Defatted Jatropha curcas Flour as a Novel Functional Ingredient for Enhancing the Technological and Sensory Quality of Pizza Dough

Defatted Jatropha curcas Flour as a Novel Functional Ingredient for Enhancing the Technological and Sensory Quality of Pizza Dough | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Defatted Jatropha curcas Flour as a Novel Functional Ingredient for Enhancing the Technological and Sensory Quality of Pizza Dough Elizabeth Argüello García, Odilón Sánchez Sánchez, Leobigildo Córdova Téllez, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8273386/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Wheat-based baked products remain dietary staples due to their affordability, versatility, and desirable technological properties. Expanding their nutritional value through the use of underutilized crops aligns with current food system priorities. This study examined the incorporation of defatted Jatropha curcas flour obtained from an edible, non-toxic ecotype into wheat flour blends to determine substitution levels compatible with acceptable dough functionality and product quality. Five formulations (100/0, 95/5, 90/10, 85/15, and 80/20% wheat/ J. curcas ) were evaluated using standard alveograph and farinograph methods to assess dough strength, tenacity, extensibility, water absorption, and mixing behavior. Substitutions below 15% retained viscoelastic characteristics comparable to wheat flour, although gluten dilution reduced deformation energy while increasing tenacity (P/L from 0.84 to 2.59) and decreasing extensibility (92.01 to 36.04 mm). Water absorption increased moderately (46.45–54.07%), with development times ranging from 2.50 to 3.53 min, reflecting higher hydration requirements associated with the protein- and fiber-rich J. curcas fraction. Sensory evaluation revealed high consumer acceptance, particularly at 10–15% substitution, supporting its applicability in low volume baked products such as pizza bases. Protein content increased from 11.52% in the control to 16% at 20% substitution. These findings demonstrate that defatted Jatropha curcas flour is a promising ingredient for enhancing the nutritional value of wheat-based foods, with substitution levels up to 15% achieving an optimal balance between improved composition and functional performance. Wheat Jatropha curcas (edible ecotype) composite flour rheology protein fortification sensory evaluation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 Introduction Pizza and other wheat-based baked products remain among the most consumed foods worldwide, not only for their sensory appeal but also for their cultural relevance and versatility as convenient meals in modern diets [ 1 ]. In Mexico, pizza consumption has increased substantially over the past decade, placing the country as the second-largest consumer globally, surpassed only by the United States [ 2 ]. Although pizza is traditionally perceived as a complete meal providing carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and micronutrients current consumer demands and public-health priorities have accelerated interest in nutritionally enhanced formulations [ 3 , 4 ]. This is particularly relevant in regions seeking to increase dietary protein quality while diversifying the use of local underutilized crops. Among such crops, Jatropha curcas L. (locally known as piñón mexicano ) has gained attention for its high-quality protein content, adaptability to marginal soils, and potential contribution to food and nutrition security. Edible ecotypes of J. curcas contain 25–30% protein in whole seed, which may increase up to 60% in defatted meal, offering a valuable plant-based protein source. Previous studies report in vitro protein digestibility values of 78–88%, depending on thermal treatment and processing conditions [ 5 , 6 ], positioning this species as a promising ingredient for food fortification. The reformulation of staple foods using nutrient dense flours requires an understanding of their rheological, physicochemical, and sensory impacts. In wheat based matrices, gluten governs dough viscoelasticity, gas-holding capacity, and final product texture. Thus, rheological evaluation using instruments such as the alveograph and farinograph provides essential insights for predicting dough performance and optimizing processing variables [ 7 , 8 ]. Incorporating alternative flours into these systems may improve nutritional value but can also alter hydration properties, gluten network development, and dough strength factors that influence product acceptability. Integrating J. curcas flour into pizza dough formulations presents an opportunity to increase protein density and promote the use of non-traditional, locally relevant crops. However, wheat-based formulations remain unsuitable for individuals with celiac disease or gluten-related disorders, highlighting the need to characterize new blends not only nutritionally but also structurally and sensorially [ 9 , 10 ]. This study evaluates the effects of replacing wheat flour with Jatropha curcas flour in pizza dough, focusing on its rheological performance, physicochemical characteristics, and sensory attributes, with the aim of identifying its potential as a viable ingredient for developing more nutritious and innovative baked products. 2 Material and Methods 2.1 Kernel and flour The plant material used in this study consisted exclusively of kernels (seeds without hulls) from an edible, non-toxic ecotype of J. curcas . The kernels were obtained from cultivated plants grown in the community of Pueblillo, municipality of Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico (approximately 20.3710° N, − 97.3157° W). The material was supplied by local producers who maintain small scale agricultural plots dedicated to the cultivation of J. curcas edible. No wild populations were used, and no additional plant parts beyond the kernels were collected. Defatted Jatropha curcas flour was obtained from seeds of a non-toxic, edible ecotype (phorbol esters not detected) produced in Pueblillo, Veracruz, Mexico. The seeds were dehulled, milled, and passed through an 80-mesh sieve to standardize particle size. The flour was then defatted with hexane in a Soxhlet extractor at 68°C for 16 h to remove lipids. The wheat flour used was a commercial product (San Antonio, Extrafina; Tres Estrellas™). 2.2 Fortified Flour Formulation Wheat and Jatropha curcas flours were blended at four substitution levels for the pizza dough bases. The control (P-T) contained 100% wheat flour. Experimental formulations were P-5 (95% wheat/5% J. curcas*), P-10 (90%/10%), P-15 (85%/15%), and P-20 (80%/20%), expressed on a flour basis (w/w). 2.3 Proximate Chemical Analysis Protein, lipid, ash, moisture, and fiber were quantified in triplicate according to the AOAC [ 11 ]. Official Methods in whole and defatted Jatropha curcas flours, wheat flour, and the pizza dough bases prepared with the formulations described above. 2.4 Rheological Properties (Viscoelasticity and Mixing) 2.4.1 Alveograph : Tests were conducted by kneading 50 g of refined wheat flour for 8 min; added water was adjusted to the flour’s moisture content as determined by AACC Method 54-30A [ 12 ]. The evaluated parameters were dough tenacity (P, mm), extensibility (L, mm), and deformation energy (W, ×10⁻⁴ J), where W corresponds to the area under the curve and reflects flour strength/protein quality. Alveograms were obtained at the Wheat Laboratory, Centro Experimental Valle de México (CEVAMEX), INIFAP. 2.4.2 Farinograph : This test quantified dough resistance to mixing. Based on the flour’s moisture and protein contents and using CEVAMEX (INIFAP) reference tables, the appropriate flour mass was weighed and placed in the farinograph bowl. Water was then added during mixing to center the torque curve at 500 Brabender Units (U.B.), as specified by AACC Method 54-40A [ 13 ].The reported parameters were development time, water absorption, stability, and mixing tolerance index (MTI). 2.5 Product Preparation 2.5.1 Pizza Dough Base A total of 500 g of dough (wheat/ Jatropha curcas flour blend) was prepared. Yeast (15 g) was dissolved in 150 mL of warm water (30°C), and mixing commenced while gradually adding the remaining water together with salt (2 g) and olive oil (12 mL). The dough was transferred to a greased tray and fermented for 30 min. It was then degassed and kneaded briefly to expel trapped air and improve softness, followed by a second 30-min fermentation. The dough was sheeted into a 35-cm round with a 2-cm rim and prebaked at 180°C for 10 min. 2.6 Sensory Evaluation A panel of 100 untrained consumer judges, 50 from the student and staff population of Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Tabasco, and 50 from Universidad Popular de la Chontalpa participated in this study. A hedonic test was conducted using a seven-point scale with five coded samples, allowing judges to rate their degree of liking or disliking, following Anzaldúa [ 14 ]. The test was performed 10 min after preparing the pizza dough base. 2.7 Statistical Analysis Data were analyzed using SAS V.9.0. [ 15 ] under a completely randomized design, and mean comparisons were performed using Tukey’s test (p = 0.05). 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Proximate Chemical Analysis When assessing the proximate composition, statistically significant differences were observed between wheat flour and Jatropha curcas flour (Table 1 ). Wheat flour showed higher moisture than J. curcas flour. The protein content of wheat flour (9.85%) falls within the 9–11% range reported by Sweta et al. [ 10 ] and Maghaydah et al. [ 16 ]. Whole J. curcas flour contains 24.5% protein, which increases to 55.01% after defatting, values consistent with Martínez et al. [ 17 ] i.e., approximately 5.6-fold higher than wheat. This elevated protein level motivates the use of J. curcas flour for food fortification, including pizza bases. For comparison, Singh and Lal [ 18 ] developed a pizza base enriched with whole wheat, kodo millet, buckwheat, and brown rice flours; its protein content ranged from 7.13% to 9.50%, higher than a conventional refined wheat base yet still below levels achievable with J. curcas fortification. Table 1 Chemical Composition of the Flours Types of flours Moisture (%) Ash (%) Protein (%) Lipids (%) Wheat flour 11.05 ± 0.03 a 9.85 ± 0.01 a 1.05 ± 0.01 a Whole flour J.c. 5.5 ± 0.15 c 4.29 ± 0.07 a 24.5 ± 0.06 c 53.52 ± 0.05 c Defatted flour J.c. 6.4 ± 0.10 d 10.4 ± 0.05 b 55.01 ± 0.06 d 1.44 ± 0.01 a J. c : Jatropha curcas. Means with the same letter in each column are not statistically different (Tukey, 0.05). Table 1 . Chemical Composition of the Flours 3.2 Viscoelastic Properties (Alveograph) The addition of Jatropha curcas flour altered all viscoelastic properties of the wheat dough (Table 2). The control wheat flour exhibited medium-strong gluten strength (W = 290 × 10⁻⁴ J) and tended toward a strong, balanced profile, as indicated by its P (77 mm) and L (92 mm) values, which are consistent with the Mexican wheat classification [ 19 ]. The P/L (tenacity-to-extensibility) ratio was comparable to values reported for soft wheats used in cookies, tortillas, artisanal bread, and pizza dough, ranging from 0.06 to 0.8 (Peña et al., 2008). These results suggest that the commercial wheat flour used in this study may be suboptimal for high-volume breadmaking but offers intermediate quality for low-volume products such as pizza dough. Table 2. Viscoelastic Properties of Wheat Dough Fortified with J. curcas Flour Treatment W x 10 -4 J P (mm) L (mm) P/L HT-T 290±0.78 a 77.01±00 a 92.01±0.58 a 0.84±0.01 a HT-5 210±0.96 b 78.01±0.96 b 90.13±0.58 b 0.85±0.01 b HT-10 195±0.96 c 80.03±0.82 c 70.01±0.96 c 1.14±0.01 c HT-15 122±0.92 d 88.03±0.58 d 48.00±0.96 d 1.83±0.03 d HT-20 89.50±0.58 e 93.47±58 e 36.04±0.50 e 2.59±0.03 e W = Strength, P = Tenacity, L = Extensibility, P/L = Tenacity/Extensibility Index. Means with the same letter in each column are not statistically different (Tukey, 0.05). Replacing wheat flour with Jatropha curcas flour reduced gluten strength (W, ×10⁻⁴ J) but increased dough tenacity (P) and the tenacity-to-extensibility ratio (P/L), while decreasing extensibility (L) (Table 2; Fig. 1). Specifically, W decreased by 80, 95, 168, and 200 ×10⁻⁴ J with 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% J. curcas addition, respectively; P increased by 1.00, 3.02, 11.02, and 16.44 mm; L decreased by 1.88, 22.00, 44.01, and 55.97 mm; and P/L raised by 0.01, 0.30, 0.99, and 1.75 relative to the control. The decrease in dough strength may stem from a reduced capacity of the gluten network to retain gas during biological fermentation [ 20 ]. This reduction is primarily attributable to gluten dilution i.e., the effective gliadin-to-glutenin balance of the wheat matrix is altered when non-gluten Jatropha curcas flour is added together with competition for water and potential physical interference with gluten development [ 21 ]. Such dilution of gluten proteins [ 22 ] weakens dough strength; however, the resulting rheology is advantageous for low-volume products such as pizza. The increase in tenacity (Figs. 1d and 1e) and the decrease in extensibility (Figs. 1b and 1c) are consistent with dilution and perturbation of the gluten network upon addition of non-gluten flour. In wheat dough, gliadins primarily confer extensibility, whereas glutenins contribute to strength/elasticity; thus, a lower effective gliadin contribution and reduced water availability lead to lower L and higher P [ 3 – 20 ]. Based on these findings, adding Jatropha curcas flour at levels below 15% is recommended, as higher concentrations impair dough sheeting and shaping, yielding a denser crumb and firmer texture. Substitutions above 15% may be feasible when using strong (high-gluten) wheat flour, so that blending with J. curcas does not compromise gluten strength and extensibility. Figure 1 Alveograms corresponding to: (a) the control made with 100% wheat flour, (b) wheat flour with 5% J. curcas flour, (c) wheat flour with 10% J. curcas flour, (d) wheat flour with 15% J. curcas flour, and (e) wheat flour with 20% J. curcas flour. 3.3 Farinograms Substituting Jatropha curcas flour modified the dough’s physical properties and overall mixing profile (Table 3 ). Water absorption increased by up to 7.6% at 20% J. curcas addition. Although the base wheat flour already exhibited high hydration capacity, it raised further with the incorporation of the protein and fiber-rich J. curcas fraction, which binds water through hydrophilic sites [ 22 ]. A comparable trend has been reported for blends with purple yam (Dioscorea alata ) flour, attributed to the abundance of hydroxyl groups in its starch structure [ 23 ]. Table 3 Farinographic Characteristics Parameters WA (%) ODT (min) DW (UB) MTI (UB) S (min) HT-T 46.45 ± 0.25 a 2.50 ± 0.06 a 190.17 ± 0.06 a 220 ± 0.58 a 6.5 ± 0.06 d HT-5 50.43 ± 0.58 b 2.50 ± 0.06 a 170.30 ± 0.10 b 180 ± 0.58 b 6.0 ± 0.00 c HT-10 50.80 ± 0.00 b 2.63 ± 0.10 a 160.17 ± 0.12 c 170.67 ± 0.58 c 4.5 ± 0.06 a HT-15 50.90 ± 0.06 b 3.00 ± 0.10 b 143.67 ± 0.89 d 158.33 ± 0.58 d 5.3 ± 0.03 b HT-20 54.07 ± 0.12 c 3.53 ± 0.06 b 130.17 ± 0.06 e 140.83 ± 0.76 e 4.4 ± 0.06 a WA = Water Absorption; ODT = Optimal Development Time; MTI = Mixing Tolerance Index (Brabender Units); DW = Degree of Weakening; S = Stability. Means with the same letter in each column are not significantly different (Tukey, 0.05). Table 3 . Farinographic Characteristics Optimal development time (ODT) and dough stability (DS) are critical in breadmaking. Adding 20% Jatropha curcas flour increased ODT by 1.03 min relative to the control, likely due to gluten dilution: the non-gluten fraction slows the arrangement and alignment of glutenin and gliadin, delaying gluten development and peak strength [ 23 ]. For strong-gluten flours, development times typically range from 5–10 min, whereas for soft wheats (used for cookies and related products) they span 3–5 min [ 24 ], a range that encompasses the 15% and 20% J. curcas blends. Stability an indicator of flour mixing tolerance, decreased by 2.1 min with 20% Jatropha curcas addition relative to wheat flour alone, placing the blend in Group 3 (weak/low-strength gluten) according to Peña et al. [ 24 ]. A similar trend has been reported for wheat–rice flour blends [ 25 ]. At 20% substitution, the degree of weakening (DW) decreased by 60 BU and the mixing tolerance index (MTI) by 79.2 BU compared with the control, findings that align with the increased dough tenacity observed in the alveograph test. 3.4 Proximate Chemical of Pizza 3.4.1 Analysis of Pizza Substituting defatted Jatropha curcas flour altered the proximate composition (Table 4 ). At 20% J. curcas addition, moisture increased by 10.56%, protein by 4.48%, lipids by 2.30% and ash by 2.06%, whereas fiber decreased by 2.06%. The higher moisture is consistent with increased protein and its greater water-holding capacity [ 26 ]. Lipid content raised because defatted J. curcas flour still retains 1.44% lipids; notably, higher values (4.4%) are reported in Domino’s™ pizza nutrition tables. Fiber declined from 4.56% to 3.04%. The elevated ash content aligns with the calcium, magnesium, and potassium present in J. curcas flour [ 6 ]. Table 4 Proximate Chemical Analysis of Pizza Sample Moisture (%) Protein (%) Lipids (%) Ashes (%) Fiber (%) P-T 19.55 ± 0.06 a 11.52 ± 0.22 a 10.11 ± 0.11 a 1.04 ± 0.01 a 4.56 ± 0.06 a P-5 28.49 ± 0.17 b 12.46 ± 0.39 b 10.45 ± 0.12 a 1.57 ± 0.01 b 4.33 ± 0.10 b P-10 28.49 ± 0.38 b 13.83 ± 0.91 c 11.00 ± 0.33 b 2.060.02 ± c 3.93 ± 0.06 c P-15 31.91 ± 0.19 b 15.28 ± 0.21 d 11.76 ± 0.19 c 2.69 ± 0.02 d 3.37 ± 0.03 d P-20 30.11 ± 0.59 b 16.00 ± 0.40 e 12.41 ± 0.04 d 3.10 ± 0.01 e 3.04 ± 0.03 e Means with the same letter in each column are not significantly different (Tukey, 0.05). Protein content reached 16.0% at 20% Jatropha curcas substitution, consistent with the increases reported by Maldonado et al. [ 27 ] when enriching wheat flour with 5–10% rice bran ( Oryza sativa ). This value is well above the 5.3% reported on the FUD™ pizza nutrition label, underscoring the potential of J. curcas flour as a high-protein fortifier, an observation also noted by Argüello et al. [ 5 ] and Arguello et al [ 28 ] in fortified cookies and tortillas made with edible J. curcas flour. Table 4 . Proximate Chemical Analysis of Pizza 3.5 Sensory Analysis Consumer acceptance of pizzas supplemented with Jatropha curcas flour showed a predominantly positive trend, with most responses distributed within the upper categories of the hedonic scale (Fig. 2). Overall, 84% of panelists rated the formulations within the “like” range, whereas 16% provided scores within the “dislike” range, indicating a generally favorable perception of the product. Among the formulations evaluated, the 10% substitution level obtained the highest proportion of top-box ratings (9.6%), followed closely by the 5% and 15% substitutions (7.17% each). These results suggest that moderate incorporation levels may enhance consumer acceptance without negatively impacting sensory attributes. To our knowledge, no peer reviewed studies have previously evaluated pizza formulations fortified with Jatropha curcas flour, which limits direct comparison. However, the positive acceptance observed aligns with reports on bakery and cereal based products fortified with alternative protein-rich flours, where partial substitution often improves flavor complexity or texture tolerance when maintained within moderate levels. This trend supports the potential of Jatropha curcas flour as a viable ingredient for developing nutritionally enhanced baked products. Figure 2. Acceptability of pizzas with Jatropha curcas flour at different substitution levels. 4 Conclusions Fortifying pizza bases with defatted Jatropha curcas flour increases protein content (up to 16.0% at 20% substitution) and raises moisture, lipids, and ash, with a slight reduction in fiber. Substitution reduces gluten strength (W), increases tenacity (P) and the P/L ratio, and decreases extensibility (L), consistent with gluten dilution and greater water demand. In farinograph tests, water absorption increases (+ 7.6%), optimal development time rises (1.03 min), and stability declines (2.1 min), alongside decreases in degree of weakening (60 BU) and mixing tolerance index (79.2 BU). Despite these shifts, performance remains suitable for low-volume products; sensory acceptance was high (84% in the “like” range), with peak top-box scores at 10% substitution. Overall, ≤ 15% J. curcas provides the best balance between nutritional improvement and processability, while higher levels may be feasible when using strong (high-gluten) wheat flours. Declarations Funding : All authors are grateful to the Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnologías e Innovación de México for the master's scholarship awarded to Mtra. Elizabeth Argüello García. Conflicts of Interest: All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. Ethics and Consent to Participate Ethics statement The sensory evaluation was conducted with healthy adult volunteers who provided informed consent prior to participation. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Colegio de Postgraduados in accordance with national guidelines and the Mexican standard NMX-F-605-NORMEX-2016 for sensory evaluation of foods. The committee determined that the study involved minimal risk and was conducted following all relevant guidelines and regulations. Clinical trial number: not applicable Consent to participate All participants were adults and provided freely given, informed consent prior to taking part in the sensory evaluation. Participation was voluntary, and all procedures were conducted in accordance with institutional guidelines and the Mexican standard NMX-F-605-NORMEX-2016 for sensory evaluation of foods. Consent to publish Informed consent to publish the anonymized results of the sensory evaluation was obtained from all adult participants. Data Availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are included in this published article and its supplementary materials. Additional raw data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Plant guidelines The edible, non-toxic ecotype of Jatropha curcas used in this study was obtained from cultivated plants grown in Pueblillo, Veracruz, Mexico. No wild populations were collected. The collection and use of plant material complied with all applicable national regulations, including those of the Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (SADER) and the Mexican environmental guidelines for non-protected plant species. The species is not listed under any national or international protection status; therefore, no additional permits or licenses were required for its use. Statement for Permissions to Collect Plant Material The edible, non-toxic ecotype of Jatropha curcas used in this study was obtained from cultivated plants grown in Pueblillo, Veracruz, Mexico. As the species is not listed under any national or international protection status and is commonly cultivated for agricultural use, no special permits or licenses were required for its collection. All procedures involving plant material complied with applicable Mexican agricultural and environmental regulations. Name of the person who identified the plant/plant part The edible, non-toxic ecotype of Jatropha curcas used in this study corresponds to the same plant material previously described by Martínez-Herrera and co-authors (2006), whose specimens were taxonomically identified by Dr. Victor Steinmann at the outset of the research on this edible ecotype. The kernels used in the present work were obtained from cultivated plants in Pueblillo, Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico, and originate from the same characterized material reported in those earlier publications; therefore, no additional taxonomic identification was required. Herbarium Details Voucher specimens of the edible ecotype of Jatropha curcas used in this study were previously deposited by Martínez-Herrera and co-authors (2006) in a public herbarium, where they were taxonomically identified by Dr. Victor Steinmann (Euphorbiaceae specialist). The reference voucher is deposited in the National Herbarium of Mexico (MEXU), Institute of Biology, National Autonomous University of Mexico, under the accession number MEXU-1103518. The plant material used in the present study corresponds to the same characterized and archived ecotype; therefore, no additional voucher deposition was required. Authors' contributions LCT was responsible for conceptualization, project administration, and research. JMH and GHS contributed to software development, validation, and writing—original draft preparation, as well as methodology and formal analysis. EAG handled visualization, supervision, resource management, and validation. ECM focused on research. OSS was involved in supervision, editing, and visualization, while APV and RICZ also contributed to supervision, editing, and visualization. Author details 1 Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Veracruz. Km 88.5 Carretera Federal Xalapa-Veracruz, 91690, Veracruz, México. 2 Universidad Veracruzana, Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales, José María Morelos 44, Zona Centro, Xalapa Enríquez, Ver. México. C.P. 91000 3 Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo. Carretera México-Texcoco Km. 36.5, Montecillo, Texcoco 56264, Estado de México 4 Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias Campo Experimental Valle de México, Mier y Pesado 105, Valle Benito Juárez, Ciudad de México, México 5 Tecnológico Nacional de México, Campus Zongolica. Km 4 Carretera a la Compañía S/N, Tepetitlanapa, 95005 Zongolica, Ver. 6 Universidad Tecnológica del Centro de Veracruz. Avenida Universidad 350, Secretaría Académica. Cuitláhuac, Veracruz, México. C.P. 94910. Autor de correspondencia: email: [email protected] References Falciano A, Sorrentino A, Masi P, Di Pierro P. Development of functional pizza base enriched with jujube ( Ziziphus jujuba ) powder. 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Rheological, chemical and sensory characterization of fortified cookies with edible flour of Xuta ( Jatropha curcas L). J Food Sci Technol. 2020;57:3502–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04385-7 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files GraphicalAbstract.png Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 21 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 12 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 27 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 11 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 11 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 10 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 10 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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05:39:03","extension":"html","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":113379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8273386/v1/ff31b4804c5a97675befee0a.html"},{"id":98978068,"identity":"2c21b43c-d139-49ca-bbf3-ecebf2da6a3d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-25 05:39:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36333,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAlveograms corresponding to: (a) the control made with 100% wheat flour, (b) wheat flour with 5% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, (c) wheat flour with 10% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, (d) wheat flour with 15% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, and (e) wheat flour with 20% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8273386/v1/785264a6e8a8a332a0602027.jpg"},{"id":99312199,"identity":"fcfc3652-b42e-4db9-aa91-0cbf2e1bf562","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:18:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":148124,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAcceptability of pizzas with \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour at different substitution levels.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8273386/v1/bd453f2f172f1c04530f8386.jpg"},{"id":99322853,"identity":"4be7d887-b3de-48ec-8fb9-46c25d80f9dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:44:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1198966,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8273386/v1/8b0238ac-4d6b-49e5-bd4f-2ac44b05eadb.pdf"},{"id":98978070,"identity":"7127f009-d533-4126-8e73-21de392ebaa2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-25 05:39:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":2028576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstract.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8273386/v1/b89c2fe0623b25c2dc76f561.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Defatted Jatropha curcas Flour as a Novel Functional Ingredient for Enhancing the Technological and Sensory Quality of Pizza Dough","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePizza and other wheat-based baked products remain among the most consumed foods worldwide, not only for their sensory appeal but also for their cultural relevance and versatility as convenient meals in modern diets [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In Mexico, pizza consumption has increased substantially over the past decade, placing the country as the second-largest consumer globally, surpassed only by the United States [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Although pizza is traditionally perceived as a complete meal providing carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and micronutrients current consumer demands and public-health priorities have accelerated interest in nutritionally enhanced formulations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This is particularly relevant in regions seeking to increase dietary protein quality while diversifying the use of local underutilized crops.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong such crops, Jatropha curcas L. (locally known as \u003cem\u003epi\u0026ntilde;\u0026oacute;n mexicano\u003c/em\u003e) has gained attention for its high-quality protein content, adaptability to marginal soils, and potential contribution to food and nutrition security. Edible ecotypes of \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e contain 25\u0026ndash;30% protein in whole seed, which may increase up to 60% in defatted meal, offering a valuable plant-based protein source. Previous studies report in vitro protein digestibility values of 78\u0026ndash;88%, depending on thermal treatment and processing conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], positioning this species as a promising ingredient for food fortification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reformulation of staple foods using nutrient dense flours requires an understanding of their rheological, physicochemical, and sensory impacts. In wheat based matrices, gluten governs dough viscoelasticity, gas-holding capacity, and final product texture. Thus, rheological evaluation using instruments such as the alveograph and farinograph provides essential insights for predicting dough performance and optimizing processing variables [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Incorporating alternative flours into these systems may improve nutritional value but can also alter hydration properties, gluten network development, and dough strength factors that influence product acceptability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrating \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour into pizza dough formulations presents an opportunity to increase protein density and promote the use of non-traditional, locally relevant crops. However, wheat-based formulations remain unsuitable for individuals with celiac disease or gluten-related disorders, highlighting the need to characterize new blends not only nutritionally but also structurally and sensorially [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study evaluates the effects of replacing wheat flour with \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour in pizza dough, focusing on its rheological performance, physicochemical characteristics, and sensory attributes, with the aim of identifying its potential as a viable ingredient for developing more nutritious and innovative baked products.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Material and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Kernel and flour\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe plant material used in this study consisted exclusively of kernels (seeds without hulls) from an edible, non-toxic ecotype of \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e. The kernels were obtained from cultivated plants grown in the community of Pueblillo, municipality of Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico (approximately 20.3710\u0026deg; N, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;97.3157\u0026deg; W). The material was supplied by local producers who maintain small scale agricultural plots dedicated to the cultivation of J. curcas edible. No wild populations were used, and no additional plant parts beyond the kernels were collected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefatted \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour was obtained from seeds of a non-toxic, edible ecotype (phorbol esters not detected) produced in Pueblillo, Veracruz, Mexico. The seeds were dehulled, milled, and passed through an 80-mesh sieve to standardize particle size. The flour was then defatted with hexane in a Soxhlet extractor at 68\u0026deg;C for 16 h to remove lipids. The wheat flour used was a commercial product (San Antonio, Extrafina; Tres Estrellas\u0026trade;).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Fortified Flour Formulation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat and \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flours were blended at four substitution levels for the pizza dough bases. The control (P-T) contained 100% wheat flour. Experimental formulations were P-5 (95% wheat/5% J. curcas*), P-10 (90%/10%), P-15 (85%/15%), and P-20 (80%/20%), expressed on a flour basis (w/w).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Proximate Chemical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein, lipid, ash, moisture, and fiber were quantified in triplicate according to the AOAC [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Official Methods in whole and defatted \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flours, wheat flour, and the pizza dough bases prepared with the formulations described above.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Rheological Properties (Viscoelasticity and Mixing)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.4.1 Alveograph\u003c/b\u003e: Tests were conducted by kneading 50 g of refined wheat flour for 8 min; added water was adjusted to the flour\u0026rsquo;s moisture content as determined by AACC Method 54-30A [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. The evaluated parameters were dough tenacity (P, mm), extensibility (L, mm), and deformation energy (W, \u0026times;10⁻⁴ J), where W corresponds to the area under the curve and reflects flour strength/protein quality. Alveograms were obtained at the Wheat Laboratory, Centro Experimental Valle de M\u0026eacute;xico (CEVAMEX), INIFAP.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.4.2 Farinograph\u003c/b\u003e: This test quantified dough resistance to mixing. Based on the flour\u0026rsquo;s moisture and protein contents and using CEVAMEX (INIFAP) reference tables, the appropriate flour mass was weighed and placed in the farinograph bowl. Water was then added during mixing to center the torque curve at 500 Brabender Units (U.B.), as specified by AACC Method 54-40A [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].The reported parameters were development time, water absorption, stability, and mixing tolerance index (MTI).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Product Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.1 Pizza Dough Base\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 500 g of dough (wheat/\u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour blend) was prepared. Yeast (15 g) was dissolved in 150 mL of warm water (30\u0026deg;C), and mixing commenced while gradually adding the remaining water together with salt (2 g) and olive oil (12 mL). The dough was transferred to a greased tray and fermented for 30 min. It was then degassed and kneaded briefly to expel trapped air and improve softness, followed by a second 30-min fermentation. The dough was sheeted into a 35-cm round with a 2-cm rim and prebaked at 180\u0026deg;C for 10 min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Sensory Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA panel of 100 untrained consumer judges, 50 from the student and staff population of Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Tabasco, and 50 from Universidad Popular de la Chontalpa participated in this study. A hedonic test was conducted using a seven-point scale with five coded samples, allowing judges to rate their degree of liking or disliking, following Anzald\u0026uacute;a [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The test was performed 10 min after preparing the pizza dough base.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using SAS V.9.0. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] under a completely randomized design, and mean comparisons were performed using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Proximate Chemical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen assessing the proximate composition, statistically significant differences were observed between wheat flour and \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Wheat flour showed higher moisture than \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour. The protein content of wheat flour (9.85%) falls within the 9\u0026ndash;11% range reported by Sweta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and Maghaydah et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Whole J. \u003cem\u003ecurcas\u003c/em\u003e flour contains 24.5% protein, which increases to 55.01% after defatting, values consistent with Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] i.e., approximately 5.6-fold higher than wheat. This elevated protein level motivates the use of \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour for food fortification, including pizza bases. For comparison, Singh and Lal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] developed a pizza base enriched with whole wheat, kodo millet, buckwheat, and brown rice flours; its protein content ranged from 7.13% to 9.50%, higher than a conventional refined wheat base yet still below levels achievable with \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e fortification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical Composition of the Flours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypes of flours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipids (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat flour\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole flour \u003cem\u003eJ.c.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefatted flour \u003cem\u003eJ.c.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eJ. c\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas.\u003c/em\u003e Means with the same letter in each column are not statistically different (Tukey, 0.05).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cb\u003eChemical Composition of the Flours\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Viscoelastic Properties (Alveograph)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe addition of \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour altered all viscoelastic properties of the wheat dough (Table\u0026nbsp;2). The control wheat flour exhibited medium-strong gluten strength (W\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;290 \u0026times; 10⁻⁴ J) and tended toward a strong, balanced profile, as indicated by its P (77 mm) and L (92 mm) values, which are consistent with the Mexican wheat classification [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The P/L (tenacity-to-extensibility) ratio was comparable to values reported for soft wheats used in cookies, tortillas, artisanal bread, and pizza dough, ranging from 0.06 to 0.8 (Pe\u0026ntilde;a et al., 2008). These results suggest that the commercial wheat flour used in this study may be suboptimal for high-volume breadmaking but offers intermediate quality for low-volume products such as pizza dough.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Viscoelastic Properties of Wheat Dough Fortified with \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e Flour\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"574\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eW x 10\u003csup\u003e-4\u003c/sup\u003e J\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP/L\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT-T\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e290\u0026plusmn;0.78\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.01\u0026plusmn;00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.01\u0026plusmn;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u0026plusmn;0.96\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.01\u0026plusmn;0.96\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.13\u0026plusmn;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT-10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e195\u0026plusmn;0.96\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.03\u0026plusmn;0.82\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.01\u0026plusmn;0.96\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT-15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e122\u0026plusmn;0.92\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.03\u0026plusmn;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.00\u0026plusmn;0.96\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT-20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.50\u0026plusmn;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.47\u0026plusmn;58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.04\u0026plusmn;0.50\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.59\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eW = Strength, P = Tenacity, L = Extensibility, P/L = Tenacity/Extensibility Index.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Means with the same letter in each column are not statistically different (Tukey, 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReplacing wheat flour with \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour reduced gluten strength (W, \u0026times;10⁻⁴ J) but increased dough tenacity (P) and the tenacity-to-extensibility ratio (P/L), while decreasing extensibility (L) (Table\u0026nbsp;2; Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). Specifically, W decreased by 80, 95, 168, and 200 \u0026times;10⁻⁴ J with 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e addition, respectively; P increased by 1.00, 3.02, 11.02, and 16.44 mm; L decreased by 1.88, 22.00, 44.01, and 55.97 mm; and P/L raised by 0.01, 0.30, 0.99, and 1.75 relative to the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe decrease in dough strength may stem from a reduced capacity of the gluten network to retain gas during biological fermentation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. This reduction is primarily attributable to gluten dilution i.e., the effective gliadin-to-glutenin balance of the wheat matrix is altered when non-gluten \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour is added together with competition for water and potential physical interference with gluten development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Such dilution of gluten proteins [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] weakens dough strength; however, the resulting rheology is advantageous for low-volume products such as pizza.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe increase in tenacity (Figs.\u0026nbsp;1d and 1e) and the decrease in extensibility (Figs.\u0026nbsp;1b and 1c) are consistent with dilution and perturbation of the gluten network upon addition of non-gluten flour. In wheat dough, gliadins primarily confer extensibility, whereas glutenins contribute to strength/elasticity; thus, a lower effective gliadin contribution and reduced water availability lead to lower L and higher P [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4 CR5 CR6 CR7 CR8 CR9 CR10 CR11 CR12 CR13 CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on these findings, adding \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour at levels below 15% is recommended, as higher concentrations impair dough sheeting and shaping, yielding a denser crumb and firmer texture. Substitutions above 15% may be feasible when using strong (high-gluten) wheat flour, so that blending with \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e does not compromise gluten strength and extensibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e Alveograms corresponding to: (a) the control made with 100% wheat flour, (b) wheat flour with 5% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, (c) wheat flour with 10% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, (d) wheat flour with 15% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, and (e) wheat flour with 20% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Farinograms\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstituting \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour modified the dough\u0026rsquo;s physical properties and overall mixing profile (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Water absorption increased by up to 7.6% at 20% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e addition. Although the base wheat flour already exhibited high hydration capacity, it raised further with the incorporation of the protein and fiber-rich \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e fraction, which binds water through hydrophilic sites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. A comparable trend has been reported for blends with purple yam \u003cem\u003e(Dioscorea alata\u003c/em\u003e) flour, attributed to the abundance of hydroxyl groups in its starch structure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarinographic Characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWA (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eODT (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (UB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMTI (UB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHT-T\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHT-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHT-10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHT-15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.89\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHT-20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.76\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eWA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Water Absorption; ODT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Optimal Development Time; MTI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mixing Tolerance Index (Brabender Units); DW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Degree of Weakening; S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Stability. Means with the same letter in each column are not significantly different (Tukey, 0.05).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cb\u003eFarinographic Characteristics\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimal development time (ODT) and dough stability (DS) are critical in breadmaking. Adding 20% \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour increased ODT by 1.03 min relative to the control, likely due to gluten dilution: the non-gluten fraction slows the arrangement and alignment of glutenin and gliadin, delaying gluten development and peak strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. For strong-gluten flours, development times typically range from 5\u0026ndash;10 min, whereas for soft wheats (used for cookies and related products) they span 3\u0026ndash;5 min [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], a range that encompasses the 15% and 20% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e blends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStability an indicator of flour mixing tolerance, decreased by 2.1 min with 20% \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e addition relative to wheat flour alone, placing the blend in Group 3 (weak/low-strength gluten) according to Pe\u0026ntilde;a et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. A similar trend has been reported for wheat\u0026ndash;rice flour blends [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. At 20% substitution, the degree of weakening (DW) decreased by 60 BU and the mixing tolerance index (MTI) by 79.2 BU compared with the control, findings that align with the increased dough tenacity observed in the alveograph test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Proximate Chemical of Pizza\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Analysis of Pizza\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstituting defatted \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour altered the proximate composition (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). At 20% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e addition, moisture increased by 10.56%, protein by 4.48%, lipids by 2.30% and ash by 2.06%, whereas fiber decreased by 2.06%. The higher moisture is consistent with increased protein and its greater water-holding capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Lipid content raised because defatted \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour still retains 1.44% lipids; notably, higher values (4.4%) are reported in Domino\u0026rsquo;s\u0026trade; pizza nutrition tables. Fiber declined from 4.56% to 3.04%. The elevated ash content aligns with the calcium, magnesium, and potassium present in \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProximate Chemical Analysis of Pizza\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipids\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAshes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP-T\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP-5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP-10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.060.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP-15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP-20\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eMeans with the same letter in each column are not significantly different (Tukey, 0.05).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein content reached 16.0% at 20% \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e substitution, consistent with the increases reported by Maldonado et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] when enriching wheat flour with 5\u0026ndash;10% rice bran (\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e). This value is well above the 5.3% reported on the FUD\u0026trade; pizza nutrition label, underscoring the potential of J. curcas flour as a high-protein fortifier, an observation also noted by Arg\u0026uuml;ello et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] and Arguello et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] in fortified cookies and tortillas made with edible \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cb\u003eProximate Chemical Analysis of Pizza\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Sensory Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsumer acceptance of pizzas supplemented with \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour showed a predominantly positive trend, with most responses distributed within the upper categories of the hedonic scale (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Overall, 84% of panelists rated the formulations within the \u0026ldquo;like\u0026rdquo; range, whereas 16% provided scores within the \u0026ldquo;dislike\u0026rdquo; range, indicating a generally favorable perception of the product. Among the formulations evaluated, the 10% substitution level obtained the highest proportion of top-box ratings (9.6%), followed closely by the 5% and 15% substitutions (7.17% each). These results suggest that moderate incorporation levels may enhance consumer acceptance without negatively impacting sensory attributes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo our knowledge, no peer reviewed studies have previously evaluated pizza formulations fortified with \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour, which limits direct comparison. However, the positive acceptance observed aligns with reports on bakery and cereal based products fortified with alternative protein-rich flours, where partial substitution often improves flavor complexity or texture tolerance when maintained within moderate levels. This trend supports the potential of \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour as a viable ingredient for developing nutritionally enhanced baked products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 2. Acceptability of pizzas with \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour at different substitution levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eFortifying pizza bases with defatted \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour increases protein content (up to 16.0% at 20% substitution) and raises moisture, lipids, and ash, with a slight reduction in fiber. Substitution reduces gluten strength (W), increases tenacity (P) and the P/L ratio, and decreases extensibility (L), consistent with gluten dilution and greater water demand. In farinograph tests, water absorption increases (+\u0026thinsp;7.6%), optimal development time rises (1.03 min), and stability declines (2.1 min), alongside decreases in degree of weakening (60 BU) and mixing tolerance index (79.2 BU). Despite these shifts, performance remains suitable for low-volume products; sensory acceptance was high (84% in the \u0026ldquo;like\u0026rdquo; range), with peak top-box scores at 10% substitution. Overall, \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;15% \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e provides the best balance between nutritional improvement and processability, while higher levels may be feasible when using strong (high-gluten) wheat flours.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: All authors are grateful to the Secretar\u0026iacute;a de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnolog\u0026iacute;as e Innovaci\u0026oacute;n de M\u0026eacute;xico for the master\u0026apos;s scholarship awarded to Mtra. Elizabeth Arg\u0026uuml;ello Garc\u0026iacute;a.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sensory evaluation was conducted with healthy adult volunteers who provided informed consent prior to participation. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Colegio de Postgraduados in accordance with national guidelines and the Mexican standard NMX-F-605-NORMEX-2016 for sensory evaluation of foods. The committee determined that the study involved minimal risk and was conducted following all relevant guidelines and regulations. Clinical trial number: not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants were adults and provided freely given, informed consent prior to taking part in the sensory evaluation. Participation was voluntary, and all procedures were conducted in accordance with institutional guidelines and the Mexican standard NMX-F-605-NORMEX-2016 for sensory evaluation of foods.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent to publish the anonymized results of the sensory evaluation was obtained from all adult participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are included in this published article and its supplementary materials. Additional raw data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant guidelines\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe edible, non-toxic ecotype of \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e used in this study was obtained from cultivated plants grown in Pueblillo, Veracruz, Mexico. No wild populations were collected. The collection and use of plant material complied with all applicable national regulations, including those of the Secretar\u0026iacute;a de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (SADER) and the Mexican environmental guidelines for non-protected plant species. The species is not listed under any national or international protection status; therefore, no additional permits or licenses were required for its use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatement for Permissions to Collect Plant Material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe edible, non-toxic ecotype of \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e used in this study was obtained from cultivated plants grown in Pueblillo, \u0026nbsp;Veracruz, Mexico. As the species is not listed under any national or international protection status and is commonly cultivated for agricultural use, no special permits or licenses were required for its collection. All procedures involving plant material complied with applicable Mexican agricultural and environmental regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eName of the person who identified the plant/plant part\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe edible, non-toxic ecotype of \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e used in this study corresponds to the same plant material previously described by Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Herrera and co-authors (2006), whose specimens were taxonomically identified by Dr. Victor Steinmann at the outset of the research on this edible ecotype. The kernels used in the present work were obtained from cultivated plants in Pueblillo, Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico, and originate from the same characterized material reported in those earlier publications; therefore, no additional taxonomic identification was required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHerbarium Details\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVoucher specimens of the edible ecotype of Jatropha curcas used in this study were previously deposited by Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Herrera and co-authors (2006) in a public herbarium, where they were taxonomically identified by Dr. Victor Steinmann (Euphorbiaceae specialist). The reference voucher is deposited in the National Herbarium of Mexico (MEXU), Institute of Biology, National Autonomous University of Mexico, under the accession number MEXU-1103518. The plant material used in the present study corresponds to the same characterized and archived ecotype; therefore, no additional voucher deposition was required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLCT was responsible for conceptualization, project administration, and research. JMH and GHS contributed to software development, validation, and writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, as well as methodology and formal analysis. EAG handled visualization, supervision, resource management, and validation. ECM focused on research. OSS was involved in supervision, editing, and visualization, while APV and RICZ also contributed to supervision, editing, and visualization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor details\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eColegio de Postgraduados Campus Veracruz. Km 88.5 Carretera Federal Xalapa-Veracruz, 91690, Veracruz, M\u0026eacute;xico.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eUniversidad Veracruzana, Centro de Investigaciones \u0026nbsp;Tropicales, \u0026nbsp;Jos\u0026eacute; \u0026nbsp; Mar\u0026iacute;a \u0026nbsp;Morelos \u0026nbsp;44, \u0026nbsp; Zona \u0026nbsp;Centro, \u0026nbsp;Xalapa Enr\u0026iacute;quez, Ver. M\u0026eacute;xico. C.P. 91000\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eColegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo.\u0026nbsp;Carretera M\u0026eacute;xico-Texcoco Km. 36.5,\u0026nbsp;Montecillo, Texcoco 56264, Estado de M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eInstituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agr\u0026iacute;colas y Pecuarias Campo Experimental Valle de M\u0026eacute;xico, Mier y Pesado 105, Valle Benito Ju\u0026aacute;rez, Ciudad de M\u0026eacute;xico, M\u0026eacute;xico\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003eTecnol\u0026oacute;gico Nacional de M\u0026eacute;xico, Campus Zongolica. Km 4 Carretera a la Compa\u0026ntilde;\u0026iacute;a S/N, Tepetitlanapa, 95005 Zongolica, Ver.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003eUniversidad Tecnol\u0026oacute;gica del Centro de Veracruz. Avenida Universidad 350, Secretar\u0026iacute;a Acad\u0026eacute;mica. Cuitl\u0026aacute;huac, Veracruz, M\u0026eacute;xico. C.P. 94910. Autor de correspondencia: email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFalciano A, Sorrentino A, Masi P, Di Pierro P. Development of functional pizza base enriched with jujube (\u003cem\u003eZiziphus jujuba\u003c/em\u003e) powder. Foods. 2022;11(10):1458. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/foods11101458\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/foods11101458\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShamah-Levy T, Vielma-Orozco E, Heredia-Hern\u0026aacute;ndez O, Romero-Mart\u0026iacute;nez M, Mojica-Cuevas J, Cuevas-Nasu L, Rivera-Dommarco JA. (2020) \u003cem\u003eEncuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrici\u0026oacute;n 2018\u0026ndash;19: resultados nacionales\u003c/em\u003e. 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J Food Sci Technol. 2020;57:3502\u0026ndash;8. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04385-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13197-020-04385-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-food","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discoverfood","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Food](https://www.springer.com/44187)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Food","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Wheat, Jatropha curcas (edible ecotype), composite flour, rheology, protein fortification, sensory evaluation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8273386/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8273386/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWheat-based baked products remain dietary staples due to their affordability, versatility, and desirable technological properties. Expanding their nutritional value through the use of underutilized crops aligns with current food system priorities. This study examined the incorporation of defatted \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour obtained from an edible, non-toxic ecotype into wheat flour blends to determine substitution levels compatible with acceptable dough functionality and product quality. Five formulations (100/0, 95/5, 90/10, 85/15, and 80/20% wheat/\u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e) were evaluated using standard alveograph and farinograph methods to assess dough strength, tenacity, extensibility, water absorption, and mixing behavior. Substitutions below 15% retained viscoelastic characteristics comparable to wheat flour, although gluten dilution reduced deformation energy while increasing tenacity (P/L from 0.84 to 2.59) and decreasing extensibility (92.01 to 36.04 mm). Water absorption increased moderately (46.45\u0026ndash;54.07%), with development times ranging from 2.50 to 3.53 min, reflecting higher hydration requirements associated with the protein- and fiber-rich \u003cem\u003eJ. curcas\u003c/em\u003e fraction. Sensory evaluation revealed high consumer acceptance, particularly at 10\u0026ndash;15% substitution, supporting its applicability in low volume baked products such as pizza bases. Protein content increased from 11.52% in the control to 16% at 20% substitution. These findings demonstrate that defatted \u003cem\u003eJatropha curcas\u003c/em\u003e flour is a promising ingredient for enhancing the nutritional value of wheat-based foods, with substitution levels up to 15% achieving an optimal balance between improved composition and functional performance.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Defatted Jatropha curcas Flour as a Novel Functional Ingredient for Enhancing the Technological and Sensory Quality of Pizza Dough","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-25 05:38:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8273386/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-21T14:10:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-12T10:21:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"139068091747915113838535981845784955002","date":"2025-12-31T08:46:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-27T18:07:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"36123299786672157997336784028179967805","date":"2025-12-27T16:49:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-22T09:08:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T04:01:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-11T07:23:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-10T15:16:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Food","date":"2025-12-10T15:05:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-food","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discoverfood","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Food](https://www.springer.com/44187)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Food","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7f0e0937-e5fd-4d15-8206-4ece43675748","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-12T10:41:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-25 05:38:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8273386","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8273386","identity":"rs-8273386","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}