Prevalence and factors associated with Open Defecation in Burkina Faso: A trend analysis of the 2003-2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Surveys

Prevalence and factors associated with Open Defecation in Burkina Faso: A trend analysis of the 2003-2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Surveys | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Prevalence and factors associated with Open Defecation in Burkina Faso: A trend analysis of the 2003-2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Surveys Gilbert Rosana, Brian Kipkorir Kigen, Caleb Nyakundi, Sharonmercy Okemwa, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8920802/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Open defecation (OD) is the disposal of human faecal matter in open fields, forests, water bodies, or any other place not enclosed or explicitly built for sanitation. This practice has far-reaching health and economic implications, costing Burkina Faso approximately 2% of its GDP annually due to lost productivity and healthcare expenditures. There is a lack of country-specific and nationally representative analysis in Burkina Faso to inform policy interventions. This study examined the trends, determinants, and prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso between 2003 and 2021. Methods We analysed the 2003, 2010, and 2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) data, and included a final sample of 7,241 in 2003, 16,930 in 2010, and 10,987 in 2021. Sample characteristics and weighted prevalence were described and summarised using frequencies, percentages, and confidence intervals (CI). Multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression models were used to establish the determinants of OD. Results The overall weighted prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso was 70.3% in 2003, 59.4% in 2010, and 33.0% in 2021. In 2021, the prevalence of OD was highest among male-headed households (34.1%), aged 15–29 years (40.7%), rural residents (46.3%), households more than 4 members (35.2%), and those with an unimproved water source (52.2%).In the 2021 survey, households headed by individuals aged 60+ (aOR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.44,0.69), female-headed households (aOR = 0.74, 95%: 0.59,0.69), and the rich wealth index (aOR = 0.08, 95% CI: 0.06,0.10) had lower odds of open defecation. Households from communities with high level of community poverty had increased odds of OD (aOR = 2.36, 95% CI: 1.37, 4.07) Conclusion There has been a downward trend in the overall prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso. Nevertheless, OD remains high among poor households, rural regions, and those lacking improved access to water sources. Eradication of OD will require interventions that focus on gender-sensitive strategies, rural and low-income populations, reinforcement of educational and behavioural change initiatives, and increased access to affordable and sustainable sanitation facilities to shape hygiene behaviours. Additionally, targeted community-level strategies will be a significant focus, ensuring no community is left behind. Open defecation sanitation West Africa Community-Led Total Sanitation CLTS Open defecation-free status ODF Sub-Saharan Africa Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Open defecation (OD) is the disposal of human faecal matter in open fields, forests, water bodies, or any other place not enclosed or explicitly built for sanitation [ 1 ]. In 2020, about 494 million people worldwide practised OD, with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) accounting for over 204 million people, representing more than 41% of the global burden[ 2 ]. This practice remains a critical global public health concern, contributing to about 1.6 million deaths yearly [ 3 ]. It is estimated that about 842,000 people in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) die annually from diarrhoeal diseases due to poor sanitation and hygiene [ 2 , 4 ]. OD poses health and socio-economic risks to the general population. OD pollutes surface and groundwater sources, leading to waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera, and adverse pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight [ 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 ]. In Burkina Faso, diarrhoea is a major contributor to death in children under 5 years of age [ 7 ], with recurrent infections leading to chronic under-nutrition and stunting [ 8 ]. Economically, the burden of OD is substantial; in Burkina Faso alone, it costs the country approximately 2% of its gross domestic product (GDP) per year due to lost productivity, healthcare expenditures, environmental deterioration, and reduced educational achievement [ 9 ]. Eliminating the practice of OD is vital in improving health outcomes, nutrition, and productivity in low-income countries [ 7 ]. While the number of households practising OD in the SSA has reduced significantly, from 207 million in 2015 to 193 million in 2022 [ 6 ], the practice remains widespread, especially in rural areas. These settings lack essential sanitation services, with 65% practising OD and only 12% having access to improved latrines [ 1 ]. The lack of basic sanitation services in rural areas can be attributed to several factors, including inadequate infrastructure, poverty, cultural differences, and low educational and income levels [ 2 , 10 ]. Burkina Faso has made significant progress in reducing the prevalence of OD over the years. Between 2015 and 2022, the national prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso decreased from 46% to 34% [ 11 ]. This reduction can be attributed to measures implemented by the Burkina Faso government in collaboration with international organisations, such as UNICEF, which have adopted strategies and action plans to achieve SDG 6.2, focusing on access to equitable sanitation and the elimination of open defecation by 2030 [ 2 , 5 ]. The Burkina Faso government, Association for Peace and Solidarity (APS), and World Vision have been implementing Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) since 2014 [ 7 ]. This national strategy(CLTS) was developed through consultation with sanitation sector stakeholders (PD-WASH) [ 12 ]. Despite the measures implemented, the country has not yet achieved an open defecation-free status (ODF) [ 7 ]. As per the Burkina Faso UNICEF Country Office Annual Report (COAR), the prevalence reflects a country in dire need of proper sanitation interventions that address the infrastructure challenge and the barriers to utilising the available sanitation infrastructure [ 5 , 13 ]. Several regional studies have been conducted to identify the determinants of OD in SSA [ 14 – 16 ]. Although these regional studies have identified key determinants of open defecation, such as poverty, low education, rural residence, and limited access to water sources, they are essentially cross-country or multi-regional in their focus. Previous studies in Burkina Faso have only assessed OD-related gaps, factors leading to slippage in ODF status, and barriers to maintaining CLTS outcomes [ 7 , 8 , 17 ]. As such, there are limited country-specific, up-to-date, nationally representative studies that can inform context-specific interventions in Burkina Faso. This study examines the trend in prevalence and determinants of OD practices in Burkina Faso at the individual, household, and community levels across 2003, 2010, and 2021. The findings will guide public health officials, policymakers, development partners, and healthcare practitioners in developing evidence-based interventions to reduce open defecation. This will go a long way toward stepping up efforts to achieve SDG 6.2 [ 2 ]. Methods Study Setting Burkina Faso is a low-income country in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a GDP per capita of $ 982, and a modest growth of 4.8% [ 18 ]. It is a landlocked country with a population of approximately 23 million as of 2024 [ 19 ]; 70% live in rural areas. Burkina Faso is divided into 13 primary administrative regions, 45 provinces, and 351 communes [ 20 ]. It has diverse cultural norms across its ethnic groups, influencing sanitation practices (12). According to the 2023 WHO/UNICEF joint monitoring program report, only 24% of the population has access to basic sanitation services, and a mere 8% benefit from safely managed sanitation [ 21 ]. The SDG 6.2 indicator shows that only 10% of the population in Burkina Faso met this standard in 2022, underscoring the country’s struggle to achieve global sanitation targets [ 22 ]. Study Design and Data Sources We analysed secondary data from the 2003, 2010, and 2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Surveys (BDHS). The study utilised household (HR) and individual women's recode (IR) files. The datasets were sourced from the DHS program’s public repository on its website [ 23 ]. The BDHS is a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey designed to provide reliable information for guiding policy and program development in Burkina Faso. The three surveys employed a stratified two-stage cluster sampling design to achieve national and subnational representativeness. Trained enumerators collected the data through standardised household and women's questionnaires. Enumeration (clusters) areas were selected in the first stage using probability proportional to size based on the number of households in the most recent General Population and Housing Census. In the first stage, 400 clusters (2003) [ 24 ] and 574 clusters (2010) [ 25 ] were selected; both of which were successfully interviewed. In 2021, 600 clusters were selected in the first stage, but only 572 were successfully surveyed [ 26 ]. In the second stage, 10,000 households (2003), 14,947 households (2010) and 18,304 households (2021) were surveyed. Eligible participants in each survey included all women aged 15–49 years and men aged 15–59 who were usual residents or had spent the night in the selected household. Further details regarding the BDHS methods and sampling are published on the official DHS website [ 24 – 26 ]. Study population and sample size The study population consisted of households and their de facto members, included in the 2003, 2010, and 2021 BDHS. We merged two datasets (IR and HR recodes) from the three surveys to create a unified dataset containing household and individual-level characteristics. We carried out data cleaning to remove missing observations and inconsistencies. In the 2003 survey, 7,241 participants were included after 90 participants with missing observations were dropped. Our final sample sizes consisted of 7,241 participants (2003), 16,930 (2010) and 10,987 participants (2021), after missing observations were dropped. Measures Outcome variable The dependent variable, open defecation , was operationalised as the “disposing of human faecal matter in open fields, forests, water bodies, or any other place not enclosed or modified to dispose of faeces” [ 1 ]. The head of the households were asked, “ The type of toilet facility that members of their households use ,” and the responses given were as follows; “ ventilated improved pit latrine (vip), pit latrine with slab, pit latrine without slab/open pit, no facility/bush/field, composting toilet, hanging toilet/latrine flush to piped sewer system, flush to septic tank, flush to pit latrine, flush to somewhere else, flush don't know where and other .” Those whose response was “ no facility/bush/field ” were classified as “ open defecation ,” while other responses were jointly defined as “improved.” We then coded “open defecation” as 1 and “improved” as 0. Explanatory Variables Explanatory variables were selected based on literature reviews [ 3 , 10 , 14 ], their availability in the dataset, and relevance to sanitation and hygiene practices. Table 1 presents the operational definition of the explanatory variables included in the model. Table 1 Description of Independent Variable Variable Source Dataset Measures Sex of HH Head HR Sex of the household head (male, female) as it was recorded in the dataset Age of HH Head HR Derived from the age of household head as reported from the DHS questionnaire recoded into four categories (15–29, 30–44, 45–59, 60 + years) Education Level HR Based on the highest level of formal education (no education, primary, secondary+) attained by the household head. Marital Status HR Current marital status of the household head, categorized as being in union or not in union Place of Residence HR Indicates whether the household is located in an urban or rural area according to DHS classification. Wealth Index HR Categorized as poor, middle, rich, richest Religion IR Based on the self-reported religion during interview (Traditional, Muslim, and Christian) Ethnicity IR Based on the 13 the tribes of Burkina Faso (Bobo, Dioula, Fulfulde, Gourmantché, Gourounsi, Lobi, Mossi, Senoufo, Touareg and other nomadic groups, Dagara, Bissa, and others). Region HR Based on the 13 administrative units of Burkina Faso (Centre, Boucle du Mouhoun, Cascades, Centre-Est, Centre-Nord, Centre-Ouest, Centre-Sud, Est, Hauts-Bassins, Nord, Plateau Central, Sahel, and Sud-Ouest) Reads Newspaper HR Indicates whether the household head reads newspapers or magazines at least occasionally. Watches TV HR Indicates whether the household head watches television at least occasionally. Listens to Radio HR Indicates whether the household head listens to radio programs at least occasionally. Uses Internet HR Captures whether the household head or respondent uses the internet. This variable is available only in the 2010 and 2021 BDHS datasets. Drinking Water Source HR Categorized as improved or unimproved based on the reported household water source. Household Size HR Total number of members living in the household, grouped into ≤ 4 and > 4 members Community Wealth Index Constructed Constructed by aggregating individual household wealth data at the cluster level. For each cluster, the proportion of households classified as poor was calculated and grouped into tertiles to form low, moderate, and high poverty categories. Community Literacy Constructed Generated from the proportion of household heads education level within each cluster who had at least primary education. The proportions were divided into categories to represent low, moderate, and high literacy levels. Note : HR=Household recode,IR=Individual recode,HH=Household. Constructed =variables that were generated from the household or individual variables through aggregation. Statistical Analysis STATA version 17 (Stata Corporation, College Station, Texas) was used for data cleaning, and analysis [ 27 ]. Sample characteristics were summarised in frequencies and percentages. The weighted prevalence of OD was derived by assigning weights to the sample size using the provided survey weights in the dataset, ensuring the analysis is nationally representative, account for unequal sampling probabilities, and adjusted for non-response. The prevalence was then summarised into weighted proportions and 95% confidence intervals. Four models of multilevel logistic regression were fitted: model 0 (null model), model 1(individual level model) containing individual level characteristics, model 2 (contextual level model) containing individual and household level characteristics, model 3 (full model) containing the individual, household and community level characteristics. Before fitting the variables in the multilevel models, we evaluated for multicollinearity among the predictor variables using the variance inflation factor (VIF) cutoff of 0.1[ 28 ] suggesting absence of multicollinearity between the independent variables. A multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model was employed to identify the determinants of open defecation. This modelling approach was chosen to account for the hierarchical structure of the data. We used the varying-intercept model with no predictors (null model) to determine whether our data showed evidence of clustering or group effects, which revealed cluster-level variation in OD. A Likelihood Ratio (LR) test was done to compare the standard logistic regression with the multilevel logistic regression analysis. Multilevel logistic regression model had a p < 0.001 indicating that the multilevel logistic model was significantly better than the standard logistic regression model. The model fit was determined using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), with lower values indicating better model fit. The null model served as a baseline, and the improvements between Models 1,2 and 3, were assessed based on the lower values of AIC and BIC to indicate the best model fit. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) provided insight into the relative importance of community-level variables in influencing OD practises. Statistical significance was set at a p value < 0.05. The findings of the determinants of open defecation practices were reported as odds ratio with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results Sample characteristics The study included 7,241 households in 2003, 16,930 in 2010, and 10,987 in 2021. Across all three years, a higher proportion of the households were headed by males, aged between 30–44 years, had no formal education, were in a union, belonged to the Mossi ethnic group, and resided in rural areas. Additionally, a higher proportion of the households did not read newspapers, did not listen to the radio, had a household size of > 4 members, had access to improved water sources, and had low community literacy (Table 2 ). Table 2 Sample characteristics Variable Category 2003 (n = 7,241) 2010 (n = 16,930) 2021 (n = 10,987) n (%) n (%) n (%) Age of HH head 15–29 years 1,019 (14.1) 2,136 (12.6) 1,408 (12.8) 30–44 years 2,759 (38.1) 6,475 (38.3) 4,581 (41.7) 45–59 years 2,113 (29.2) 5,428 (32.1) 3,021 (27.5) 60 + years 1,350 (18.6) 2,891 (17.1) 1,977 (18.0) Sex of HH head Male 6,639 (91.7) 15,297 (90.4) 9,544 (86.9) Female 602 (8.3) 1,633 (9.7) 1,443 (13.1) Education (HH head) No education 5,898 (81.5) 13,022 (76.9) 7,292 (66.4) Primary 783 (10.8) 2,206 (13.0) 1,786 (16.3) Secondary+ 560 (7.7) 1,702 (10.1) 1,909 (17.4) Marital status (HH head) In-union 6,482 (89.5) 13,267 (78.4) 10,010 (91.1) Not in union 759 (10.5) 3,663 (21.6) 977 (8.9) Wealth index Poor 2,827 (39.0) 5,866 (34.7) 3,914 (35.6) Middle 1,703 (23.5) 3,245 (19.2) 2,192 (20.0) Rich 2,711 (37.4) 7,819 (46.2) 4,881 (44.4) Residence Urban 1,644 (22.7) 5,314 (31.4) 3,874 (35.3) Rural 5,597 (77.3) 11,616 (68.6) 7,113 (64.7) Region Sahel 556 (7.7) 1,147 (6.8) 350 (3.2) Boucle de Mouhoun 545 (7.5) 1,338 (7.9) 948 (8.6) Centre-Sud 506 (7.0) 1,144 (6.8) 749 (6.8) Plateau Central 600 (8.3) 1,235 (7.3) 840 (7.7) Centre-Est 540 (7.5) 1,249 (7.4) 1,007 (9.2) Centre-Nord 572 (7.9) 1,142 (6.8) 737 (6.7) Centre-Ouest 599 (8.3) 1,518 (9.0) 965 (8.8) Est 571 (7.9) 1,340 (7.9) 592 (5.4) Nord 572 (7.9) 1,283 (7.6) 877 (8.0) Cascades 516 (7.1) 1,098 (6.5) 605 (5.5) Hauts-Bassins 555 (7.7) 1,543 (9.1) 1,168 (10.6) Centre 574 (7.9) 1,689 (10.0) 1,334 (12.1) Sud-Ouest 535 (7.4) 1,204 (7.1) 815 (7.4) Newspaper readership Yes 541 (7.5) 1,644 (9.7) 730 (6.6) No 6,700 (92.5) 15,286 (90.3) 10,257 (93.4) Listen to radio Yes 2,251 (31.1) 4,831 (28.5) 4,319 (39.3) No 4,990 (68.9) 12,099 (71.5) 6,668 (60.7) Watches TV Yes 5,595 (77.3) 11,358 (67.1) 6,435 (58.6) No 1,646 (22.7) 5,572 (32.9) 4,552 (41.4) Uses Internet Yes — 138 (0.8) 9,464 (86.1) No — 16,792 (99.2) 1,523 (13.9) Religion Traditional/None 1,032 (14.3) 11,716 (69.2) 565 (5.1) Christian 2,221 (30.7) 1,067 (6.3) 3,578 (32.6) Muslim 3,988 (55.1) 4,147 (24.5) 6,844 (62.3) Ethnicity Bobo 196 (2.7) 644 (3.8) 370 (3.4) Dioula 464 (6.4) 154 (0.9) 82 (0.8) Fulfulde 495 (6.8) 1,348 (8.0) 688 (6.3) Gourmantche 522 (7.2) 1,039 (6.1) 493 (4.5) Gourounsi 320 (4.4) 786 (4.6) 590 (5.4) Lobi 559 (7.7) 614 (3.6) 217 (2.0) Mossi 3,683 (50.9) 8,852 (52.3) 5,758 (52.4) Senoufo 379 (5.2) 895 (5.3) 268 (2.4) Touareg/Bella 113 (1.6) 254 (1.5) 13 (0.1) Dagara — 555 (3.3) 385 (3.5) Bissa 318 (4.4) 668 (4.0) 620 (5.6) Other 192 (2.7) 1,121 (6.6) 1,503 (13.7) Household size 1–4 members 1,942 (26.8) 4,017 (23.7) 2,984 (27.2) > 4 members 5,299 (73.2) 12,913 (76.3) 8,003 (72.8) Water source Improved 6,242 (86.2) 13,514 (79.8) 9,248 (84.2) Unimproved 999 (13.8) 3,416 (20.2) 1,739 (15.8) Cluster poverty Low 2,440 (33.7) 5,658 (33.4) 3,658 (33.3) Moderate 2,403 (33.2) 5,761 (34.0) 3,720 (33.9) High 2,398 (33.1) 5,511 (32.6) 3,609 (32.9) Community literacy Low 2,510 (34.7) 5,681 (33.6) 3,740 (34.0) Medium 2,332 (32.2) 5,621 (33.2) 3,705 (33.7) High 2,399 (33.1) 5,628 (33.2) 3,542 (32.2) Note: HH=House hold, — =the variable was not available for the given year Trend in the weighted prevalence of open defecation practices Figure 1 presents the trend in the weighted prevalence of OD across the three survey years. The overall prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso was 70.3% in 2003, 59.4% in 2010, and 33% in 2021. (Fig. 1: Prevalence trends of open defecation practices in Burkina Faso (2003–2021). Prevalence of open defecation practices by sample characteristics Table 3 presents the prevalence of OD by sample characteristics. Across the three years, the prevalence of open defecation was consistently high among male-headed households, individuals aged 15–29, individuals from the poorest households, individuals with no formal education, and among rural residents (Table 3 ). Additionally, the prevalence of open defecation was highest among the Mossi ethnic group, those with a household size of > 4 members, those with an unimproved water source, communities with high cluster poverty, and communities with high levels of illiteracy. Table 3 Prevalence of open defecation practices by sample characteristics Variable Category 2003 % (95% CI) 2010 % (95% CI) 2021 (% (95% CI) Open defecation (Overall) 70.3 (66.7,73.6) 59.4 (57.2,61.5) 33.0 (30.8,35.3) Age of HH head 15–29 yrs 76.1 (71.1,80.4) 66.8 (63.7,69.8) 40.7 (36.7,44.8) 30–44 yrs 66.1 (61.5,70.3) 58.5 (56.0,61.0) 31.4 (29.1,33.7) 45–59 yrs 70.3 (66.4,73.9) 58.5 (55.3,61.5) 32.1 (29.3,35.1) 60 + yrs 74.8 (70.4,78.7) 57.2 (52.5,61.7) 32.6 (29.5,35.9) Sex of HH head Male 72.2 (68.8,75.4) 61.0 (58.8,63.2) 34.1 (31.8,36.6) Female 49.1 (41.5,56.7) 43.3 (38.9,47.7) 25.4 (22.1,29.0) Education (HH head) No education 78.6 (75.9,81.2) 68.8 (66.5,70.9) 40.7 (38.0,43.4) Primary 49.9 (43.6,56.2) 41.5 (37.5,45.6) 26.7 (23.8,29.8) Secondary+ 9.6 (6.5,13.9) 9.4 (7.4,11.8) 9.5 (7.9,11.3) Marital status (HH head) In union 72.5 (69.1,75.6) 64.0 (61.8,66.1) 33.4 (31.1,35.8) Not in union 49.8 (42.6,57.1) 41.5 (38.3,44.9) 28.8 (24.9,33.1) Wealth index Poor 99.9 (99.5,100.0) 96.9 (96.0,97.6) 66.2 (62.8,69.4) Middle 86.6 (82.7,89.7) 78.4 (75.1,81.4) 32.7 (29.5,36.2) Rich 25.2 (21.4,29.3) 20.7 (18.6,22.9) 5.8 (4.9,6.7) Residence Urban 6.6 (4.1,10.3) 10.8 (8.7,13.3) 5.4 (4.4,6.6) Rural 85.3 (82.5,87.7) 77.2 (74.7,79.6) 46.3 (43.2,49.4) Region Centre 13.0 (6.6,24.0) 8.8 (6.4,11.9) 4.6 (2.8,7.6) Boucle du Mouhoun 67.0 (54.3,77.6) 60.6 (51.4,69.0) 35.4 (28.0,43.5) Cascades 58.6 (43.0,72.6) 53.8 (45.7,61.7) 14.7 (9.9,21.1) Centre-Est 84.7 (74.8,91.2) 81.8 (75.8,86.7) 45.4 (38.6,52.4) Centre-Nord 85.2 (75.0,91.7) 75.3 (68.7,80.9) 46.9 (37.6,56.4) Centre-Ouest 78.5 (67.7,86.4) 75.0 (67.0,81.6) 43.3 (36.3,50.6) Centre-Sud 90.3 (80.1,95.6) 84.3 (78.8,88.6) 51.3 (42.1,60.4) Est 97.0 (92.3,98.9) 91.7 (87.7,94.5) 60.0 (51.2,68.2) Hauts-Bassins 43.2 (30.5,56.9) 32.5 (25.8,39.9) 14.0 (9.9,19.5) Nord 74.5 (63.7,82.9) 61.9 (52.5,70.5) 38.5 (29.3,48.5) Plateau Central 89.1 (79.7,94.4) 54.2 (43.4,64.6) 40.5 (32.3,49.3) Sahel 82.4 (71.4,89.8) 84.6 (79.1,88.8) 51.0 (25.7,75.8) Sud-Ouest 90.7 (82.2,95.3) 82.3 (76.7,86.7) 60.2 (51.5,68.4) Ethnicity Bobo 56.3 (36.9,73.9) 48.2 (38.5,58.1) 33.7 (23.6,45.5) Dioula 50.4 (39.4,61.4) 32.1 (20.2,46.9) 8.2 (3.0,20.7) Fulfulde 79.3 (70.3,86.1) 79.9 (75.2,84.0) 57.0 (47.5,66.0) Gourmantché 95.9 (92.5,97.8) 90.5 (86.3,93.4) 56.3 (47.1,65.0) Gourounsi 66.0 (52.3,77.4) 63.9 (54.5,72.3) 44.7 (36.8,52.9) Lobi 84.3 (77.6,89.3) 76.4 (66.3,84.3) 62.1 (44.8,76.8) Mossi 67.1 (62.2,71.6) 53.6 (50.4,56.7) 26.8 (24.2,29.5) Senoufo 61.0 (47.4,73.2) 49.9 (41.7,58.2) 26.8 (16.6,40.2) Touareg/Other nomadic 70.7 (46.8,86.8) 95.0 (90.6,97.4) 77.2 (35.9,95.3) Dagara — 63.6 (53.7,72.5) 36.3 (27.7,45.8) Bissa 77.5 (66.4,85.7) 69.4 (61.5,76.3) 40.1 (32.4,48.3) Other 61.7 (47.9,73.8) 39.5 (31.6,47.9) 27.8 (22.6,33.7) Newspaper readership Yes 13.4 (8.9,19.6) 12.2 (10.1,14.7) 9.8 (7.7,12.6) No 74.8 (71.7,77.7) 64.4 (62.2,66.5) 34.7 (32.4,37.1) Listening to Radio Yes 85.9 (82.9,88.4) 71.0 (68.1,73.7) 39.8 (36.7,42.9) No 62.9 (58.6,66.9) 54.4 (52.0,56.8) 28.6 (26.3,31.0) Watching TV Yes 82.8 (80.3,85.1) 76.4 (74.3,78.4) 47.1 (44.2,50.0) No 25.8 (20.7,31.6) 24.2 (21.4,27.1) 13.5 (11.9,15.3) Uses Internet Yes — 0.0 38.0 (35.5,40.5) No — 60.0 (57.8,62.1) 4.1 (3.0,5.6) Religion Traditional 96.2 (94.4,97.5) 60.5 (57.9,63.0) 65.8 (58.1,72.8) Muslim 66.0 (62.1,69.8) 56.0 (52.4,59.6) 29.4 (26.8,32.2) Christian 68.0 (61.8,73.5) 59.2 (52.8,65.3) 36.3 (33.1,39.5) Household size 1–4 members 67.8 (63.1,72.1) 57.9 (55.3,60.5) 27.2 (24.9,29.7) > 4 members 71.2 (67.7,74.5) 59.8 (57.3,62.3) 35.2 (32.7,37.7) Water source Improved 66.1 (62.2,69.8) 53.2 (50.8,55.6) 29.3 (27.2,31.5) Unimproved 95.4 (92.2,97.3) 81.6 (78.1,84.7) 52.2 (47.0,57.3) Cluster poverty Low 26.4 (20.2,33.6) 13.6 (10.9,16.9) 3.6 (2.7,4.6) Moderate 83.6 (78.9,87.4) 69.0 (65.2,72.5) 36.9 (33.1,41.0) High 96.4 (94.9,97.5) 91.7 (89.6,93.4) 58.5 (54.2,62.7) Community literacy Low 89.0 (84.8,92.2) 84.8 (81.6,87.5) 51.3 (46.7,55.8) Medium 84.4 (79.7,88.2) 66.7 (61.6,71.5) 37.2 (32.7,41.9) High 33.2 (26.3,41.0) 24.4 (20.1,29.2) 8.7 (6.3,11.8) Note: HH=House hold, — =the variable was not available for the given year Trends in the prevalence of OD by region Figure 2 presents the trends in the prevalence of OD by region. In 2003, OD prevalence in Burkina Faso was generally high across all regions, with Est (97.0%), Centre-Sud (90.3%), and Sud-Ouest (90.7%) showing the highest rates, while the Centre region (13.0%) recorded the lowest (Fig. 2). In 2010, there was a slight reduction in OD prevalence, though Est (91.7%), Centre-Sud (84.3%), and Sahel (84.6%) regions recorded high rates. The Centre region (8.8%) recorded the lowest rates (Fig. 2). On the other hand, in 2021, there was a marked reduction in the prevalence of OD, with Centre (4.6%) recording the lowest rates. However, regions such as Est (60.0%), Sud-Ouest (60.2%), and Centre-Sud (51.3%) still recorded the highest prevalence (Fig. 2). (Fig. 2: Regional prevalence of open defecation) Determinants of open defecation in Burkina Faso Model 4 had the best fit, with the lowest AIC (9907.33) and lowest BIC (10266.48) in the 2021 dataset compared to models 1, 2, and 3. Model 4 had individual, household, and community variables. The ICC significantly decreased from 0.587 in the null model to 0.249 in the final model; inclusion of individual level, household level, and community level variables substantially reduced cluster-level variation in OD and enhanced the performance of the model. Table 4 presents the results of the multilevel logistic regression analyses for the factors associated with OD between 2003 and 2021. Across the survey years, female-headed households had lower odds of practising open defecation compared to male-headed households. Across all the years, older household heads aged 60 + years (aOR = 0.55, 95%CI: 0.44, 0.69) had the lowest odds of practising open defecation compared to younger household heads aged 15–29 years. For the 2021 survey, being in a union and having a secondary+ level of education were protective. Those not in a union (aOR = 1.33, 95%CI: 1.02, 1.72) and those who did not have any level of education had higher odds of practising open defecation. Moreover, the richest category had the lowest odds of practising OD (aOR = 0.01, 95% CI:0.005,0.01). Households with less than four members had higher odds of OD compared to households with more than four members (aOR = 0.80, 95% CI:0.69,0.94). Those with unimproved water sources had higher odds (aOR = 1.36, 95% CI: 1.15,1.61) of OD than those with improved water sources. Regional disparities were notable, with Centre-Est (aOR = 3.94, 95% CI: 2.09, 7.42) and Centre-Sud (aOR = 3.36, 95% CI: 1.75, 6.48) showing the highest odds compared to Sahel. Households from communities with a high level of community poverty had increased odds of OD (aOR = 2.36, 95% CI: 1.37, 4.07) as compared to those with low level of community poverty. Table 4 Factors Associated with Open Defecation in Burkina Faso Variable Category 2003 aOR (95% CI) 2010 aOR (95% CI) 2021 aOR (95% CI) Household head age 15–29 1.00 1.00 1.00 30–44 0.79 (0.52,1.19) 0.95 (0.76,1.18) 0.83 (0.69,1.02) 45–59 0.68 (0.44,1.08) 0.74 (0.58,0.94) * 0.60 (0.49,0.75) ** ≥ 60 0.63 (0.38,1.04) 0.60 (0.45,0.79) ** 0.55 (0.44,0.69) ** Sex of household head Male 1.00 1.00 1.00 Female 0.61 (0.38,1.00) * 0.82 (0.64,1.06) 0.74 (0.59,0.93) ** Education None 1.00 1.00 1.00 Primary 1.05 (0.73,1.52) 1.03 (0.84,1.26) 0.88 (0.74,1.05) Secondary or higher 0.52 (0.27,1.01) 0.68 (0.50,0.94) * 0.76 (0.59,0.97) Marital status In union 1.00 1.00 1.00 Not in union 1.07 (0.67,1.70) 1.04 (0.87,1.25) 1.33 (1.02,1.72) * Wealth index Poor 1.00 1.00 1.00 Middle 0.001 (0.0002,0.01) ** 0.07 (0.06,0.09) ** 0.25 (0.21,0.28) ** Rich 0.0002(0.00003,0.001) 0.01 (0.007,0.01) ** 0.08 (0.06,0.10) ** Richest 0.00001(0.000001,0.00008) ** 0.0006(0.0004,0.0009) ** 0.01 (0.005,0.01) ** Residence Urban 1.00 1.00 1.00 Rural 2.35 (1.14,4.86) * 2.08 (1.19,3.61) * 1.13 (0.75,1.71) Region Centre 1.00 1.00 1.00 Boucle du Mouhoun 0.52 (0.18,1.54) 0.88 (0.36,2.17) 0.92 (0.48,1.76) Cascades 0.59 (0.17,2.07) 3.37 (1.28,8.84) * 0.92 (0.43,1.96) Centre-Est 12.98 (4.31,39.04) ** 20.69 (8.17,52.41) ** 3.94 (2.09,7.42) ** Centre-Nord 2.06 (0.70,6.07) 2.95 (1.19,7.31) * 1.96 (1.01,3.79) * Centre-Ouest 4.02 (1.39,11.61) * 10.14(4.05,25.37) ** 2.04(1.09,3.84) * Centre-Sud 15.08 (4.69,48.50) 16.17(6.35,41.20) ** 3.36 (1.75,6.48) ** Est 6.12 (1.24,30.26) * 15.66(5.44,45.10) ** 2.88(1.28,6.46) * Hauts Bassins 0.48 (0.15,1.51) 0.41 (0.16,1.05) 0.62 (0.32,1.21) Nord 0.65 (0.23,1.84) 1.66 (0.68,4.09) 1.35 (0.70,2.62) Plateau Central 4.59 (1.59,13.27) ** 1.12 (0.45,2.78) 2.39 (1.26,4.52) ** Sahel 0.17(0.05,0.57) ** 0.53 (0.19,1.44) 1.09 (0.44,2.68) Sud-Ouest 1.79 (0.38,8.58) 4.59 (1.55,13.62) ** 2.94(1.38,6.26) ** Ethnicity Bobo 1.00 1.00 1.00 Dioula 0.44 (0.13,1.48) 0.62 (0.28,1.42) 0.98 (0.26,3.73) Fulfulde 0.64 (0.18,2.34) 1.12 (0.64,1.95) 1.20 (0.71,2.01) Gourmantche 0.55 (0.11,2.74) 0.83 (0.39,1.77) 0.58 (0.29,1.17) Gourounsi 0.60 (0.15,2.43) 0.56 (0.29,1.08) 1.03 (0.58,1.85) Lobi 0.57 (0.12,2.75) 0.75 (0.31,1.84) 0.84 (0.36,1.97) Mossi 0.66 (0.21,2.07) 0.53 (0.32,0.87) * 0.63 (0.40,1.01) Senoufo 2.15 (0.57,8.13) 0.92 (0.48,1.75) 1.77 (0.83,3.80) Touareg/Bella 0.53 (0.09,3.15) 2.96 (0.87,10.08) 3.36 (0.56,20.12) Dagara — 0.21 (0.09,0.51) ** 0.44 (0.20,0.95) * Bissa 1.12 (0.26,4.92) 1.03 (0.48,2.23) 1.08 (0.58,2.04) Other 0.42 (0.11,1.64) 1.02 (0.58,1.78) 0.71 (0.44,1.13) Reads newspaper Yes 1.00 1.00 1.00 No 1.42 (0.75,2.70) 1.57 (1.16,2.11) ** 1.11 (0.78,1.59) Listens to radio Yes 1.00 1.00 1.00 No 1.18 (0.87,1.61) 1.14 (0.97,1.33) 0.90 (0.80,1.03) Watches television Yes 1.00 1.00 1.00 No 1.01 (0.71,1.44) 0.83(0.69,0.99) ** 0.86(0.74,1.00) ** Uses internet Yes — — 1.00 No — — 0.93 (0.66,1.32) Religion Traditional/Other 1.00 1.00 1.00 Christian 0.55 (0.29,1.05) 1.10 (0.78,1.53) 0.66 (0.49,0.90) ** Muslim 0.43 (0.23,0.80) ** 1.32 (1.09,1.60) ** 0.49 (0.36,0.68) ** Household size ≤ 4 1.00 1.00 1.00 > 4 1.22 (0.87,1.70) 0.92 (0.77,1.10) 0.80 (0.69,0.94) ** Water source Improved 1.00 1.00 1.00 Unimproved 1.19 (0.66,2.15) 1.06 (0.87,1.31) 1.36 (1.15,1.61) ** Cluster poverty Low 1.00 1.00 1.00 Moderate 2.77(1.49,5.16) ** 2.59(1.50,4.47) ** 2.00 (1.25,3.19) ** High 6.40(2.93,13.99) ** 4.99(2.60,9.59) ** 2.36 (1.37,4.07) ** Cluster literacy Low 1.00 1.00 1.00 Medium 1.43 (0.83,2.45) 0.77 (0.50,1.18) 1.13 (0.86,1.49) High 0.79 (0.41,1.53) 0.67 (0.38,1.18) 0.99 (0.65,1.50) ** p<.001, * p<.05 | AOR- Adjusted odds ratio Discussion The study examined the trends, determinants, and prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso across 2003, 2010, and 2021. Over time, the prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso has declined, from 69.8% in 2003 to 62.3% in 2010 and to 32.4% in 2021. The downward trend in the prevalence can be associated with the measures that have been put in place by the Burkina Faso government in collaboration with NGOs, such as UNICEF, which have adopted strategies and action plans to achieve SDG 6.2 [ 12 ]. Moreover, the government has rolled out the CLTS program, which has gone a long way in improving sanitation behaviour [ 5 ]. Despite this significant progress, Burkina Faso still trails behind in combating open defecation. The prevalence rates established in this study are relatively higher compared to those in studies conducted in Kenya (23.5%) [ 10 ] and Senegal (12.4%) [ 14 ], both of which have successfully implemented the CLTS. ODF rural initiative was Implemented in Kenya to achieve ODF status by 2020 [ 29 ]. Similarly, Senegal has implemented community-led mapping and used locally available, low-cost materials, which have led to constructing proper latrines, thereby achieving ODF status[ 30 ]. However, the prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso is comparatively lower than the rates recorded in Niger (72.7%)[ 14 ], Chad (70.6%)[ 14 ], and Ghana (49.5%) [ 3 ] ...The majority of the Niger population has limited access to sanitation facilities, with only 13% of the population having access to basic sanitation services [ 19 ]. On the other hand, Chad faces significant challenges in accessing safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, particularly in N’Djamena, which has led to open defecation becoming a widespread practice[ 31 ]. A study by Nanyim et al. (2024) in the Bole district of Ghana reported that many households lacked the financial resources to hire labour and purchase materials for constructing latrines[ 32 ]. These variations at regional scales can be attributed to country-level implementation and adherence to sanitation policies, donor funding levels, socio-economic development, and local population engagement[ 33 ]. This study noted significant gender disparities in open defecation practices. Households headed by women had lower odds of practising open defecation compared to households headed by males. This finding is supported by a study conducted in Jimma Town, Ethiopia, which found that the presence of women in leadership roles within households may contribute to a more positive perception of sanitation as an essential attribute of household health and well-being [ 34 ]. Additionally, women’s role as caregivers and domestic hygiene managers could contribute to more robust sanitation practices than their male counterparts [ 35 ]. Similarly, a systematic review by Caruso highlighted the importance of gender norms and conventional women’s roles, including the duty of women to collect water, raise children, and maintain a clean home, which makes them more aware of the risks associated with poor sanitation [ 35 ]. The study found an inverse association between the household head's age and open defecation. As the age of the household head increased, the odds of open defecation decreased. Similar trends have been reported in India, where a decrease in open defecation practices with increasing age has been noted [ 36 ]. Older individuals are less likely to indulge in open defecation due to lower mobility, a greater awareness of their health state [ 14 , 37 ], and the nature of the African culture that prohibits young people from seeing older individuals naked [ 38 ]. The odds of practising OD decreased with increased wealth status, indicating that higher socio-economic status largely reduced the odds of practicing OD. Wealthy individuals have enough resources to finance the construction and maintenance of latrines, which improves their sanitation practices [ 10 , 14 ]. These findings corroborate research conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, which found wealth to be one of the enablers of better sanitation [ 14 , 36 ]. Additionally, studies in Chad and India reported economic hardship as the primary limitation to latrine ownership and maintenance, thus increasing the rate of open defecation [ 31 , 36 ]. This finding is attributable to the fact that poor households will likely prioritise spending on food and household essentials over long-term investments like sanitation infrastructure[ 39 , 40 ]. Moreover, households belonging to clusters with a high poverty level were more likely to practice open defecation compared to clusters with low poverty levels. Households may have the necessary skills and resources to build sanitation facilities, but living in a community dominated by poor households may reduce collective action and the motive to build structures required to uphold proper sanitation. These findings emphasise the determinants influencing sanitation behaviour and practices at the community level [ 14 ]. Households with unimproved water sources were more likely to practice open defecation than those with improved water sources. Poor water supply can discourage good hygiene practices and is often coupled with inadequate sanitation facilities [ 4 , 41 , 42 ]. These findings imply the need for integrated WASH interventions that simultaneously target water, sanitation, and hygiene [ 15 , 41 ]. Households with more than 4 members had lower odds of practising open defecation than households with 4 or more members. Larger families can pool resources and provide labour for latrine construction and maintenance. This suggests that households with larger sizes can promote sharing resources, monitoring sanitation behaviour, or even collaborative latrine construction; a finding supported by previous studies in Ethiopia [ 34 , 43 ] and Uganda[ 33 ]. In contrast, a survey by Osumanu et al. suggested that households with larger sizes are more likely to practice open defecation because of the greater burden of prioritising basic needs, thus impacting their overall capacity to construct latrines within their homes [ 40 ]. Similarly, households with a large family size may negatively impact latrine sanitation and hygiene, reducing latrine utilisation and encouraging open defecation [ 37 ]. There were wide disparities in the distribution of open defecation practices across various regions. The prevalence was highest in Sud-Ouest and lowest in the Centre region. Centre-Est and Centre-Sud had the highest odds of practising open defecation compared to the Sahel. Sud-Ouest, Centre-Est, and Centre-Sud are predominantly rural regions, while the Centre region, which hosts the capital city, Ouagadougou, is urban. The difference in the prevalence and odds of open defecation can be attributed to the varying levels of urbanisation [ 10 , 14 ]. Urban regions usually have better access to sanitation infrastructure, clean water, improved latrine coverage, and are more exposed to public healthcare messaging on the risks of OD [ 21 ]. Rural areas of Burkina Faso have poor access to clean water, which is necessary for cleaning after defecation; its absence encourages open defecation [ 44 ]. The study findings indicate variations in sanitation achievements across Burkina Faso's regions, aligning with trends in increased open defecation in rural areas observed in Ghana, Ethiopia, and Nigeria [ 14 , 17 , 45 ]. Frequently, geographical remoteness, insecurity, and marginalisation give rise to circumstances that lead to insufficient investment in rural WASH facilities [ 33 , 43 ]. Policy Implications The findings of this study have several implications for programming, policy, and implementation in Burkina Faso. Wealth-based inequality in OD prevalence necessitates pro-poor strategies to increase toilet coverage. These must be targeted at rural households and the lower wealth quartiles associated with a high prevalence of OD compared to urban residents and the poor, respectively. Due to the protective effect of education, public health agencies must make education on sanitation and sanitation a part of school curricula and adult literacy programs that will empower the community with sustainable knowledge on sanitation across generations. The government and stakeholders should also focus on creating social behavioural changes, such as adopting good hygiene and sanitation practices. Investment in water systems must be followed by sanitation improvements, particularly in remote regions such as Est and Sud-Ouest, where infrastructural shortfalls are highest compared to urban areas. The uneven geographical and ethnic distribution of OD calls for region and ethnic group-specific interventions, such as community mobilisation, proportionate budget release, and culture-sensitive localised interventions. The study indicates that women are pivotal in promoting good sanitation practices; Sanitation interventions should empower the locals as change agents through training, local leadership, and economic empowerment initiatives. Strengths and Limitations This study’s main strength is that it uses weighted nationally representative BDHS datasets and large sample sizes, thus making the findings generalisable to the Burkina Faso population. Another strength of the study is the use of the multilevel regression model, which took into account the nested nature of the BDHS data within clusters and the variation within regions in Burkina Faso. However, some limitations must be acknowledged. Social desirability bias could have shaped how the study participants responded to some of the critical questions. This limits the reliance on self-reported OD behaviour. The cross-sectional nature of the data limits the ability to draw causal inference. Moreover, the datasets lacked some key variables essential for explaining sanitation behaviours, such as the availability of soap and distance to latrines, limiting the ability to fully account for the contextual and behavioural determinants of sanitation practices. Conclusion The study highlights a downward trend in the prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso across 2003, 2010, and 2021. However, OD remains a significant public health problem, especially among poor households, rural residents, those who practice traditional religion, those with unimproved water sources, and in some regions such as Sud-Ouest, Sahel, Centre Sud, and Est. On the contrary, older household heads, female-headed households, higher education attainment, higher wealth index, and improved water sources were associated with reduced odds of practising open defecation. The complete eradication of open defecation in Burkina Faso will require equity-based interventions that focus on gender-sensitive strategies, vulnerable rural and low-income populations, reinforcement of educational and behavioural change initiatives, and increased access to affordable and sustainable sanitation facilities to shape hygiene behaviours. Additionally, significant political commitment, community involvement, and resource investment are needed to achieve national sanitation coverage, which is in line with SDG 6. Abbreviations OD Open defecation ODF Open defecation-free CLTS Community-led total sanitation WASH Water, sanitation, and hygiene OR Odds ratio AOR Adjusted Odds Ratio UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund CI Confidence interval SSA Sub-Saharan Africa LMICs Low and middle-income countries SDGs Sustainable Development Goals NGO Non-Governmental Organization PD WASH-Programme Division -WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) Declarations The study utilised data from the publicly available Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) datasets. The program had already obtained ethical approval for each survey at the data collection point, ensuring all procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. The ethical approval was granted by the ICF International (USA) Institutional Review Board (IRB) and by the national ethics review body in Burkina Faso, the Comité d’Éthique pour la Recherche en Santé [24–26]. Informed consent was obtained from all participants during the original data collection process. Ethics and Approval The study utilised data from the publicly available Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) datasets. The program had already obtained ethical approval for each survey at the data collection point, ensuring all procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. The ethical approval was granted by the ICF International (USA) Institutional Review Board (IRB) and by the national ethics review body in Burkina Faso, the Comité d’Éthique pour la Recherche en Santé [24–26]. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials Data was accessed upon approval of the request submitted to the BDHS website [23]. Competing interests All the authors declare that they have no known competing interests. Funding This work did not receive any funding. Authors' contributions. GR, BK, and CN analysed the data with inputs from JOO, CA, ST, and SO. CA, JOO, CN, SO, and ST conceptualized and supervised this study. GR and BK drafted the initial version of the manuscript, which was subsequently revised by CA, JOO, SO, and CN. All authors read, revised, reviewed, and approved the final manuscript for publication. Acknowledgement We acknowledge the MEASURE DHS for granting access to the BDHS datasets. References Open defecation | JMP. https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation/open-defecation. Accessed 21 May 2025. Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, 2000-2020: Five years into the SDGs. UNICEF DATA. 2021. https://data.unicef.org/resources/progress-on-household-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-2000-2020/. Accessed 12 July 2025. Appiah-Effah E, Boakye K, Salihu T, Duku GA, Fenteng JO-D, Boateng G, et al. Determinants of Open Defecation Among Rural Women in Ghana: Analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys. 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Kouassi HAA, Andrianisa HA, Traoré MB, Sossou SK, Momo Nguematio R, Ymélé SSS, et al. Review of the slippage factors from open defecation-free (ODF) status towards open defecation (OD) after the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach implementation. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2023;250:114160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114160. World Bank. World Bank Open Data. World Bank Open Data. 2024. https://data.worldbank.org. Accessed 28 Dec 2025. World Bank Open Data. World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org. Accessed 28 Sept 2025. Burkina Faso - Demographic and Health Survey 2021. https://microdata.insd.bf/index.php/catalog/59. Accessed 19 Aug 2025. Annual reports from country offices, regional offices, and headquarters divisions | UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/reports/country-regional-divisional-annual-reports. Accessed 13 July 2025. Country (or area) | SDG 6 Data. https://www.sdg6data.org/en/country-or-area/Burkina%20Faso. Accessed 17 July 2025. The DHS Program - Country Main. https://dhsprogram.com/countries/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=50&c=Burkina%20Faso. Accessed 20 Oct 2025. Demographic and Health Survey. Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey report 2003. DHS. Demographic and Health Survey(DHS). Demographic Survey and Health and Multiple Indicator Clusters (EDSBF-MICS IV) 2010. Demographic and Health Survey. Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey 2021 Report. DHS. StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software" or "Stata 2017 ". A Stata Press Publication StataCorp LLC College Station, Texas. STATA MULTILEVEL MIXED EFFECTS REFERENCE MANUAL RELEASE 17. 17th edition. A Stata Press Publication StataCorp LLC College Station, Texas. NATIONAL ODF KENYA 2020 CAMPAIGN FRAMEWORK. How is UNICEF Senegal supporting the community to end open defecation | UNICEF West and Central Africa. https://www.unicef.org/wca/stories/how-unicef-senegal-supporting-community-end-open-defecation. Accessed 22 July 2025. Mangueina D, Awuah E, Fonteh MF, Antwi-Agyei P, Nadji ET. Assessment of current water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices in the third and ninth districts of N’Djamena, Chad. Journal of Water and Health. 2024;22:414–35. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.324. Nanyim JK, Mutaru A-M, Gbeti C, Issahaku AR, Abubakari A, Wumbei A. Socio-cultural and economic determinants of Latrine ownership and utilisation: a community-based survey in Bole district of Ghana. BMC Public Health. 2024;24:3027. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20521-w. Ntaro M, Owokuhaisa J, Isunju JB, Mulogo E, Ssempebwa JC. Contextual and psychological factors influencing open defecation free status: an exploratory qualitative study in rural South Western Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2022;22:414. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12759-z. Donacho DO, Tucho GT, Hailu AB. Households’ access to safely managed sanitation facility and its determinant factors in Jimma town, Ethiopia. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. 2022;12:217–26. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.003. Caruso BA, Conrad A, Patrick M, Owens A, Kviten K, Zarella O, et al. Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis. PLOS Water. 2022;1:e0000026. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026. Seth P, Pingali P. Addressing information and credit barriers to making India open defecation free and improving child health: Evidence from a cluster randomized trial in rural India. PLoS One. 2025;20:e0318198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318198. Abebe TA, Tucho GT. Open defecation-free slippage and its associated factors in Ethiopia: a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2020;9:252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01511-6. Mbele J. The Elder in African Society: The View from Folklore and Literature. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships. 2004;2:53–61. https://doi.org/10.1300/J194v02n03_05. Adjibolosoo SV, Ofori BD, Adongo PB, Afranie S, Yirenya-Tawiah DR. The influence of culture on open defaecation in some basic schools in selected districts in Ghana: A preliminary study. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0239491. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239491. Osumanu IK, Kosoe EA, Ategeeng F. Determinants of Open Defecation in the Wa Municipality of Ghana: Empirical Findings Highlighting Sociocultural and Economic Dynamics among Households. J Environ Public Health. 2019;2019:3075840. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3075840. Aluko OO. The dynamics of household sanitation services and faeco-oral diseases externalities in Osun State, southwest Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2025;119:228–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/trstmh/trae101. Jin Y, Cha S, Kim Y, Hamdan HM, Elhag MS, Ismail HAHA, et al. Association Between the Prevalence of Schistosomiasis in Elementary School Students and Their Parental Occupation in Sudan. Korean J Parasitol. 2022;60:51–6. https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2022.60.1.51. Ajemu KF, Desta AA, Berhe AA, Woldegebriel AG, Bezabih NM. Latrine Ownership and Its Determinants in Rural Villages of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia: Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study. J Environ Public Health. 2020;2020:2123652. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2123652. Bank AD. Burkina Faso - Water and Sanitation Services Improvement Project for Resilience Building (PASEPA - 2R) - Project Appraisal Report. African Development Bank Group. 2022. https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/burkina-faso-water-and-sanitation-services-improvement-project-resilience-building-pasepa-2r-project-appraisal-report. Accessed 13 July 2025. Gayawan E, Somo-Aina O, Kuti O. Analysis of the space-time trends in open defecation in Nigeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023;30:68524–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26161-8. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3105561,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRegional prevalence of open defecation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fgure2ODPrevalenceBurkinaFaso200320102021.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8920802/v1/ebfdbf93210709e84712cd89.png"},{"id":104397568,"identity":"0c320c9b-188a-43a2-8fd1-931885db3e98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 11:52:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":12147923,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8920802/v1/38e210aa-f5e8-45e5-9b76-351ede38afef.pdf"},{"id":103505931,"identity":"4a39579a-7803-4818-9d1a-8b618e70a8cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-26 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Surveys","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eOpen defecation (OD) is the disposal of human faecal matter in open fields, forests, water bodies, or any other place not enclosed or explicitly built for sanitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In 2020, about 494\u0026nbsp;million people worldwide practised OD, with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) accounting for over 204\u0026nbsp;million people, representing more than 41% of the global burden[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. This practice remains a critical global public health concern, contributing to about 1.6\u0026nbsp;million deaths yearly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. It is estimated that about 842,000 people in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) die annually from diarrhoeal diseases due to poor sanitation and hygiene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOD poses health and socio-economic risks to the general population. OD pollutes surface and groundwater sources, leading to waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera, and adverse pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In Burkina Faso, diarrhoea is a major contributor to death in children under 5 years of age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], with recurrent infections leading to chronic under-nutrition and stunting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Economically, the burden of OD is substantial; in Burkina Faso alone, it costs the country approximately 2% of its gross domestic product (GDP) per year due to lost productivity, healthcare expenditures, environmental deterioration, and reduced educational achievement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Eliminating the practice of OD is vital in improving health outcomes, nutrition, and productivity in low-income countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the number of households practising OD in the SSA has reduced significantly, from 207\u0026nbsp;million in 2015 to 193\u0026nbsp;million in 2022 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], the practice remains widespread, especially in rural areas. These settings lack essential sanitation services, with 65% practising OD and only 12% having access to improved latrines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The lack of basic sanitation services in rural areas can be attributed to several factors, including inadequate infrastructure, poverty, cultural differences, and low educational and income levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso has made significant progress in reducing the prevalence of OD over the years. Between 2015 and 2022, the national prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso decreased from 46% to 34% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. This reduction can be attributed to measures implemented by the Burkina Faso government in collaboration with international organisations, such as UNICEF, which have adopted strategies and action plans to achieve SDG 6.2, focusing on access to equitable sanitation and the elimination of open defecation by 2030 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The Burkina Faso government, Association for Peace and Solidarity (APS), and World Vision have been implementing Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) since 2014 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. This national strategy(CLTS) was developed through consultation with sanitation sector stakeholders (PD-WASH) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite the measures implemented, the country has not yet achieved an open defecation-free status (ODF) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. As per the Burkina Faso UNICEF Country Office Annual Report (COAR), the prevalence reflects a country in dire need of proper sanitation interventions that address the infrastructure challenge and the barriers to utilising the available sanitation infrastructure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral regional studies have been conducted to identify the determinants of OD in SSA [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Although these regional studies have identified key determinants of open defecation, such as poverty, low education, rural residence, and limited access to water sources, they are essentially cross-country or multi-regional in their focus. Previous studies in Burkina Faso have only assessed OD-related gaps, factors leading to slippage in ODF status, and barriers to maintaining CLTS outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. As such, there are limited country-specific, up-to-date, nationally representative studies that can inform context-specific interventions in Burkina Faso.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examines the trend in prevalence and determinants of OD practices in Burkina Faso at the individual, household, and community levels across 2003, 2010, and 2021. The findings will guide public health officials, policymakers, development partners, and healthcare practitioners in developing evidence-based interventions to reduce open defecation. This will go a long way toward stepping up efforts to achieve SDG 6.2 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Setting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso is a low-income country in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a GDP per capita of \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e982, and a modest growth of 4.8% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. It is a landlocked country with a population of approximately 23\u0026nbsp;million as of 2024 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]; 70% live in rural areas. Burkina Faso is divided into 13 primary administrative regions, 45 provinces, and 351 communes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. It has diverse cultural norms across its ethnic groups, influencing sanitation practices (12). According to the 2023 WHO/UNICEF joint monitoring program report, only 24% of the population has access to basic sanitation services, and a mere 8% benefit from safely managed sanitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The SDG 6.2 indicator shows that only 10% of the population in Burkina Faso met this standard in 2022, underscoring the country\u0026rsquo;s struggle to achieve global sanitation targets [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Design and Data Sources\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe analysed secondary data from the 2003, 2010, and 2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Surveys (BDHS). The study utilised household (HR) and individual women's recode (IR) files. The datasets were sourced from the DHS program\u0026rsquo;s public repository on its website [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. The BDHS is a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey designed to provide reliable information for guiding policy and program development in Burkina Faso. The three surveys employed a stratified two-stage cluster sampling design to achieve national and subnational representativeness. Trained enumerators collected the data through standardised household and women's questionnaires. Enumeration (clusters) areas were selected in the first stage using probability proportional to size based on the number of households in the most recent General Population and Housing Census. In the first stage, 400 clusters (2003) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] and 574 clusters (2010) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] were selected; both of which were successfully interviewed. In 2021, 600 clusters were selected in the first stage, but only 572 were successfully surveyed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. In the second stage, 10,000 households (2003), 14,947 households (2010) and 18,304 households (2021) were surveyed. Eligible participants in each survey included all women aged 15\u0026ndash;49 years and men aged 15\u0026ndash;59 who were usual residents or had spent the night in the selected household. Further details regarding the BDHS methods and sampling are published on the official DHS website [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy population and sample size\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population consisted of households and their de facto members, included in the 2003, 2010, and 2021 BDHS. We merged two datasets (IR and HR recodes) from the three surveys to create a unified dataset containing household and individual-level characteristics. We carried out data cleaning to remove missing observations and inconsistencies. In the 2003 survey, 7,241 participants were included after 90 participants with missing observations were dropped. Our final sample sizes consisted of 7,241 participants (2003), 16,930 (2010) and 10,987 participants (2021), after missing observations were dropped.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOutcome variable\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dependent variable, \u003cem\u003eopen defecation\u003c/em\u003e, was operationalised as the \u0026ldquo;disposing of human faecal matter in open fields, forests, water bodies, or any other place not enclosed or modified to dispose of faeces\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The head of the households were asked, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThe type of toilet facility that members of their households use\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026rdquo; and the responses given were as follows; \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eventilated improved pit latrine (vip), pit latrine with slab, pit latrine without slab/open pit, no facility/bush/field, composting toilet, hanging toilet/latrine flush to piped sewer system, flush to septic tank, flush to pit latrine, flush to somewhere else, flush don't know where and other\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; Those whose response was \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eno facility/bush/field\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; were classified as \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eopen defecation\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026rdquo; while other responses were jointly defined as \u0026ldquo;improved.\u0026rdquo; We then coded \u0026ldquo;open defecation\u0026rdquo; as \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e and \u0026ldquo;improved\u0026rdquo; as \u003cem\u003e0.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExplanatory Variables\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExplanatory variables were selected based on literature reviews [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], their availability in the dataset, and relevance to sanitation and hygiene practices. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the operational definition of the explanatory variables included in the model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription of Independent Variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource Dataset\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of HH Head\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of the household head (male, female) as it was recorded in the dataset\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of HH Head\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDerived from the age of household head as reported from the DHS questionnaire recoded into four categories (15\u0026ndash;29, 30\u0026ndash;44, 45\u0026ndash;59, 60\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation Level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the highest level of formal education (no education, primary, secondary+) attained by the household head.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital Status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent marital status of the household head, categorized as being in union or not in union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlace of Residence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicates whether the household is located in an urban or rural area according to DHS classification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth Index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategorized as poor, middle, rich, richest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the self-reported religion during interview (Traditional, Muslim, and Christian)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the 13 the tribes of Burkina Faso (Bobo, Dioula, Fulfulde, Gourmantch\u0026eacute;, Gourounsi, Lobi, Mossi, Senoufo, Touareg and other nomadic groups, Dagara, Bissa, and others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the 13 administrative units of Burkina Faso (Centre, Boucle du Mouhoun, Cascades, Centre-Est, Centre-Nord, Centre-Ouest, Centre-Sud, Est, Hauts-Bassins, Nord, Plateau Central, Sahel, and Sud-Ouest)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReads\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNewspaper\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicates whether the household head reads newspapers or magazines at least occasionally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWatches TV\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicates whether the household head watches television at least occasionally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eListens to Radio\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicates whether the household head listens to radio programs at least occasionally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUses Internet\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaptures whether the household head or respondent uses the internet. This variable is available only in the 2010 and 2021 BDHS datasets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDrinking\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWater Source\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategorized as improved or unimproved based on the reported household water source.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold Size\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal number of members living in the household, grouped into \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4 and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4 members\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommunity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth Index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructed by aggregating individual household wealth data at the cluster level. For each cluster, the proportion of households classified as poor was calculated and grouped into tertiles to form low, moderate, and high poverty categories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommunity Literacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenerated from the proportion of household heads education level within each cluster who had at least primary education. The proportions were divided into categories to represent low, moderate, and high literacy levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cem\u003eHR=Household recode,IR=Individual recode,HH=Household. Constructed =variables that were generated from the household or individual variables through aggregation.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTATA version 17 (Stata Corporation, College Station, Texas) was used for data cleaning, and analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Sample characteristics were summarised in frequencies and percentages. The weighted prevalence of OD was derived by assigning weights to the sample size using the provided survey weights in the dataset, ensuring the analysis is nationally representative, account for unequal sampling probabilities, and adjusted for non-response. The prevalence was then summarised into weighted proportions and 95% confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour models of multilevel logistic regression were fitted: model 0 (null model), model 1(individual level model) containing individual level characteristics, model 2 (contextual level model) containing individual and household level characteristics, model 3 (full model) containing the individual, household and community level characteristics. Before fitting the variables in the multilevel models, we evaluated for multicollinearity among the predictor variables using the variance inflation factor (VIF) cutoff of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 and tolerance cutoff of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.1[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] suggesting absence of multicollinearity between the independent variables. A multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model was employed to identify the determinants of open defecation. This modelling approach was chosen to account for the hierarchical structure of the data. We used the varying-intercept model with no predictors (null model) to determine whether our data showed evidence of clustering or group effects, which revealed cluster-level variation in OD. A Likelihood Ratio (LR) test was done to compare the standard logistic regression with the multilevel logistic regression analysis. Multilevel logistic regression model had a p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 indicating that the multilevel logistic model was significantly better than the standard logistic regression model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe model fit was determined using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), with lower values indicating better model fit. The null model served as a baseline, and the improvements between Models 1,2 and 3, were assessed based on the lower values of AIC and BIC to indicate the best model fit. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) provided insight into the relative importance of community-level variables in influencing OD practises. Statistical significance was set at a p value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. The findings of the determinants of open defecation practices were reported as odds ratio with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study included 7,241 households in 2003, 16,930 in 2010, and 10,987 in 2021. Across all three years, a higher proportion of the households were headed by males, aged between 30\u0026ndash;44 years, had no formal education, were in a union, belonged to the Mossi ethnic group, and resided in rural areas. Additionally, a higher proportion of the households did not read newspapers, did not listen to the radio, had a household size of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4 members, had access to improved water sources, and had low community literacy (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7,241)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16,930)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10,987)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge of HH head\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;29 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,019 (14.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,136 (12.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,408 (12.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;44 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,759 (38.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,475 (38.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,581 (41.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;59 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,113 (29.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,428 (32.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,021 (27.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,350 (18.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,891 (17.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,977 (18.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of HH head\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,639 (91.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15,297 (90.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,544 (86.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e602 (8.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,633 (9.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,443 (13.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation (HH head)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,898 (81.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13,022 (76.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,292 (66.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e783 (10.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,206 (13.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,786 (16.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e560 (7.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,702 (10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,909 (17.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status (HH head)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,482 (89.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13,267 (78.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,010 (91.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot in union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e759 (10.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,663 (21.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e977 (8.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWealth index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,827 (39.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,866 (34.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,914 (35.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,703 (23.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,245 (19.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,192 (20.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,711 (37.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,819 (46.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,881 (44.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,644 (22.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,314 (31.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,874 (35.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,597 (77.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,616 (68.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,113 (64.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e556 (7.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,147 (6.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350 (3.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoucle de Mouhoun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e545 (7.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,338 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e948 (8.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Sud\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e506 (7.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,144 (6.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e749 (6.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlateau Central\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600 (8.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,235 (7.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e840 (7.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Est\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e540 (7.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,249 (7.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,007 (9.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Nord\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e572 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,142 (6.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e737 (6.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Ouest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e599 (8.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,518 (9.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e965 (8.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEst\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e571 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,340 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e592 (5.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNord\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e572 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,283 (7.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e877 (8.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCascades\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e516 (7.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,098 (6.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e605 (5.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHauts-Bassins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e555 (7.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,543 (9.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,168 (10.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e574 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,689 (10.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,334 (12.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSud-Ouest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e535 (7.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,204 (7.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e815 (7.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNewspaper readership\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e541 (7.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,644 (9.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e730 (6.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,700 (92.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15,286 (90.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,257 (93.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eListen to radio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,251 (31.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,831 (28.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,319 (39.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,990 (68.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12,099 (71.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,668 (60.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWatches TV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,595 (77.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,358 (67.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,435 (58.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,646 (22.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,572 (32.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,552 (41.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUses Internet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138 (0.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,464 (86.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16,792 (99.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,523 (13.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional/None\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,032 (14.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,716 (69.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e565 (5.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,221 (30.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,067 (6.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,578 (32.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuslim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,988 (55.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,147 (24.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,844 (62.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBobo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e196 (2.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e644 (3.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e370 (3.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDioula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e464 (6.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154 (0.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (0.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFulfulde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e495 (6.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,348 (8.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e688 (6.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGourmantche\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e522 (7.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,039 (6.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e493 (4.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGourounsi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e320 (4.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e786 (4.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e590 (5.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLobi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e559 (7.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e614 (3.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e217 (2.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMossi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,683 (50.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,852 (52.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,758 (52.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSenoufo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379 (5.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e895 (5.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e268 (2.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTouareg/Bella\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113 (1.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254 (1.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (0.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDagara\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e555 (3.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e385 (3.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBissa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e318 (4.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e668 (4.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e620 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192 (2.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,121 (6.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,503 (13.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4 members\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,942 (26.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,017 (23.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,984 (27.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4 members\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,299 (73.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12,913 (76.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,003 (72.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,242 (86.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13,514 (79.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,248 (84.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnimproved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e999 (13.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,416 (20.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,739 (15.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCluster poverty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,440 (33.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,658 (33.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,658 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,403 (33.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,761 (34.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,720 (33.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,398 (33.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,511 (32.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,609 (32.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity literacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,510 (34.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,681 (33.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,740 (34.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,332 (32.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,621 (33.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,705 (33.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,399 (33.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,628 (33.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,542 (32.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNote: HH=House hold, \u0026mdash; =the variable was not available for the given year\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrend in the weighted prevalence of open defecation practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eFigure 1\u003c/span\u003e presents the trend in the weighted prevalence of OD across the three survey years. The overall prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso was 70.3% in 2003, 59.4% in 2010, and 33% in 2021.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Fig.\u0026nbsp;1: Prevalence trends of open defecation practices in Burkina Faso (2003\u0026ndash;2021).\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePrevalence of open defecation practices by sample characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the prevalence of OD by sample characteristics. Across the three years, the prevalence of open defecation was consistently high among male-headed households, individuals aged 15\u0026ndash;29, individuals from the poorest households, individuals with no formal education, and among rural residents (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the prevalence of open defecation was highest among the Mossi ethnic group, those with a household size of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4 members, those with an unimproved water source, communities with high cluster poverty, and communities with high levels of illiteracy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalence of open defecation practices by sample characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e% (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e% (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(% (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOpen defecation (Overall)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.3 (66.7,73.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.4 (57.2,61.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.0 (30.8,35.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge of HH head\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;29 yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.1 (71.1,80.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.8 (63.7,69.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.7 (36.7,44.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;44 yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.1 (61.5,70.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.5 (56.0,61.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.4 (29.1,33.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;59 yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.3 (66.4,73.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.5 (55.3,61.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1 (29.3,35.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.8 (70.4,78.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.2 (52.5,61.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.6 (29.5,35.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of HH head\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.2 (68.8,75.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.0 (58.8,63.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.1 (31.8,36.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.1 (41.5,56.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.3 (38.9,47.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.4 (22.1,29.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation (HH head)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.6 (75.9,81.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.8 (66.5,70.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.7 (38.0,43.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.9 (43.6,56.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.5 (37.5,45.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.7 (23.8,29.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6 (6.5,13.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 (7.4,11.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5 (7.9,11.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status (HH head)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.5 (69.1,75.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.0 (61.8,66.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.4 (31.1,35.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot in union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.8 (42.6,57.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.5 (38.3,44.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.8 (24.9,33.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.9 (99.5,100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.9 (96.0,97.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.2 (62.8,69.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.6 (82.7,89.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.4 (75.1,81.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.7 (29.5,36.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.2 (21.4,29.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7 (18.6,22.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8 (4.9,6.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResidence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6 (4.1,10.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8 (8.7,13.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 (4.4,6.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.3 (82.5,87.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.2 (74.7,79.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.3 (43.2,49.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.0 (6.6,24.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8 (6.4,11.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 (2.8,7.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoucle du Mouhoun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.0 (54.3,77.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.6 (51.4,69.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.4 (28.0,43.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCascades\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.6 (43.0,72.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.8 (45.7,61.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 (9.9,21.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Est\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.7 (74.8,91.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.8 (75.8,86.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.4 (38.6,52.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Nord\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.2 (75.0,91.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.3 (68.7,80.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.9 (37.6,56.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Ouest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.5 (67.7,86.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.0 (67.0,81.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.3 (36.3,50.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Sud\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.3 (80.1,95.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.3 (78.8,88.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.3 (42.1,60.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEst\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.0 (92.3,98.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.7 (87.7,94.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.0 (51.2,68.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHauts-Bassins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.2 (30.5,56.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.5 (25.8,39.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.0 (9.9,19.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNord\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.5 (63.7,82.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.9 (52.5,70.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.5 (29.3,48.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlateau Central\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.1 (79.7,94.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.2 (43.4,64.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.5 (32.3,49.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.4 (71.4,89.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.6 (79.1,88.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.0 (25.7,75.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSud-Ouest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.7 (82.2,95.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.3 (76.7,86.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.2 (51.5,68.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBobo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.3 (36.9,73.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.2 (38.5,58.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.7 (23.6,45.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDioula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.4 (39.4,61.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1 (20.2,46.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 (3.0,20.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFulfulde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.3 (70.3,86.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.9 (75.2,84.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.0 (47.5,66.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGourmantch\u0026eacute;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.9 (92.5,97.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.5 (86.3,93.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.3 (47.1,65.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGourounsi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.0 (52.3,77.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.9 (54.5,72.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.7 (36.8,52.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLobi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.3 (77.6,89.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4 (66.3,84.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.1 (44.8,76.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMossi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.1 (62.2,71.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.6 (50.4,56.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.8 (24.2,29.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSenoufo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.0 (47.4,73.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.9 (41.7,58.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.8 (16.6,40.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTouareg/Other nomadic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.7 (46.8,86.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.0 (90.6,97.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.2 (35.9,95.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDagara\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.6 (53.7,72.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.3 (27.7,45.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBissa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.5 (66.4,85.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.4 (61.5,76.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.1 (32.4,48.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.7 (47.9,73.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.5 (31.6,47.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.8 (22.6,33.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNewspaper readership\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 (8.9,19.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 (10.1,14.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8 (7.7,12.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.8 (71.7,77.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.4 (62.2,66.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.7 (32.4,37.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eListening to Radio\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.9 (82.9,88.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.0 (68.1,73.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.8 (36.7,42.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.9 (58.6,66.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.4 (52.0,56.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.6 (26.3,31.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWatching TV\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.8 (80.3,85.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4 (74.3,78.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.1 (44.2,50.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8 (20.7,31.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2 (21.4,27.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5 (11.9,15.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUses Internet\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.0 (35.5,40.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.0 (57.8,62.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 (3.0,5.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.2 (94.4,97.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.5 (57.9,63.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.8 (58.1,72.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuslim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.0 (62.1,69.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.0 (52.4,59.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.4 (26.8,32.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.0 (61.8,73.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.2 (52.8,65.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.3 (33.1,39.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold size\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4 members\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.8 (63.1,72.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.9 (55.3,60.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2 (24.9,29.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4 members\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.2 (67.7,74.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.8 (57.3,62.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.2 (32.7,37.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWater source\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.1 (62.2,69.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.2 (50.8,55.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3 (27.2,31.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnimproved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.4 (92.2,97.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.6 (78.1,84.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.2 (47.0,57.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCluster poverty\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.4 (20.2,33.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6 (10.9,16.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6 (2.7,4.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.6 (78.9,87.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.0 (65.2,72.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.9 (33.1,41.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.4 (94.9,97.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.7 (89.6,93.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.5 (54.2,62.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommunity literacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.0 (84.8,92.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.8 (81.6,87.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.3 (46.7,55.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.4 (79.7,88.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.7 (61.6,71.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.2 (32.7,41.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.2 (26.3,41.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4 (20.1,29.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7 (6.3,11.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNote: HH=House hold, \u0026mdash; =the variable was not available for the given year\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrends in the prevalence of OD by region\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eFigure 2\u003c/span\u003e presents the trends in the prevalence of OD by region. In 2003, OD prevalence in Burkina Faso was generally high across all regions, with Est (97.0%), Centre-Sud (90.3%), and Sud-Ouest (90.7%) showing the highest rates, while the Centre region (13.0%) recorded the lowest (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). In 2010, there was a slight reduction in OD prevalence, though Est (91.7%), Centre-Sud (84.3%), and Sahel (84.6%) regions recorded high rates. The Centre region (8.8%) recorded the lowest rates (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). On the other hand, in 2021, there was a marked reduction in the prevalence of OD, with Centre (4.6%) recording the lowest rates. However, regions such as Est (60.0%), Sud-Ouest (60.2%), and Centre-Sud (51.3%) still recorded the highest prevalence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e(Fig.\u0026nbsp;2: Regional prevalence of open defecation)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeterminants of open defecation in Burkina Faso\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 4 had the best fit, with the lowest AIC (9907.33) and lowest BIC (10266.48) in the 2021 dataset compared to models 1, 2, and 3. Model 4 had individual, household, and community variables. The ICC significantly decreased from 0.587 in the null model to 0.249 in the final model; inclusion of individual level, household level, and community level variables substantially reduced cluster-level variation in OD and enhanced the performance of the model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of the multilevel logistic regression analyses for the factors associated with OD between 2003 and 2021. Across the survey years, female-headed households had lower odds of practising open defecation compared to male-headed households. Across all the years, older household heads aged 60\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.55, 95%CI: 0.44, 0.69) had the lowest odds of practising open defecation compared to younger household heads aged 15\u0026ndash;29 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the 2021 survey, being in a union and having a secondary+ level of education were protective. Those not in a union (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.33, 95%CI: 1.02, 1.72) and those who did not have any level of education had higher odds of practising open defecation. Moreover, the richest category had the lowest odds of practising OD (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01, 95% CI:0.005,0.01). Households with less than four members had higher odds of OD compared to households with more than four members (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80, 95% CI:0.69,0.94). Those with unimproved water sources had higher odds (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.36, 95% CI: 1.15,1.61) of OD than those with improved water sources. Regional disparities were notable, with Centre-Est (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.94, 95% CI: 2.09, 7.42) and Centre-Sud (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.36, 95% CI: 1.75, 6.48) showing the highest odds compared to Sahel. Households from communities with a high level of community poverty had increased odds of OD (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.36, 95% CI: 1.37, 4.07) as compared to those with low level of community poverty.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors Associated with Open Defecation in Burkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2003\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eaOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eaOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eaOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold head age\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79 (0.52,1.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95 (0.76,1.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83 (0.69,1.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68 (0.44,1.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74 (0.58,0.94) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60 (0.49,0.75) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63 (0.38,1.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60 (0.45,0.79) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55 (0.44,0.69) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSex of household head\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61 (0.38,1.00) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82 (0.64,1.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74 (0.59,0.93) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05 (0.73,1.52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03 (0.84,1.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88 (0.74,1.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary or higher\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52 (0.27,1.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68 (0.50,0.94) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76 (0.59,0.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarital status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot in union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07 (0.67,1.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04 (0.87,1.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33 (1.02,1.72) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWealth index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001 (0.0002,0.01) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07 (0.06,0.09) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25 (0.21,0.28) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRich\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002(0.00003,0.001)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01 (0.007,0.01) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08 (0.06,0.10) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRichest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00001(0.000001,0.00008) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0006(0.0004,0.0009) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01 (0.005,0.01) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResidence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.35 (1.14,4.86) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.08 (1.19,3.61) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13 (0.75,1.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoucle du Mouhoun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52 (0.18,1.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88 (0.36,2.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (0.48,1.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCascades\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59 (0.17,2.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37 (1.28,8.84) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (0.43,1.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Est\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.98 (4.31,39.04) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.69 (8.17,52.41) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94 (2.09,7.42) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Nord\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.06 (0.70,6.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.95 (1.19,7.31) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96 (1.01,3.79) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Ouest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.02 (1.39,11.61) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.14(4.05,25.37) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.04(1.09,3.84) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentre-Sud\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.08 (4.69,48.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.17(6.35,41.20) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.36 (1.75,6.48) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEst\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12 (1.24,30.26) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.66(5.44,45.10) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.88(1.28,6.46) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHauts Bassins\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48 (0.15,1.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41 (0.16,1.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62 (0.32,1.21)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNord\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65 (0.23,1.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66 (0.68,4.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35 (0.70,2.62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlateau Central\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.59 (1.59,13.27) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12 (0.45,2.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.39 (1.26,4.52) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17(0.05,0.57) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53 (0.19,1.44)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09 (0.44,2.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSud-Ouest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79 (0.38,8.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.59 (1.55,13.62) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.94(1.38,6.26) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBobo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDioula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44 (0.13,1.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62 (0.28,1.42)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98 (0.26,3.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFulfulde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64 (0.18,2.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12 (0.64,1.95)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.20 (0.71,2.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGourmantche\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55 (0.11,2.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83 (0.39,1.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58 (0.29,1.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGourounsi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60 (0.15,2.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56 (0.29,1.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03 (0.58,1.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLobi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57 (0.12,2.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75 (0.31,1.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84 (0.36,1.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMossi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66 (0.21,2.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53 (0.32,0.87) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63 (0.40,1.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSenoufo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.15 (0.57,8.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (0.48,1.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77 (0.83,3.80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTouareg/Bella\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53 (0.09,3.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.96 (0.87,10.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.36 (0.56,20.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDagara\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21 (0.09,0.51) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44 (0.20,0.95) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBissa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12 (0.26,4.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03 (0.48,2.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08 (0.58,2.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42 (0.11,1.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02 (0.58,1.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71 (0.44,1.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReads newspaper\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42 (0.75,2.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57 (1.16,2.11) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11 (0.78,1.59)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eListens to radio\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.18 (0.87,1.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14 (0.97,1.33)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90 (0.80,1.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWatches television\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01 (0.71,1.44)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83(0.69,0.99) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86(0.74,1.00) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUses internet\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93 (0.66,1.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional/Other\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55 (0.29,1.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10 (0.78,1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66 (0.49,0.90) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuslim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43 (0.23,0.80) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.32 (1.09,1.60) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49 (0.36,0.68) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold size\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22 (0.87,1.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (0.77,1.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80 (0.69,0.94) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWater source\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnimproved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19 (0.66,2.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06 (0.87,1.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36 (1.15,1.61) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCluster poverty\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.77(1.49,5.16) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.59(1.50,4.47) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00 (1.25,3.19) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.40(2.93,13.99) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.99(2.60,9.59) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36 (1.37,4.07) **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCluster literacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.43 (0.83,2.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77 (0.50,1.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13 (0.86,1.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79 (0.41,1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67 (0.38,1.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99 (0.65,1.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e** p\u0026lt;.001, * p\u0026lt;.05\u003c/em\u003e | AOR- Adjusted odds ratio\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study examined the trends, determinants, and prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso across 2003, 2010, and 2021. Over time, the prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso has declined, from 69.8% in 2003 to 62.3% in 2010 and to 32.4% in 2021. The downward trend in the prevalence can be associated with the measures that have been put in place by the Burkina Faso government in collaboration with NGOs, such as UNICEF, which have adopted strategies and action plans to achieve SDG 6.2 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, the government has rolled out the CLTS program, which has gone a long way in improving sanitation behaviour [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite this significant progress, Burkina Faso still trails behind in combating open defecation. The prevalence rates established in this study are relatively higher compared to those in studies conducted in Kenya (23.5%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and Senegal (12.4%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], both of which have successfully implemented the CLTS. ODF rural initiative was Implemented in Kenya to achieve ODF status by 2020 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, Senegal has implemented community-led mapping and used locally available, low-cost materials, which have led to constructing proper latrines, thereby achieving ODF status[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso is comparatively lower than the rates recorded in Niger (72.7%)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], Chad (70.6%)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], and Ghana (49.5%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] ...The majority of the Niger population has limited access to sanitation facilities, with only 13% of the population having access to basic sanitation services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, Chad faces significant challenges in accessing safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, particularly in N\u0026rsquo;Djamena, which has led to open defecation becoming a widespread practice[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. A study by Nanyim et al. (2024) in the Bole district of Ghana reported that many households lacked the financial resources to hire labour and purchase materials for constructing latrines[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. These variations at regional scales can be attributed to country-level implementation and adherence to sanitation policies, donor funding levels, socio-economic development, and local population engagement[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study noted significant gender disparities in open defecation practices. Households headed by women had lower odds of practising open defecation compared to households headed by males. This finding is supported by a study conducted in Jimma Town, Ethiopia, which found that the presence of women in leadership roles within households may contribute to a more positive perception of sanitation as an essential attribute of household health and well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, women\u0026rsquo;s role as caregivers and domestic hygiene managers could contribute to more robust sanitation practices than their male counterparts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, a systematic review by Caruso highlighted the importance of gender norms and conventional women\u0026rsquo;s roles, including the duty of women to collect water, raise children, and maintain a clean home, which makes them more aware of the risks associated with poor sanitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study found an inverse association between the household head's age and open defecation. As the age of the household head increased, the odds of open defecation decreased. Similar trends have been reported in India, where a decrease in open defecation practices with increasing age has been noted [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Older individuals are less likely to indulge in open defecation due to lower mobility, a greater awareness of their health state [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], and the nature of the African culture that prohibits young people from seeing older individuals naked [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe odds of practising OD decreased with increased wealth status, indicating that higher socio-economic status largely reduced the odds of practicing OD. Wealthy individuals have enough resources to finance the construction and maintenance of latrines, which improves their sanitation practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings corroborate research conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, which found wealth to be one of the enablers of better sanitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, studies in Chad and India reported economic hardship as the primary limitation to latrine ownership and maintenance, thus increasing the rate of open defecation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. This finding is attributable to the fact that poor households will likely prioritise spending on food and household essentials over long-term investments like sanitation infrastructure[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, households belonging to clusters with a high poverty level were more likely to practice open defecation compared to clusters with low poverty levels. Households may have the necessary skills and resources to build sanitation facilities, but living in a community dominated by poor households may reduce collective action and the motive to build structures required to uphold proper sanitation. These findings emphasise the determinants influencing sanitation behaviour and practices at the community level [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHouseholds with unimproved water sources were more likely to practice open defecation than those with improved water sources. Poor water supply can discourage good hygiene practices and is often coupled with inadequate sanitation facilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings imply the need for integrated WASH interventions that simultaneously target water, sanitation, and hygiene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHouseholds with more than 4 members had lower odds of practising open defecation than households with 4 or more members. Larger families can pool resources and provide labour for latrine construction and maintenance. This suggests that households with larger sizes can promote sharing resources, monitoring sanitation behaviour, or even collaborative latrine construction; a finding supported by previous studies in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] and Uganda[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, a survey by Osumanu et al. suggested that households with larger sizes are more likely to practice open defecation because of the greater burden of prioritising basic needs, thus impacting their overall capacity to construct latrines within their homes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, households with a large family size may negatively impact latrine sanitation and hygiene, reducing latrine utilisation and encouraging open defecation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere were wide disparities in the distribution of open defecation practices across various regions. The prevalence was highest in Sud-Ouest and lowest in the Centre region. Centre-Est and Centre-Sud had the highest odds of practising open defecation compared to the Sahel. Sud-Ouest, Centre-Est, and Centre-Sud are predominantly rural regions, while the Centre region, which hosts the capital city, Ouagadougou, is urban. The difference in the prevalence and odds of open defecation can be attributed to the varying levels of urbanisation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Urban regions usually have better access to sanitation infrastructure, clean water, improved latrine coverage, and are more exposed to public healthcare messaging on the risks of OD [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Rural areas of Burkina Faso have poor access to clean water, which is necessary for cleaning after defecation; its absence encourages open defecation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The study findings indicate variations in sanitation achievements across Burkina Faso's regions, aligning with trends in increased open defecation in rural areas observed in Ghana, Ethiopia, and Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Frequently, geographical remoteness, insecurity, and marginalisation give rise to circumstances that lead to insufficient investment in rural WASH facilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePolicy Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study have several implications for programming, policy, and implementation in Burkina Faso. Wealth-based inequality in OD prevalence necessitates pro-poor strategies to increase toilet coverage. These must be targeted at rural households and the lower wealth quartiles associated with a high prevalence of OD compared to urban residents and the poor, respectively. Due to the protective effect of education, public health agencies must make education on sanitation and sanitation a part of school curricula and adult literacy programs that will empower the community with sustainable knowledge on sanitation across generations. The government and stakeholders should also focus on creating social behavioural changes, such as adopting good hygiene and sanitation practices. Investment in water systems must be followed by sanitation improvements, particularly in remote regions such as Est and Sud-Ouest, where infrastructural shortfalls are highest compared to urban areas. The uneven geographical and ethnic distribution of OD calls for region and ethnic group-specific interventions, such as community mobilisation, proportionate budget release, and culture-sensitive localised interventions. The study indicates that women are pivotal in promoting good sanitation practices; Sanitation interventions should empower the locals as change agents through training, local leadership, and economic empowerment initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStrengths and Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u0026rsquo;s main strength is that it uses weighted nationally representative BDHS datasets and large sample sizes, thus making the findings generalisable to the Burkina Faso population. Another strength of the study is the use of the multilevel regression model, which took into account the nested nature of the BDHS data within clusters and the variation within regions in Burkina Faso. However, some limitations must be acknowledged. Social desirability bias could have shaped how the study participants responded to some of the critical questions. This limits the reliance on self-reported OD behaviour. The cross-sectional nature of the data limits the ability to draw causal inference. Moreover, the datasets lacked some key variables essential for explaining sanitation behaviours, such as the availability of soap and distance to latrines, limiting the ability to fully account for the contextual and behavioural determinants of sanitation practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study highlights a downward trend in the prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso across 2003, 2010, and 2021. However, OD remains a significant public health problem, especially among poor households, rural residents, those who practice traditional religion, those with unimproved water sources, and in some regions such as Sud-Ouest, Sahel, Centre Sud, and Est. On the contrary, older household heads, female-headed households, higher education attainment, higher wealth index, and improved water sources were associated with reduced odds of practising open defecation. The complete eradication of open defecation in Burkina Faso will require equity-based interventions that focus on gender-sensitive strategies, vulnerable rural and low-income populations, reinforcement of educational and behavioural change initiatives, and increased access to affordable and sustainable sanitation facilities to shape hygiene behaviours. Additionally, significant political commitment, community involvement, and resource investment are needed to achieve national sanitation coverage, which is in line with SDG 6.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eOD\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Open defecation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eODF\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Open defecation-free\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCLTS\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Community-led total sanitation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWASH\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Water, sanitation, and hygiene\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOR\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Odds ratio\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAOR\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Adjusted Odds Ratio\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUNICEF\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;United Nations Children\u0026rsquo;s Fund\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCI\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Confidence interval\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSSA\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Sub-Saharan Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLMICs\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Low and middle-income countries\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSDGs\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Sustainable Development Goals\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNGO\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Non-Governmental Organization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePD \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;WASH-Programme Division -WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study utilised data from the publicly available Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) datasets. The program had already obtained ethical approval for each survey at the data collection point, ensuring all procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. The ethical approval was granted by the ICF International (USA) Institutional Review Board (IRB) and by the national ethics review body in Burkina Faso, the Comité d’Éthique pour la Recherche en Santé [24–26]. Informed consent was obtained from all participants during the original data collection process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study utilised data from the publicly available Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) datasets. The program had already obtained ethical approval for each survey at the data collection point, ensuring all procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. The ethical approval was granted by the ICF International (USA) Institutional Review Board (IRB) and by the national ethics review body in Burkina Faso, the Comité d’Éthique pour la Recherche en Santé [24–26]. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData was accessed upon approval of the request submitted to the BDHS website [23].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors declare that they have no known competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work did not receive any funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGR, BK, and CN analysed the data with inputs from JOO, CA, ST, and SO. CA, JOO, CN, SO, and ST conceptualized and supervised this study. GR and BK drafted the initial version of the manuscript, which was subsequently revised by CA, JOO, SO, and CN. All authors read, revised, reviewed, and approved the final manuscript for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge the MEASURE DHS for granting access to the BDHS datasets.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOpen defecation | JMP. https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation/open-defecation. Accessed 21 May 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eProgress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, 2000-2020: Five years into the SDGs. UNICEF DATA. 2021. https://data.unicef.org/resources/progress-on-household-drinking-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-2000-2020/. 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Accessed 13 July 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCountry (or area) | SDG 6 Data. https://www.sdg6data.org/en/country-or-area/Burkina%20Faso. Accessed 17 July 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe DHS Program - Country Main. https://dhsprogram.com/countries/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=50\u0026amp;c=Burkina%20Faso. Accessed 20 Oct 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDemographic and Health Survey. Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey report 2003. DHS.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDemographic and Health Survey(DHS). Demographic Survey and Health and Multiple Indicator Clusters (EDSBF-MICS IV) 2010. Demographic and Health Survey.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDemographic and Health Survey (DHS). Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey 2021 Report. DHS.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStataCorp. Stata Statistical Software\u0026quot; or \u0026quot;Stata 2017 \u0026quot;.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA Stata Press Publication StataCorp LLC College Station, Texas. STATA MULTILEVEL MIXED EFFECTS REFERENCE MANUAL RELEASE 17. 17th edition. A Stata Press Publication StataCorp LLC College Station, Texas.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNATIONAL ODF KENYA 2020 CAMPAIGN FRAMEWORK.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHow is UNICEF Senegal supporting the community to end open defecation | UNICEF West and Central Africa. https://www.unicef.org/wca/stories/how-unicef-senegal-supporting-community-end-open-defecation. Accessed 22 July 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMangueina D, Awuah E, Fonteh MF, Antwi-Agyei P, Nadji ET. Assessment of current water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices in the third and ninth districts of N\u0026rsquo;Djamena, Chad. Journal of Water and Health. 2024;22:414\u0026ndash;35. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.324.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNanyim JK, Mutaru A-M, Gbeti C, Issahaku AR, Abubakari A, Wumbei A. Socio-cultural and economic determinants of Latrine ownership and utilisation: a community-based survey in Bole district of Ghana. BMC Public Health. 2024;24:3027. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20521-w.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNtaro M, Owokuhaisa J, Isunju JB, Mulogo E, Ssempebwa JC. Contextual and psychological factors influencing open defecation free status: an exploratory qualitative study in rural South Western Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2022;22:414. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12759-z.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDonacho DO, Tucho GT, Hailu AB. Households\u0026rsquo; access to safely managed sanitation facility and its determinant factors in Jimma town, Ethiopia. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. 2022;12:217\u0026ndash;26. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.003.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCaruso BA, Conrad A, Patrick M, Owens A, Kviten K, Zarella O, et al. Water, sanitation, and women\u0026rsquo;s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis. PLOS Water. 2022;1:e0000026. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSeth P, Pingali P. Addressing information and credit barriers to making India open defecation free and improving child health: Evidence from a cluster randomized trial in rural India. PLoS One. 2025;20:e0318198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318198.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbebe TA, Tucho GT. Open defecation-free slippage and its associated factors in Ethiopia: a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2020;9:252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01511-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMbele J. The Elder in African Society: The View from Folklore and Literature. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships. 2004;2:53\u0026ndash;61. https://doi.org/10.1300/J194v02n03_05.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdjibolosoo SV, Ofori BD, Adongo PB, Afranie S, Yirenya-Tawiah DR. The influence of culture on open defaecation in some basic schools in selected districts in Ghana: A preliminary study. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0239491. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239491.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOsumanu IK, Kosoe EA, Ategeeng F. Determinants of Open Defecation in the Wa Municipality of Ghana: Empirical Findings Highlighting Sociocultural and Economic Dynamics among Households. J Environ Public Health. 2019;2019:3075840. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3075840.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAluko OO. The dynamics of household sanitation services and faeco-oral diseases externalities in Osun State, southwest Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2025;119:228\u0026ndash;43. https://doi.org/10.1093/trstmh/trae101.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJin Y, Cha S, Kim Y, Hamdan HM, Elhag MS, Ismail HAHA, et al. Association Between the Prevalence of Schistosomiasis in Elementary School Students and Their Parental Occupation in Sudan. Korean J Parasitol. 2022;60:51\u0026ndash;6. https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2022.60.1.51.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAjemu KF, Desta AA, Berhe AA, Woldegebriel AG, Bezabih NM. Latrine Ownership and Its Determinants in Rural Villages of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia: Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study. J Environ Public Health. 2020;2020:2123652. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2123652.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBank AD. Burkina Faso - Water and Sanitation Services Improvement Project for Resilience Building (PASEPA - 2R) - Project Appraisal Report. African Development Bank Group. 2022. https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/burkina-faso-water-and-sanitation-services-improvement-project-resilience-building-pasepa-2r-project-appraisal-report. Accessed 13 July 2025.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGayawan E, Somo-Aina O, Kuti O. Analysis of the space-time trends in open defecation in Nigeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023;30:68524\u0026ndash;35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26161-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Open defecation, sanitation, West Africa, Community-Led Total Sanitation, CLTS, Open defecation-free status, ODF, Sub-Saharan Africa","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8920802/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8920802/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBackground\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpen defecation (OD) is the disposal of human faecal matter in open fields, forests, water bodies, or any other place not enclosed or explicitly built for sanitation. This practice has far-reaching health and economic implications, costing Burkina Faso approximately 2% of its GDP annually due to lost productivity and healthcare expenditures. There is a lack of country-specific and nationally representative analysis in Burkina Faso to inform policy interventions. This study examined the trends, determinants, and prevalence of open defecation in Burkina Faso between 2003 and 2021.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMethods\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe analysed the 2003, 2010, and 2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) data, and included a final sample of 7,241 in 2003, 16,930 in 2010, and 10,987 in 2021. Sample characteristics and weighted prevalence were described and summarised using frequencies, percentages, and confidence intervals (CI). Multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression models were used to establish the determinants of OD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResults\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall weighted prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso was 70.3% in 2003, 59.4% in 2010, and 33.0% in 2021. In 2021, the prevalence of OD was highest among male-headed households (34.1%), aged 15\u0026ndash;29 years (40.7%), rural residents (46.3%), households more than 4 members (35.2%), and those with an unimproved water source (52.2%).In the 2021 survey, households headed by individuals aged 60+ (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.55, 95% CI: 0.44,0.69), female-headed households (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74, 95%: 0.59,0.69), and the rich wealth index (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08, 95% CI: 0.06,0.10) had lower odds of open defecation. Households from communities with high level of community poverty had increased odds of OD (aOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.36, 95% CI: 1.37, 4.07)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConclusion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere has been a downward trend in the overall prevalence of OD in Burkina Faso. Nevertheless, OD remains high among poor households, rural regions, and those lacking improved access to water sources. Eradication of OD will require interventions that focus on gender-sensitive strategies, rural and low-income populations, reinforcement of educational and behavioural change initiatives, and increased access to affordable and sustainable sanitation facilities to shape hygiene behaviours. Additionally, targeted community-level strategies will be a significant focus, ensuring no community is left behind.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prevalence and factors associated with Open Defecation in Burkina Faso: A trend analysis of the 2003-2021 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Surveys","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-24 05:56:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8920802/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"526088eb-d5df-468c-bb5b-b21bee08c02c","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 24th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-15T09:36:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-24 05:56:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8920802","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8920802","identity":"rs-8920802","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}