban lifestyles, lack of social bonding in urban area and financial pressure. Previous studies also found that women residing in urban area exhibited a greater incidence of postpartum depression compare to the women who live in rural area (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, some previous studies also identified that the rural women are comparatively more depressed than urban women due to lower access to healthcare services, lower education facilities, lower socioeconomic status, and poor lifestyle (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR49\" citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e). This study also found employment status as a significant determinant of postpartum depression. It has found in the present study that unemployed women are more likely to have PPD which is aligned with the findings of the previous study who also claimed that depression was more prevalent among women who were employed but subsequently resigned from their jobs due to pregnancy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). This would be due to loss of earnings, detachment from the workplace, and a decline in social interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of children has found as the statistically significant predictor for increasing the prevalence of postpartum depression. It has found in the present study that women with more than two children possess high risk of PPD. Previous study also found that the prevalence of PPD was greater among women who had two or more children (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). The potential cause may be a higher level of maternal stress due to the care and duty for their existing children. Another study also claimed that the presence of two or more living children is also linked to postpartum depression, maybe because women with multiple children have a higher number of responsibilities and financial worries (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). This study affirmed that marital relationship is the highly statistically significant associated risk factor for developing PPD among women which is aligned with the findings of the previous study who also argued that a correlation exists between marital satisfaction and PPD (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e). According to the present study women who were dissatisfied in their marital relationship being more depressed than who were satisfied in their marital relationship. This may be because of marital dissatisfaction hinders the establishment of a proper emotional bond between couples. Consequently, it increases the likelihood of experiencing PPD. Another study also claimed that the dissatisfaction experienced by spouses can lead to significant frustration within the family unit. Undoubtedly, this has detrimental consequences for communities, families, and individuals (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistory of miscarriage is another prime associated risk factor for PPD of this study; this outcome aligns with the findings of prior research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e). Being afraid of a repeat miscarriage or the death of a child has been shown to be a contributing cause to depression throughout the postpartum period. Healthcare practitioners should take into account the previous experience of loss as a contributing factor to susceptibility of depression during subsequent pregnancies and the early postpartum period (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e). Complications during pregnancy has found as the statistically significant predictor for increasing the prevalence of PPD. It has found in this study that women who faced complications during pregnancy were more like to suffer from postpartum depression. Previous studies also claimed that various pregnancy and delivery obstacles provide a potential threat to women's mental well-being throughout the postpartum period (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e). The likely reason for this might be related to the concern regarding the impact of complications during pregnancy on the delivery and postpartum period. Stressful life events refer to occurrences and circumstances that induce emotional or bodily distress, exhaustion, anxiety, worry, irritation, mixed feelings, or uncertainty (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e). The present study denotes that stressful life event is the highly significant risk factor for developing PPD. This statistical result is supported by the previously done studies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e). Events that cause stress, such as experiencing the maternal blues on the seventh day after birth (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e) difficulties in marital relationship, recent stressful events, and depression during pregnancy were highly indicative indicators of PPD (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e). Pregnancy is an extremely stressful stage for women, combined with other stressful life events; it increases the likelihood of developing PPD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntension of the last pregnancy is also a significant risk factor associated with postpartum depression. The incidence of unplanned pregnancy is significantly greater in the depressed group compared to the non-depressed group. This finding is supported by the previously done studies where researchers identified that unplanned pregnancy had a significant impact on the intensity of postpartum depression among women (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). The prime reason might be factors such as the additional economic burdens associated with a newborn, the mental preparedness for accepting the role of a mother, social stigma and the incapacity to handle the responsibilities(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Unintended pregnancy can negatively affect the quality of the intimate association, leading to an increased likelihood of postpartum depression among this population (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). This study has shown that illness after delivery is one of the factors that influenced the prevalence of PPD which is aligned with the findings of the previous studies which also claimed that mothers who got ill after giving birth had a higher likelihood to develop PPD because of their physical condition (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e). This could be associated with the impact of physical health issues on psychological health (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e). Problem with baby sleeping has been found to be a significant determinant of postpartum depression. Postpartum women who experience difficulties with their baby's sleep have been found to have a greater possibility of developing depressive symptoms. This study result has been supported by earlier study(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e) in which investigators discovered that infant sleep difficulties are strongly associated with PPD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent study affirmed that emotional support from family members is highly statistically significant associated risk factors for developing postpartum depression. This finding is aligned with the previous study who also claimed that the presence of family support has a statistically significant correlation with PPD, which is influenced by both pregnancy status and self-efficacy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Women, who do not receive emotional support from family members, experience a notable increase in depressive symptoms. Another previous study also found that there was a substantial correlation between higher levels of PPD and poorer levels of satisfaction in women's family connections, particularly with their partners, families, and parents-in-law (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent study has found that family members\u0026rsquo; help in taken care of child is significantly correlated to the PPD. It has found that women whose family members never take care of child are more likely to suffer from PPD. This findings is supported by the previously done studies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e) where researcher found that the level of care felt from the mother-in-law and the quality of interpersonal interactions with other family members had a significant impacts on postpartum depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical violence is also another associated risk factor for the prevalence of postpartum depression. This study confirms the findings of prior research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e) that physical violence is a significant risk factor for PPD. Experiencing physical violence during pregnancy can potentially increase the likelihood of women developing physical and emotional issues in the future. Hence, physical violence might serve as a contributing element that leads to PPD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, this research primarily adopts quantitative methods for data collection and analysis. While quantitative approaches provide numerical data, they may not capture the contextual richness of PPD. The inclusion of qualitative methods, such as interviews or focus group discussions, could offer a more comprehensive understanding of this study. Secondly, this research was conducted using a cross-sectional approach, which only allowed for the evaluation of correlation rather than establishing a causal relationship between the studied variables. Thirdly, a small number of samples were gathered from two hospitals from women who delivered live births, which may limit the findings and generalizability of the study. Fourthly, a self-administered EPDS scale was utilized to evaluate PPD. Self-report assessments are susceptible to bias, which could have influenced our findings. Finally, limited financial resources may pose challenges regarding data collection, sample recruitment, and comprehensive analysis. These constraints could potentially impact the breadth and depth of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study conducted in the Khulna region of Bangladesh reveals a higher prevalence of PPD among women. Significant determinants of PPD include factors such as area of residence, unemployment status, having more than two children, dissatisfied marital relationship, history of miscarriage, complications during pregnancy, stressful life events, unplanned pregnancy, illness after delivery, problems with baby sleeping, never getting emotional support from family members, family members never take care of the child, and physical violence. However, factors such as age, education level, religion, husband\u0026apos;s education and occupation, household income, place of delivery, skilled birth attendance, mode of delivery, infant illness, baby\u0026apos;s sex, excessive baby crying, family members\u0026apos; help in household work, and husband\u0026apos;s involvement in take care of child and help in household work were not found to be associated with postpartum depression. These findings underscore the importance of addressing the identified factors though community intervention and expert counseling to reduce the prevalence of PPD and improve mental health outcomes of postpartum women. As the current study was done on postpartum women visiting two health centers due to time and resource paucity further extensive research is needed to explore the causal relationship between PPD and the identified risk factors with a large sample.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e This study is produced as the partial fulfillment of the first author’s Bachelor of Social Science degree in Development Studies, from Khulna University, Bangladesh, endorsed by the supervisor that we didn’t violate any ethical standard carrying out the research from data collection to study design, even, no clinical data have been collected and used for this study, in addition, Khulna University Ethical Clearance Committee has been approved this study protocol (KUECC-2023-09-61).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo competing interest declared.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFound:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo funding was awarded for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot required\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData sharing statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContributions: BRS\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003econtributed to the design of the manuscript, development of the protocol, and data analysis plan and provided oversight and interpretation of the analyses, and a critical review and draft the primary manuscript. \u003cstrong\u003eMAR\u003c/strong\u003e contributed to the design of the study, development of the protocol, study design, and contributed to the revision. \u003cstrong\u003eMMT\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003econtributed to data analysis and writing the manuscript draft and contributed to the revision. \u003cstrong\u003eSZ\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003eMIM\u003c/strong\u003e contributed to the review of the relevant literature review, table preparation, and writing of the manuscript draft. \u003cstrong\u003eSK and MHH\u003c/strong\u003e, provided oversight and interpretation of the analyses, and a critical review of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eBRS and MMT\u003c/strong\u003e had access to the data in the study and took responsibility for the data's integrity and data analysis's accuracy. All authors gave final approval of the version to be published. \u003cstrong\u003eMAR\u003c/strong\u003e supervised the whole study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWHO. Depressive disorder (depression) [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Aug 29]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaigun Edhborg HEN. Incidence and Risk Factor of Postpartum Depressive Symptoms in Women: A Population Based Prospective Cohort Study in a Rural District in Bangladesh. J Depress Anxiety. 2015;04(02).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLanes A, Kuk JL, Tamim H. Prevalence and characteristics of postpartum depression symptomatology among Canadian women: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(1):1\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMiyaoka Y. Postpartum depression. JAPAN Med Assoc J. 2001;44(8):354\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBeck CT. 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Postpartum depression in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ [Internet]. 2017 Oct 10 [cited 2023 Aug 27];95(10):706. Available from: /pmc/articles/PMC5689195/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGausia K, Fisher C, Ali M, Oosthuizen J. Antenatal depression and suicidal ideation among rural Bangladeshi women: a community-based study. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2009;12:351\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWilkes J. ACOG releases recommendations on screening for perinatal depression. Am Fam Physician. 2015;92(7):648.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePaulden M, Palmer S, Hewitt C, Gilbody S. Screening for postnatal depression in primary care: Cost effectiveness analysis. BMJ. 2010 Jan 30;340(7740):253.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDaliri DB, Afaya A, Afaya RA, Abagye N. Postpartum depression: The prevalence and associated factors among women attending postnatal clinics in the Bawku municipality, Upper East Region of Ghana. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci Reports. 2023;2(3):e143.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStratton SJ. Population research: convenience sampling strategies. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2021;36(4):373\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. Detection of postnatal depression: development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br J psychiatry. 1987;150(6):782\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNasreen H, Edhborg M, Petzold M, \u0026hellip; YFJD, 2015 undefined. Incidence and risk factor of postpartum depressive symptoms in women: a population based prospective cohort study in a rural district in Bangladesh. Res Nasreen, M Edhborg, M Petzold, Y Forsell, ZN KabirJ Depress Anxiety, 2015\u0026bull;researchgate.net [Internet]. 2015\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e[cited 2023 Aug 27]; Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hashima-Nasreen-2/publication/276441509_Incidence_and_Risk_Factor_of_Postpartum_Depressive_Symptoms_in_Women_A_Population_Based_Prospective_\u003cbr\u003eCohort_Study_in_a_Rural_District_in_Bangladesh/links/557f6dc008aec87640ddf9da/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVigod SN, Tarasoff LA, Bryja B, Dennis CL, Yudin MH, Ross LE. Relation between place of residence and postpartum depression. Cmaj. 2013;185(13):1129\u0026ndash;35.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZarghami M, Abdollahi F, Lye MS. A comparison of the prevalence and related risk factors for post-partum depression in urban and rural areas. Iran J psychiatry Behav Sci. 2019;13(2).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVillegas L, McKay K, Dennis C, Ross LE. 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Frequency and associated factors for postnatal depression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2009;19(4):236\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOhrnberger J, Fichera E, Sutton M. The relationship between physical and mental health: A mediation analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2017;195:42\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHiscock H, Wake M. Infant sleep problems and postnatal depression: a community-based study. Pediatrics. 2001;107(6):1317\u0026ndash;22.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKempler L, Sharpe L, Miller CB, Bartlett DJ. Do psychosocial sleep interventions improve infant sleep or maternal mood in the postnatal period? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev. 2016;29:15\u0026ndash;22.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eQi W, Liu Y, Lv H, Ge J, Meng Y, Zhao N, et al. Effects of family relationship and social support on the mental health of Chinese postpartum women. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2022;22(1):65.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDoulatian M, Hesami K, Shams J, Alavi MH. Relationship between violence during pregnancy and postpartum depression. 2010;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Postpartum Depression, Prevalence, contributing factors, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4066808/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4066808/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003e Postpartum depression (PPD) is a severe mental condition that generally arises among women during the initial 12 months of post-delivery. Untreated PPD might be associated with negative outcomes for mothers, children, and families.\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eThe objective of this study was to measure the prevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms among women in the Khulna region of Bangladesh and identify its potential associated factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eA hospital-based quantitative cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in Khulna, involving a sample size of 187 women who had given birth within the past 2-12 weeks. The sample was selected using a convenience sampling technique. The dependent variable chosen for the study was postpartum depression, which was measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) with a cutoff score of greater than 10. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and interdependent sample t-test were conducted to identify any mean differences of EPDS scores among sub-groups of independent variables along with binary logistic regression was done to identify the potential factors associated with increasing PPD where both univariate and multiple linear regression were done. Reliability of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was measured by using Cronbach’s alpha (0.890).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e The overall prevalence of PPD was found 35.3%. The findings of this study reveal a significant association between PPD and various factors. Factors such as residing in urban areas, unemployment, having more than two children, dissatisfaction in marital relationships, a history of miscarriage, complications during pregnancy, exposure to stressful life events, unplanned pregnancy, experiencing post-delivery illness, difficulties with the baby's sleeping patterns, receiving minimal to occasional emotional support from family members, lack of family support for child care, and experiencing physical violence were identified as significantly risk factors related to PPD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eThis study reveals various factors associated with PPD that should be considered during the postpartum period of women. Based on the findings, the need for targeted interventions by healthcare providers and caregivers to support women during this critical phase of their lives is recommended. By addressing these factors, it is possible to improve the well-being of women and provide them with the necessary care during the postpartum period.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Postpartum Depressive Symptoms among Bangladeshi Women: A hospital-based cross-sectional study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-08 17:18:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4066808/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"360e284d-0280-4908-90ea-8d2c9c98edb4","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 8th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-12T19:14:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-08 17:18:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4066808","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4066808","identity":"rs-4066808","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}