Improved disinfection performance for 280 nm LEDs over 254 nm low-pressure UV lamps in community wastewater

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MacIsaac, Kyle D. Rauch, Taylor Prest, Richard M. Simons, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2448106/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 10 May, 2023 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection has been incorporated into both drinking water and wastewater treatment processes for several decades; however, it comes with negative environmental consequences such as high energy demands and use of mercury. Understanding how to scale and build climate responsive technologies is key in fulfilling the intersection of UN Sustainable Development Goals 6 and 13. One technology that addresses the drawbacks of conventional wastewater UV disinfection systems, while providing a climate responsive solution, is UV light emitting diodes (LEDs). The objective of this study was to compare performance of bench-scale 280 nm UV LEDs to bench-scale low pressure (LP) lamps and full-scale UV treated wastewater samples. Results from the study demonstrated that UV LED provides robust treatment that outperformed LP systems at the bench-scale. A comparison of relative energy consumptions of UV LEDs at 20 mJcm-2 and LP system at 30 and 40 mJcm-2 was completed. Based on current projections for wall plug efficiencies (WPE) of UV LED it is expected that energy consumption of LED reactors will be on par or lower compared to the LP systems by 2025. This study determined that, at a WPE of 20%, the equivalent UV LED system would lead to a 24.6% and 43.4 % reduction in power consumption for the 30 and 40 mJcm-2 scenarios, respectively. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection has been incorporated into both drinking water and wastewater treatment processes for several decades. Conventional UV disinfection is driven by mercury-halogen lamps which emit germicidal light at 254 nm. While effective in inactivation of a wide array of pathogens across a variety of water matrices, mercury-based UV disinfection poses an environmental concern as the mercury used for light generation in the lamps is toxic, the lamps operate at maximum energy efficiency between 30-35% creating a high energy demand 1 , and the high operating temperatures of the lamps cause issues of organic and inorganic fouling of the protective quartz lamp sleeves which decreases the efficacy of UV disinfection 2 . UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 focuses on the sanitation and cleanliness of water 3 . Jarvis has noted that sustainable control over microorganisms is key in achieving this goal 4 . Novel technologies that are robust enough to address the many issues involved with achieving SDGs must be studied 5 . Understanding how to scale and build climate responsive technologies is key in fulfilling the intersection of SDG6 and SDG13, Climate Action, in a timely manner. UV light emitting diodes (LEDs) address the previously mentioned drawbacks of conventional wastewater UV disinfection, while providing a climate responsive solution 6–9 . UV LEDs function similarly to conventional mercury-halogen lamps but have a formfactor akin to a typical visible light LED. UV LEDs have matured as a technology over the course of the last decade to the point where full-scale use is imminent and commercial point-of-use systems are readily available 8,10,11 . One of the opportunities provided by UV LED technology is increased germicidal efficiency from the emittance of different wavelengths of UVC light. Subtle shifts in UV wavelength can substantially improve disinfection performance 12–14 . This relative shift in germicidal efficacy is unique to each microorganism and is known as an action spectra, and is related to the relative abundance of the nucleotide base pairs in the organism’s DNA 15 . The increase in germicidal efficiency from shifting the wavelength can decrease the required fluence need to achieve a similar log reduction to help offset the lower energy efficiency currently experienced by UV LEDs in the UVC range. UV LEDs are modular and can be scaled to the application, meaning that they have been used in applications ranging from remote point-of-use disinfection to pilot-scale systems 9,16 . Tuning of the emitted light by using an array of UV LED chips broadens the design space and range of applications for UV disinfection 6 . UV LED reactors have been considered with a bespoke array of LEDs that are tailored to a specific influent wastewater matrix and UV absorbance properties 17,18 . To date, there has been no full-scale implementation of an UV LED reactor in a wastewater treatment facility. Choosing the right tool for assessing the performance of UV technologies is also key in scaling emergent technologies. Several assessment techniques exist (e.g., collimated beam testing, fluorescent microspheres, CFD modelling, and biodosimetry), but they are often limited in either long term assessment capability, representative full-scale results, or both. UV audits have been identified as an approach that identifies the full-scale performance of wastewater treatment facilities (WWTFs) while simultaneously comparing that performance to independent light sources 19 . Another consideration for UV LEDs is the wavelength dependent interactions with UV absorbing and blocking contaminants in a wastewater matrix. The complex nature of wastewater matrices often limits UV disinfection. Typically, wastewater matrices have lower UVT% as the UV wavelength decreases limiting the penetration of UV light at typical UV disinfection wavelengths of 254 nm. As such, there is potential to use longer UVC wavelengths with better penetration capabilities and similar germicidal efficiencies to improve disinfection performance in a wastewater treatment facility; however, exploration of treatment efficacy using alternate UV LED wavelengths has largely been left unexplored. The objective of this study was to compare bench-scale 280 nm UV LEDs to bench-scale low pressure (LP) lamps and full-scale LP UV treated wastewater samples through an SDG lens. The use of UV auditing provides a tool for comparing the potential efficacy of a full-scale UV LED system operating at an equivalent fluence to current LP based full-scale systems. This work examined fluences ranging from 10 to 40 mJcm -2 for two (UV LED and LP) collimated beam units while simultaneously collecting UV treated samples from a full-scale system. Additionally, as UV LED wall plug efficiency is rapidly improving and there is a knowledge gap regarding the state of the art for UV LEDs, the current and projected energy savings from using UV LEDs compared to conventional UV systems was calculated and implications for carbon reductions from a Canadian perspective were examined. Methods Wastewater Treatment Facility Site Description The monitored wastewater treatment facility is a uses a secondary activate sludge system followed by a closed channel UV disinfection system with a maximum design flow of 1363 m 3 day -1 and a design fluence of 30 mJcm -2 . The facility provides wastewater for a service population of approximately 930. Wastewater was collected weekly from the wastewater treatment facility for the first four weeks of the study and collected twice per week for the remaining eight weeks of the study. Plant treated samples were also collected simultaneously as untreated samples to compare the performance of the full-scale facility to bench-scale disinfection using LP and UV LED collimated beam units. Wastewater samples were transported to the lab on ice and analyzed the day of collection. Bench-Scale Apparatus Description A Calgon Carbon collimated beam unit was used for all LP bench-scale work. The LP lamp was turned on 30 minutes to allow for the lamp to warm up and ensure the system was operating at full power to warm up prior to measuring the irradiance. An AquiSense Pearlbeam UV LED collimated beam unit emitting at peak wavelength of 280 nm was use for all LED bench-scale work. All UV irradiance was measured using an OceanOptics USB2000 spectroradiometer and the appropriate correction factors described by Bolton and Linden were applied to the measured irradiance prior to calculating exposure time for target fluences 20 . Fluences of 10, 20, 30, and 40 mJcm -2 were used for both the LP and UV LED samples. All bench-scale samples and full-scale pre- and post-UV samples were enumerated for E. coli following the enumeration protocols below. Water Quality Total suspended solids (TSS) and total iron were collected to assess the impact of water quality on disinfection performance. TSS was conducted as per The Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater 21 . Total iron was measured following the USEPA FerroVer Method (Method 8008) on a DR5000 spectrometer. UVT% was collected at 254 and 280 nm using a 1 cm quartz cuvette on a DR5000 spectrometer. Flow rate and UV intensity were collected from the control panel of the full-scale UV system at the time of sampling. Treatment Protocol and E. coli Enumeration 52 mL of untreated wastewater was added to a sterile petri dish and gently mixed using a stir bar. Wastewater samples were then exposed to UV light for each of the required fluences and UV light sources while operating under subdued red light to minimize the effect of photo repair. Samples were then immediately transferred to a sterile Colilert bottle and diluted with phosphate buffer solution. A Colilert packet was then added to each bottle and mixed before transferring the solution to Quantitrays and then incubated for 24 hours at 37 o C. Samples were then counted and quantified for E. coli . Well counts were converted to MPN-100mL -1 using the quantitray package in R. Statistical Methods and Data Visualization Geeraerd’s non-linear heat inactivation model was adapted to capture kinetics with a log linear and shoulder phase as in Equation (1). 22 All statistics, models and figures were developed using the R (V 4.0.3) 23 using core R functions and the following additional packages: nls, nlstools, and ggplot, Additionally, Affinity Designer (V 1.10.5) was used for all other illustrations and graphics that were developed for this study 24 . Energy Considerations The fluence rate within a reactor is a function of several factors relating to its design and operation as well as the absorbance of the water being treated; considering all reactor characteristics to be constant between the full-scale and an equivalent LED system the relationship can be condensed to Equation (2), where H' e is the mean fluence rate, q is the UV power into the system, and α is the absorption coefficient of the water. Relative power consumptions were then calculated by dividing the mean fluence rate by the current typical wall-plug efficiencies (WPE). Results And Discussion Water Quality The influent wastewater water quality over the duration of the sampling period is shown in Table 1. UVT 254 ranged from 39.7 to 70.6% (mean = 61.8%) and UVT 280 ranged from 44.7 to 75.7% (mean = 66.8%) and flow ranged from 164 to 1010 m 3 day -1 (mean = 490 m 3 day -1 ). These data indicate that the water quality and flow was variable over the sampling period and further strengthens the disinfection data because a variety of wastewater conditions were captured. The TSS was observed to be very low for a wastewater facility with a mean value of 5.5 mgL -1 and a max value of 9.5 mgL -1 . Total iron concentrations were also found to be low with a mean value of 0.21 mgL -1 and a max value of 0.36 mgL -1 . Low TSS and iron concentration suggest that particulate matter has a limited impact on disinfection performance. Table 1 Mean, minimum, and maximum values for select water quality parameter from duration of study Parameter Mean (95% CI) Min Max n Flow, m 3 day -1 490 (361 - 618) 164 1009 15 Intensity, mWcm -2 27 (19.2 - 34.8) 11.1 55.1 15 Total Iron, mgL -1 0.21 (0.16 - 0.25) 0.09 0.36 16 TSS, mgL -1 5.5 (4.2 - 6.9) 1.0 9.5 16 UVT 254 , % 61.8 (58 - 65.6) 39.7 70.6 16 UVT 280, % 66.8 (63 - 70.6) 44.7 75.7 16 Full-scale plant data were also collected as part of the typical sampling for the duration of the study period. Operators collected flow, influent and effluent TSS, influent and effluent pH and effluent E. coli concentrations approximately every 2 weeks. Table 2 summarizes the parameters relevant to this study. Comparing the full-scale data to the bench-scale data indicates that the range of flows and wastewater quality captured during the sampling period captured the range of typical flows for the full-scale facility. Average flows at the plant over the duration of the study were 471 m 3 day -1 (average for sampling events = 490 m 3 day -1 ). The average TSS at the facility was 6.8 mgL -1 which was a slightly higher than the 5.5 mgL -1 observed in the lab. Table 2 Full-scale quality data during experiment sampling period Sample Daily Flow, m 3 day -1 Effluent TSS, mgL -1 Effluent E. coli , CFU-100ml -1 1 632 8.6 70 2 638 11.6 <10 3 379 4.4 <10 4 312 10.2 <10 5 415 1.0 <10 6 446 5.0 30 Treatment Performance Figure 1 shows the disinfection performance for the wastewater treatment facility (WWTF) for both LED and LP collimated beam light sources. The plant performance is shown by the grey bar and dashed line for comparison to the bench-scale treatments indicated by the different colored box plots. The design fluence for the reactor installed at the WWTF was 30 mJcm -2 , and these results show that UV LEDs at 280 nm outperform the LP at this fluence. Furthermore, the overlap of the plant performance shaded region and the LP bench-scale treatment at the 30 and 40 mJcm -2 in Figure 1 indicate that the system was matrix limited when considering the UV auditing methodology, (i.e. the system is treating the wastewater at the highest quality) 19 . This was not unexpected as the average daily flows experienced by the facility are only 36% of the design flows. The LED light source outperformed the LP collimated beam at each of the examined fluences at the bench-scale. This result suggests that UV LED light sources are a better tool for disinfection under some wastewater quality conditions. Collimated beam results for the LP light source indicated that it only achieved disinfection comparable to full-scale LP performance at a fluence greater than 40 mJcm -2 . The design fluence of the WWTF is 30 mJcm -2 which suggests that the facility is performing above the design rate. This is not surprising as the average flowrate experienced at the facility was 490 m 3 day -1 over the course of the study compared to the design flow of 1363 m 3 day -1 . These data show that a significant amount of energy is wasted by the LP system due to an excessive applied UV fluence. A full-scale LED system installed at this WWTF could be better tuned to the changing water quality at this location. Inactivation Kinetics Modelling Modelling of each of the disinfection light sources further indicated that there were significant differences in the behaviour of disinfection between the LP and LED treatments. LED light sources reached a disinfection limit at a fluence of 20 mJcm -2 (Figure 2). The LP modelling indicated that the shouldering of the model began at 40 mJcm -2 and would reach steady state at a fluence that was beyond the range of fluences examined in this study. Table 3 shows the kinetics data and Geeraerd’s model fit for each of the light sources and WWTF data. The effectiveness of the LED versus LP was observed to be significantly different. The 280 LED was found to have a k value that was twice that of the LP system. Practically this means that the 280 nm UV LED requires half the fluence to achieve the same log reduction in E. coli. Moreover, the 280 nm UV LED N res , or the upper level of treatment, was significantly greater compared to the LP system (3.61 log versus 2.82 log). As this upper limit of disinfection is typically due to particle shielding effects, this suggests that the 280 nm UV LED had a higher propensity to reach bacterial communities that may have attached to the particulate matter in the matrix. Particle shielding effects have been observed to be wavelength dependent, as particle UV absorbance capability increases as the wavelength decreases, which lowers the inactivation capabilities at those lower wavelengths. 25 . Furthermore, self aggregation of E. coli has also been shown to be wavelength dependent 26,27 Table 3 Kinetics data for Geeraerd’s model fit parameter and Plan LRV for 2 UV Lamps (bracketed values indicate a 95% confidence interval about the mean) The N res confidence intervals for each bench-scale light source and WWTF data overlapped and there was no significant difference between the bench-scale treatments and full-scale disinfection performance. This is the first instance where the auditing process captured a plant that was substantially overdosing UV radiation. This result indicates that the UV auditing process improves operational efficiency even for a plant which is operating under ideal disinfection outcomes. Energy Implications The increase in the upper level of treatment (+0.79 log) observed for the UV LED source suggests that the interaction of the wavelengths and particulate matter may be influencing performance. Nonetheless, the 33% improved germicidal efficiency when compared to traditional UV light sources begins to address the current discrepancies in wall plug efficiency (WPE) between the two technologies. As of 2020, the highest WPE achieved for a commercially available 280 nm UV LED was 4.1% (LP lamps 30-35%) and equivalent quantum efficiency (EQE) was 6.1% 28 . Currently, UV LEDs in the 280 nm ± 5 nm range have an EQE ranging from 9-20.3% 7,29 and best LEDs would typically be around 7.1%. This marked improvement in the last few years, and forecasted improvements for UV LED WPE indicate that the energy efficiency discrepancy will decrease as LED light sources improve 30,31 . Further efficiency can be found through creative design of UV LED reactors such as highly reflective internal surfaces and overall shape of the reactor which allows for maximum interaction of emitted light and target pathogen. These efficiencies combined can improve the feasibility of full-scale implementation of UV LED reactors. UV LEDs achieved similar disinfection performance to the full-scale WWTF at a UV LED fluence of 20 mJcm -2 whereas the full-scale design fluence was 30 mJcm -2 (Figure 3). It has been illustrated above that the full-scale LP installation was operating to deliver a fluence more than 40 mJcm -2 reduction equivalent fluence (REF), despite a design fluence of 30 mJcm -2 , and hence is consuming additional power to treat above the required level. It was also shown that an equivalent level of inactivation could be achieved by an LED system operating to deliver a 20 mJcm -2 REF. A detailed analysis of the energy cost comparison of an equivalent LED system installed at the Springfield Lake site is beyond the scope of this paper, though a baseline comparison may be drawn. Therefore, the fluence to be delivered by an equivalent LED system would be 1.5 – 2.0 times lower than that of the current LP installation. Energy Implications The increase in the upper level of treatment (+0.79 log) observed for the UV LED source suggests that the interaction of the wavelengths and particulate matter may be influencing performance. Nonetheless, the 33% improved germicidal efficiency when compared to traditional UV light sources begins to address the current discrepancies in wall plug efficiency (WPE) between the two technologies. As of 2020, the highest WPE achieved for a commercially available 280 nm UV LED was 4.1% (LP lamps 30-35%) and equivalent quantum efficiency (EQE) was 6.1% 28 . Currently, UV LEDs in the 280 nm ± 5 nm range have an EQE ranging from 9-20.3% 7,29 and best LEDs would typically be around 7.1%. This marked improvement in the last few years, and forecasted improvements for UV LED WPE indicate that the energy efficiency discrepancy will decrease as LED light sources improve 30,31 . Further efficiency can be found through creative design of UV LED reactors such as highly reflective internal surfaces and overall shape of the reactor which allows for maximum interaction of emitted light and target pathogen. These efficiencies combined can improve the feasibility of full-scale implementation of UV LED reactors. UV LEDs achieved similar disinfection performance to the full-scale WWTF at a UV LED fluence of 20 mJcm -2 whereas the full-scale design fluence was 30 mJcm -2 (Figure 3). It has been illustrated above that the full-scale LP installation was operating to deliver a fluence more than 40 mJcm -2 reduction equivalent fluence (REF), despite a design fluence of 30 mJcm -2 , and hence is consuming additional power to treat above the required level. It was also shown that an equivalent level of inactivation could be achieved by an LED system operating to deliver a 20 mJcm -2 REF. A detailed analysis of the energy cost comparison of an equivalent LED system installed at the Springfield Lake site is beyond the scope of this paper, though a baseline comparison may be drawn. Therefore, the fluence to be delivered by an equivalent LED system would be 1.5 – 2.0 times lower than that of the current LP installation. Using flowrate as a measure of how large a UV system must be to deliver a 30 mJcm -2 dose an estimation of current energy consumption for UV treatment systems was completed. Using the Springfield Lake treatment facility with a baseline flow of 1363 m 3 day -1 and an annual energy usage of 5781.6 kWh estimations of annual power consumption across the provincial totals were calculated. Further, using the provincial energy profiles provided by the Government of Canada, the annual CO 2(e) generated was estimated 36 . These values were then used to assess the scenario where all facilities switch to 20% WPE efficient UV LED systems. This analysis indicates that an annual reduction of 946 tonnes of CO 2(e) is attainable by operating UV LED disinfection systems (Table 4). Table 4 Estimated CO2(e) generation from wastewater treatment facilities using UV treatment based on 2022 provincial rates of CO2(e)generated/ kWh and total daily flows. Province CO 2(e) kWh -1 Total Daily Average Flow, m 3 day -1 Number of Facilities Power, kWhYr -1 Annual CO 2(e) , TonnesYr -1 Estimated Annual CO2(e) For LEDs in 2025, TonnesYr -1 BC 7.3 129784 45 550521 4.02 3.03 AB 590 975988 33 4139965 2443 1842 SK 580 186428 6 790794 459 346 MB 1.1 199519 12 846324 0.931 0.702 ON 25 1250231 172 5303253 133 100 QC 1.5 1084258 39 4599226 6.90 5.20 NB 290 64587.8 28 273969.8 79.5 59.9 NL 24 16225.2 8 68824.37 1.65 1.25 NS 670 280726.5 59 1186549 795 599 PE 0 36575 19 155144.5 0 0 Conclusion The outcomes of this study indicate that UV LED technologies are capable of sufficient full-scale performance and can outperform traditional technologies at congruent fluences. The changes in water quality at the WWTF over the course of sampling also indicate that UV LED disinfection provides robust treatment. Additionally, the energy comparisons completed for this study indicate that UV LED systems have the potential to provide a similar performance at a lower power consumption in the very near future. Improvements in disinfection efficacy at comparable fluences have greater implications as UV LED technologies are brought to full-scale devices. As infrastructure is replaced to maintain the safety of drinking water and wastewater treatment processes, UV LEDs provide a scalable tool to respond to the pressures of climate change. Future work is recommended using this approach to compare LED performance to traditional technologies. using a truly full-scale reactor that is installed into the network of a municipal wastewater treatment facility. UV LED systems should also be better quantified to understand the potential energy savings gained from other unique features such as instantaneous dimming and brightening of the LEDs. Declarations Data availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Acknowledgements This study was funded through support from a NSERC Alliance Grant [ALLRP 568507 - 2021] and NSERC Collaborative Research and Development Grant in partnership with Halifax Water [CRD 539387 - 19]. Kyle Rauch is supported though a NSERC PGS-D Scholarship [PGSD3 - 547191 - 2020]. The authors would like to extend thanks the staff and plant operators for Halifax Water for their support with the sampling programs. Author contributions ‡ SM and KR contributed equally to this manuscript and share the first authorship. SM Conceptualization, Project Administration, Visualization, Writing-original draft, review, and editing; KR Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal Analysis, Visualization, Writing original draft, review, and editing; TP Investigation, Writing-original draft; RS Methodology, Formal Analysis, Writing-original draft; GG Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Supervision, Writing-review & editing; AS Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Supervision, Writing-review & editing Conflict of interests The author(s) declare no competing interests. References Ibrahim, M. A. S., MacAdam, J., Autin, O. & Jefferson, B. Evaluating the impact of LED bulb development on the economic viability of ultraviolet technology for disinfection. Environmental technology 35 , 400–6 (2014). Wait, I. W. & Blatchley, E. R. 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Provincial and Territorial Energy Profiles. https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles/index.html. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 10 May, 2023 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revision 30 Jan, 2023 Reviews received at journal 18 Jan, 2023 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Jan, 2023 Reviewers invited by journal 13 Jan, 2023 Editor assigned by journal 12 Jan, 2023 Editor invited by journal 11 Jan, 2023 Submission checks completed at journal 11 Jan, 2023 First submitted to journal 05 Jan, 2023 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2448106","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":166899857,"identity":"7b5f35de-311b-4eed-b708-97ac933a71bb","order_by":0,"name":"Sean A. MacIsaac","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dalhousie University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sean","middleName":"A.","lastName":"MacIsaac","suffix":""},{"id":166899858,"identity":"e53d6329-7c89-4818-bb41-e8cb7cd8c2d5","order_by":1,"name":"Kyle D. Rauch","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dalhousie University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kyle","middleName":"D.","lastName":"Rauch","suffix":""},{"id":166899859,"identity":"8aff898c-0a49-4b7d-89a4-c8f36a4af886","order_by":2,"name":"Taylor Prest","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dalhousie University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Taylor","middleName":"","lastName":"Prest","suffix":""},{"id":166899860,"identity":"3700f64d-8aa0-4952-ae5a-bfd84bcb4404","order_by":3,"name":"Richard M. Simons","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"AquiSense Technologies","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Richard","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Simons","suffix":""},{"id":166899861,"identity":"8d3ed920-733c-4fc0-a10d-aa1e734ca381","order_by":4,"name":"Graham A. Gagnon","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dalhousie University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Graham","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Gagnon","suffix":""},{"id":166899862,"identity":"b40547f0-9149-48b7-9ed1-678077126f41","order_by":5,"name":"Amina K. Stoddart","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA60lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACNgbGBiBVB8QJBkDChrGBnYAWfoiWwxIQLQlpjA3MBLRINoCpAzAthwlrMbh2uO3BD4YDdfzsyRs/V/44L9vfzMD44Qc+LbcT2w17GOokJHueFUueSbhtPOMwA7NkD34tbRI8DMwSBjdyDCQbEm4nNhwGhgkPHi32QC2SfyBajH82JJxLnA/UwviHgC3SUFvMgLYcSNwA1MKMzxawFhmDw5Ize56VWTakJRtvPMzYLC2DV0v6M8k3FXX8wBDbfLPBxk523vHmgx/f4NEC1YjCA0fuKBgFo2AUjAJKAADeWU8uqojonQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Dalhousie University","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amina","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Stoddart","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-01-05 21:29:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2448106/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2448106/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34633-7","type":"published","date":"2023-05-10T20:47:10+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":31559272,"identity":"9f567857-904a-4b27-af4a-4b9cde191d2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-01-13 21:07:28","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34683,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLog reduction values for UV LED and LP treated wastewater. The dashed line and shaded region represent the mean full-scale plant performance and 95% confidence interval over the duration of sampling\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2448106/v1/bb9822d8b292f1f10f3585b3.png"},{"id":31558962,"identity":"c7f1bf5e-8d17-47b2-80ca-ef0a3fada0d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-01-13 20:59:28","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39616,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeeraerd’s model comparison between 254nm LP and 280nm UV LED. Error bars represent 95% confidence interval on the mean as indicated by black (LP) and yellow (LED) points.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2448106/v1/dbb0d91d5f1c7dd7a6f22542.png"},{"id":31559271,"identity":"e5896b2e-f68b-409a-81c8-e2f94c8ce913","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-01-13 21:07:28","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45296,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e concentration versus fluence for two UV systems. Black circles represent bench-scale treatment at 254 nm using a LP collimated beam system. Yellow squares represent bench-scale treatment at 280 nm using an UV LED collimated beam system. The red dotted line represents target effluent concentration to meet regulatory discharge requirements. The black line and shaded region represent the mean and 95% confidence interval of the effluent concentration from post UV samples.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2448106/v1/48a113065293cf7751426b00.png"},{"id":31558960,"identity":"59de7a7a-8397-4074-abc9-789e85d03a70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-01-13 20:59:28","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation and size of wastewater treatment facilities in the 10 Provinces of Canada that use UV for disinfection. Insert represent total daily flows of WWTFs using UV treatment per Province in Canada.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2448106/v1/7e7243cc20c0000ad1cd3550.png"},{"id":44729461,"identity":"ec5aee16-c2e7-43b9-bfc3-3cc64b44c0c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-10-16 21:15:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":558265,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2448106/v1/ea014b12-61be-4d8e-9a62-d25506742ad5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Improved disinfection performance for 280 nm LEDs over 254 nm low-pressure UV lamps in community wastewater","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUltraviolet (UV) disinfection has been incorporated into both drinking water and wastewater treatment processes for several decades. Conventional UV disinfection is driven by mercury-halogen lamps which emit germicidal light at 254 nm. While effective in inactivation of a wide array of pathogens across a variety of water matrices, mercury-based UV disinfection poses an environmental concern as the mercury used for light generation in the lamps is toxic, the lamps operate at maximum energy efficiency between 30-35% creating a high energy demand\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, and the high operating temperatures of the lamps cause issues of organic and inorganic fouling of the protective quartz lamp sleeves which decreases the efficacy of UV disinfection\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 focuses on the sanitation and cleanliness of water \u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Jarvis has noted that sustainable control over microorganisms is key in achieving this goal \u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e. Novel technologies that are robust enough to address the many issues involved with achieving SDGs must be studied \u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e. Understanding how to scale and build climate responsive technologies is key in fulfilling the intersection of SDG6 and SDG13, Climate Action, in a timely manner. UV light emitting diodes (LEDs) address the previously mentioned drawbacks of conventional wastewater UV disinfection, while providing a climate responsive solution \u003csup\u003e6\u0026ndash;9\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;UV LEDs function similarly to conventional mercury-halogen lamps but have a formfactor akin to a typical visible light LED. UV LEDs have matured as a technology over the course of the last decade to the point where full-scale use is imminent and commercial point-of-use systems are readily available \u003csup\u003e8,10,11\u003c/sup\u003e. One of the opportunities provided by UV LED technology is increased germicidal efficiency from the emittance of different wavelengths of UVC light. Subtle shifts in UV wavelength can substantially improve disinfection performance\u003csup\u003e12\u0026ndash;14\u003c/sup\u003e. This relative shift in germicidal efficacy is unique to each microorganism and is known as an action spectra, and is related to the relative abundance of the nucleotide base pairs in the organism\u0026rsquo;s DNA\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e. The increase in germicidal efficiency from shifting the wavelength can decrease the required fluence need to achieve a similar log reduction to help offset the lower energy efficiency currently experienced by UV LEDs in the UVC range.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;UV LEDs are modular and can be scaled to the application, meaning that they have been used in applications ranging from remote point-of-use disinfection to pilot-scale systems \u003csup\u003e9,16\u003c/sup\u003e. Tuning of the emitted light by using an array of UV LED chips broadens the design space and range of applications for UV disinfection \u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e. UV LED reactors have been considered with a bespoke array of LEDs that are tailored to a specific influent wastewater matrix and UV absorbance properties \u003csup\u003e17,18\u003c/sup\u003e. To date, there has been no full-scale implementation of an UV LED reactor in a wastewater treatment facility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Choosing the right tool for assessing the performance of UV technologies is also key in scaling emergent technologies. Several assessment techniques exist (e.g., collimated beam testing, fluorescent microspheres, CFD modelling, and biodosimetry), but they are often limited in either long term assessment capability, representative full-scale results, or both. UV audits have been identified as an approach that identifies the full-scale performance of wastewater treatment facilities (WWTFs) while simultaneously comparing that performance to independent light sources\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Another consideration for UV LEDs is the wavelength dependent interactions with UV absorbing and blocking contaminants in a wastewater matrix. The complex nature of wastewater matrices often limits UV disinfection. Typically, wastewater matrices have lower UVT% as the UV wavelength decreases limiting the penetration of UV light at typical UV disinfection wavelengths of 254 nm. As such, there is potential to use longer UVC wavelengths with better penetration capabilities and similar germicidal efficiencies to improve disinfection performance in a wastewater treatment facility; however, exploration of treatment efficacy \u0026nbsp;using alternate UV LED wavelengths has largely been left unexplored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The objective of this study was to compare bench-scale 280 nm UV LEDs to bench-scale low pressure (LP) lamps and full-scale LP UV treated wastewater samples through an SDG lens. The use of UV auditing provides a tool for comparing the potential efficacy of a full-scale UV LED system operating at an equivalent fluence to current LP based full-scale systems. This work examined fluences ranging from 10 to 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e for two (UV LED and LP) collimated beam units while simultaneously collecting UV treated samples from a full-scale system. Additionally, as UV LED wall plug efficiency is rapidly improving and there is a knowledge gap regarding the state of the art for UV LEDs, the current and projected energy savings from using UV LEDs compared to conventional UV systems was calculated and implications for carbon reductions from a Canadian perspective were examined.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003ch1\u003e\u003cem\u003eWastewater Treatment Facility Site Description\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe monitored wastewater treatment facility is a uses a secondary activate sludge system followed by a closed channel UV disinfection system with a maximum design flow of 1363 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and a design fluence of 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e. The facility provides wastewater for a service population of approximately 930. Wastewater was collected weekly from the wastewater treatment facility for the first four weeks of the study and collected twice per week for the remaining eight weeks of the study. Plant treated samples were also collected simultaneously as untreated samples to compare the performance of the full-scale facility to bench-scale disinfection using LP and UV LED collimated beam units. Wastewater samples were transported to the lab on ice and analyzed the day of collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003e\u003cem\u003eBench-Scale Apparatus Description\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA Calgon Carbon collimated beam unit was used for all LP bench-scale work. The LP lamp was turned on 30 minutes to allow for the lamp to warm up and ensure the system was operating at full power to warm up prior to measuring the irradiance. An AquiSense Pearlbeam UV LED collimated beam unit emitting at peak wavelength of 280 nm was use for all LED bench-scale work. All UV irradiance was measured using an OceanOptics USB2000 spectroradiometer and the appropriate correction factors described by Bolton and Linden were applied to the measured irradiance prior to calculating exposure time for target fluences\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e. Fluences of 10, 20, 30, and 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e were used for both the LP and UV LED samples. All bench-scale samples and full-scale pre- and post-UV samples were enumerated for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e following the enumeration protocols below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eWater Quality\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal suspended solids (TSS) and total iron were collected to assess the impact of water quality on disinfection performance. TSS was conducted as per \u003cem\u003eThe\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eStandard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e21\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTotal iron was measured following the USEPA FerroVer Method (Method 8008) on a DR5000 spectrometer. UVT% was collected at 254 and 280 nm using a 1 cm quartz cuvette on a DR5000 spectrometer. Flow rate and UV intensity were collected from the control panel of the full-scale UV system at the time of sampling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003e\u003cem\u003eTreatment Protocol and E. coli Enumeration\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e52 mL of untreated wastewater was added to a sterile petri dish and gently mixed using a stir bar. Wastewater samples were then exposed to UV light for each of the required fluences and UV light sources while operating under subdued red light to minimize the effect of photo repair. Samples were then immediately transferred to a sterile Colilert bottle and diluted with phosphate buffer solution. A Colilert packet was then added to each bottle and mixed before transferring the solution to Quantitrays and then incubated for 24 hours at 37\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC. Samples were then counted and quantified for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e. Well counts were converted to MPN-100mL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e using the quantitray package in R.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003e\u003cem\u003eStatistical Methods and Data Visualization\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeeraerd\u0026rsquo;s non-linear heat inactivation model was adapted to capture kinetics with a log linear and shoulder phase as in Equation (1).\u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\"\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll statistics, models and figures were developed using the R (V 4.0.3)\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e using core R functions and the following additional packages: nls, nlstools, and ggplot, Additionally, Affinity Designer (V 1.10.5) was used for all other illustrations and graphics that were developed for this study\u003csup\u003e24\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eEnergy Considerations\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fluence rate within a reactor is a function of several factors relating to its design and operation as well as the absorbance of the water being treated; considering all reactor characteristics to be constant between the full-scale and an equivalent LED system the relationship can be condensed to Equation (2), where \u003cem\u003eH\u0026apos;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e is the mean fluence rate, \u003cem\u003eq\u003c/em\u003e is the UV power into the system, and \u0026alpha; is the absorption coefficient of the water.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRelative power consumptions were then calculated by dividing \u0026nbsp;the mean fluence rate by the current typical wall-plug efficiencies (WPE).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results And Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWater Quality\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe influent wastewater water quality over the duration of the sampling period is shown in Table 1. UVT\u003csub\u003e254\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 39.7 to 70.6% (mean = 61.8%) and UVT\u003csub\u003e280\u003c/sub\u003e ranged from 44.7 to 75.7% (mean = 66.8%) and flow ranged from 164 to 1010 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(mean = 490 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e). These data indicate that the water quality and flow was variable over the sampling period and further strengthens the disinfection data because a variety of wastewater conditions were captured. The TSS was observed to be very low for a wastewater facility with a mean value of 5.5 mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and a max value of 9.5 mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e. Total iron concentrations were also found to be low with a mean value of 0.21 mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and a max value of 0.36 mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e. Low TSS and iron concentration suggest that particulate matter has a limited impact on disinfection performance.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;Mean, minimum, and maximum values for select\u0026nbsp;water quality parameter from duration of study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameter\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean (95% CI)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMax\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlow, m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e490 (361 - 618)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntensity, mWcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27 (19.2 - 34.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Iron, mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21 (0.16 - 0.25)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTSS, mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5 (4.2 - 6.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUVT\u003csub\u003e254\u003c/sub\u003e, %\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.8 (58 - 65.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"26.262626262626263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUVT\u003csub\u003e280,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.37373737373738%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.8 (63 - 70.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.131313131313131%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.141414141414142%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.090909090909092%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Full-scale plant data were also collected as part of the typical sampling for the duration of the study period. Operators collected flow, influent and effluent TSS, influent and effluent pH and effluent \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e concentrations approximately every 2 weeks. Table 2 summarizes the parameters relevant to this study. Comparing the full-scale data to the bench-scale data indicates that the range of flows and wastewater quality captured during the sampling period captured the range of typical flows for the full-scale facility. Average flows at the plant over the duration of the study were 471 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (average for sampling events = 490 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e). The average TSS at the facility was 6.8 mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e which was a slightly higher than the 5.5 mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eobserved in the lab.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;Full-scale quality data during experiment sampling period\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDaily Flow, m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffluent TSS, mgL\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffluent \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, CFU-100ml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e632\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e638\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e379\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e312\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e446\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTreatment Performance\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 shows the disinfection performance for the wastewater treatment facility (WWTF) for both LED and LP collimated beam light sources. The plant performance is shown by the grey bar and dashed line for comparison to the bench-scale treatments indicated by the different colored box plots. The design fluence for the reactor installed at the WWTF was 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e, and these results show that UV LEDs at 280 nm outperform the LP at this fluence. Furthermore, the overlap of the plant performance shaded region and the LP bench-scale treatment at the 30 and 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e in Figure 1 indicate that the system was matrix limited when considering the UV auditing methodology, (i.e. the system is treating the wastewater at the highest quality)\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e. This was not unexpected as the average daily flows experienced by the facility are only 36% of the design flows. The LED light source outperformed the LP collimated beam at each of the examined fluences at the bench-scale. This result suggests that UV LED light sources are a better tool for disinfection under some wastewater quality conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCollimated beam results for the LP light source indicated that it only achieved disinfection comparable to full-scale LP performance at a fluence greater than 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e. The design fluence of the WWTF is 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e which suggests that the facility is performing above the design rate. This is not surprising as the average flowrate experienced at the facility was 490 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e over the course of the study compared to the design flow of 1363 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e. These data show that a significant amount of energy is wasted by the LP system due to an excessive applied UV fluence. A full-scale LED system installed at this WWTF could be better tuned to the changing water quality at this location.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eInactivation Kinetics Modelling\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModelling of each of the disinfection light sources further indicated that there were significant differences in the behaviour of disinfection between the LP and LED treatments. LED light sources reached a disinfection limit at a fluence of 20 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(Figure 2). The LP modelling indicated that the shouldering of the model began at 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e and would reach steady state at a fluence that was beyond the range of fluences examined in this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 shows the kinetics data and Geeraerd\u0026rsquo;s model fit for each of the light sources and WWTF data. The effectiveness of the LED versus LP was observed to be significantly different. The 280 LED was found to have a k value that was twice that of the LP system. Practically this means that the 280 nm UV LED requires half the fluence to achieve the same log reduction in \u003cem\u003eE. coli.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eMoreover, the 280 nm UV LED N\u003csub\u003eres\u003c/sub\u003e, or the upper level of treatment, was significantly greater compared to the LP system (3.61 log versus 2.82 log). As this upper limit of disinfection is typically due to particle shielding effects, this suggests that the 280 nm UV LED had a higher propensity to reach bacterial communities that may have attached to the particulate matter in the matrix. Particle shielding effects have been observed to be wavelength dependent, as particle UV absorbance capability increases as the wavelength decreases, which lowers the inactivation capabilities at those lower wavelengths.\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, self aggregation of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e has also been shown to be wavelength dependent \u003csup\u003e26,27\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eKinetics data for Geeraerd\u0026rsquo;s model fit parameter and Plan LRV for 2 UV Lamps (bracketed values indicate a 95% confidence interval about the mean)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe N\u003csub\u003eres\u003c/sub\u003e confidence intervals for each bench-scale light source and WWTF data overlapped and there was no significant difference between the bench-scale treatments and full-scale disinfection performance. This is the first instance where the auditing process captured a plant that was substantially overdosing UV radiation. This result indicates that the UV auditing process improves operational efficiency even for a plant which is operating under ideal disinfection outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnergy Implications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe increase in the upper level of treatment (+0.79 log) observed for the UV LED source suggests that the interaction of the wavelengths and particulate matter may be influencing performance. Nonetheless, the 33% improved germicidal efficiency when compared to traditional UV light sources begins to address the current discrepancies in wall plug efficiency (WPE) between the two technologies. As of 2020, the highest WPE achieved for a commercially available 280 nm UV LED was 4.1% (LP lamps 30-35%) and equivalent quantum efficiency (EQE) was 6.1%\u003csup\u003e28\u003c/sup\u003e. Currently, UV LEDs in the 280 nm\u0026nbsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026nbsp;5 nm range have an EQE ranging from 9-20.3%\u003csup\u003e7,29\u003c/sup\u003e and best LEDs would typically be around 7.1%. This marked improvement in the last few years, and forecasted improvements for UV LED WPE indicate that the energy efficiency discrepancy will decrease as LED light sources improve \u003csup\u003e30,31\u003c/sup\u003e. Further efficiency can be found through creative design of UV LED reactors such as highly reflective internal surfaces and overall shape of the reactor which allows for maximum interaction of emitted light and target pathogen. These efficiencies combined can improve the feasibility of full-scale implementation of UV LED reactors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUV LEDs achieved similar disinfection performance to the full-scale WWTF at a UV LED fluence of 20 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e whereas the full-scale design fluence was 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(Figure 3).\u0026nbsp;It has been illustrated above that the full-scale LP installation was operating to deliver a fluence more than 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e reduction equivalent fluence (REF), despite a design fluence of 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e, and hence is consuming additional power to treat above the required level. It was also shown that an equivalent level of inactivation could be achieved by an LED system operating to deliver a 20 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e REF. A detailed analysis of the energy cost comparison of an equivalent LED system installed at the Springfield Lake site is beyond the scope of this paper, though a baseline comparison may be drawn. Therefore, the fluence to be delivered by an equivalent LED system would be 1.5 \u0026ndash; 2.0 times lower than that of the current LP installation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnergy Implications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe increase in the upper level of treatment (+0.79 log) observed for the UV LED source suggests that the interaction of the wavelengths and particulate matter may be influencing performance. Nonetheless, the 33% improved germicidal efficiency when compared to traditional UV light sources begins to address the current discrepancies in wall plug efficiency (WPE) between the two technologies. As of 2020, the highest WPE achieved for a commercially available 280 nm UV LED was 4.1% (LP lamps 30-35%) and equivalent quantum efficiency (EQE) was 6.1%\u003csup\u003e28\u003c/sup\u003e. Currently, UV LEDs in the 280 nm\u0026nbsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026nbsp;5 nm range have an EQE ranging from 9-20.3%\u003csup\u003e7,29\u003c/sup\u003e and best LEDs would typically be around 7.1%. This marked improvement in the last few years, and forecasted improvements for UV LED WPE indicate that the energy efficiency discrepancy will decrease as LED light sources improve \u003csup\u003e30,31\u003c/sup\u003e. Further efficiency can be found through creative design of UV LED reactors such as highly reflective internal surfaces and overall shape of the reactor which allows for maximum interaction of emitted light and target pathogen. These efficiencies combined can improve the feasibility of full-scale implementation of UV LED reactors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUV LEDs achieved similar disinfection performance to the full-scale WWTF at a UV LED fluence of 20 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e whereas the full-scale design fluence was 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e(Figure 3).\u0026nbsp;It has been illustrated above that the full-scale LP installation was operating to deliver a fluence more than 40 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e reduction equivalent fluence (REF), despite a design fluence of 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e, and hence is consuming additional power to treat above the required level. It was also shown that an equivalent level of inactivation could be achieved by an LED system operating to deliver a 20 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e REF. A detailed analysis of the energy cost comparison of an equivalent LED system installed at the Springfield Lake site is beyond the scope of this paper, though a baseline comparison may be drawn. Therefore, the fluence to be delivered by an equivalent LED system would be 1.5 \u0026ndash; 2.0 times lower than that of the current LP installation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing flowrate as a measure of how large a UV system must be to deliver a 30 mJcm\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e dose an estimation of current energy consumption for UV treatment systems was completed. Using the Springfield Lake treatment facility with a baseline flow of 1363 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and an annual energy usage of 5781.6 kWh estimations of annual power consumption across the provincial totals were calculated. Further, using the provincial energy profiles provided by the Government of Canada, the annual CO\u003csub\u003e2(e)\u003c/sub\u003e generated was estimated\u003csup\u003e36\u003c/sup\u003e. These values were then used to assess the\u0026nbsp;scenario where all facilities switch to 20% WPE efficient UV LED systems. This analysis indicates that an annual reduction of 946 tonnes of CO\u003csub\u003e2(e)\u003c/sub\u003e is attainable by operating UV LED disinfection systems (Table 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEstimated CO2(e) generation from wastewater treatment facilities using UV treatment based on 2022 provincial rates of CO2(e)generated/ kWh and total\u0026nbsp;daily flows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProvince\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2(e)\u003c/sub\u003ekWh\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Daily Average Flow,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003em\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of Facilities\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePower,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ekWhYr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnnual CO\u003csub\u003e2(e)\u003c/sub\u003e, TonnesYr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEstimated Annual CO2(e) For LEDs in 2025, TonnesYr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e129784\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e550521\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e590\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e975988\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4139965\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2443\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1842\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSK\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e580\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e186428\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e790794\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e346\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e199519\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e846324\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.931\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.702\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eON\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1250231\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5303253\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1084258\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4599226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64587.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e273969.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16225.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68824.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e670\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e280726.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1186549\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e795\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e599\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.278350515463918%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" width=\"19.587628865979383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36575\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e155144.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe outcomes of this study indicate that UV LED technologies are capable of sufficient full-scale performance and can outperform traditional technologies at congruent fluences. The changes in water quality at the WWTF over the course of sampling also indicate that UV LED disinfection provides robust treatment. Additionally, the energy comparisons completed for this study indicate that UV LED systems have the potential to provide a similar performance at a lower power consumption in the very near future. Improvements in disinfection efficacy at comparable fluences have greater implications as UV LED technologies are brought to full-scale devices. As infrastructure is replaced to maintain the safety of drinking water and wastewater treatment processes, UV LEDs provide a scalable tool to respond to the pressures of climate change. Future work is recommended using this approach to compare LED performance to traditional technologies. using a truly full-scale reactor that is installed into the network of a municipal wastewater treatment facility. UV LED systems should also be better quantified to understand the potential energy savings gained from other unique features such as instantaneous dimming and brightening of the LEDs.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was funded through support from a NSERC Alliance Grant [ALLRP 568507 - 2021] and NSERC Collaborative Research and Development Grant in partnership with Halifax Water [CRD 539387 - 19]. Kyle Rauch is supported though a NSERC PGS-D Scholarship [PGSD3 - 547191 - 2020]. The authors would like to extend thanks the staff and plant operators for Halifax Water for their support with the sampling programs. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSM and KR\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003econtributed equally to this manuscript and share the first authorship.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSM\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Project Administration, Visualization, Writing-original draft, review, and editing; \u003cstrong\u003eKR\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal Analysis, Visualization, Writing original draft, review, and editing; \u003cstrong\u003eTP\u003c/strong\u003e Investigation, Writing-original draft; \u003cstrong\u003eRS\u003c/strong\u003e Methodology, Formal Analysis, Writing-original draft; \u003cstrong\u003eGG\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Supervision, Writing-review \u0026amp; editing; \u003cstrong\u003eAS\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Supervision, Writing-review \u0026amp; editing\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIbrahim, M. 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Provincial and Territorial Energy Profiles. https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles/index.html.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2448106/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2448106/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection has been incorporated into both drinking water and wastewater treatment processes for several decades; however, it comes with negative environmental consequences such as high energy demands and use of mercury. Understanding how to scale and build climate responsive technologies is key in fulfilling the intersection of UN Sustainable Development Goals 6 and 13. One technology that addresses the drawbacks of conventional wastewater UV disinfection systems, while providing a climate responsive solution, is UV light emitting diodes (LEDs). The objective of this study was to compare performance of bench-scale 280 nm UV LEDs to bench-scale low pressure (LP) lamps and full-scale UV treated wastewater samples. Results from the study demonstrated that UV LED provides robust treatment that outperformed LP systems at the bench-scale. A comparison of relative energy consumptions of UV LEDs at 20 mJcm-2 and LP system at 30 and 40 mJcm-2 was completed. Based on current projections for wall plug efficiencies (WPE) of UV LED it is expected that energy consumption of LED reactors will be on par or lower compared to the LP systems by 2025. This study determined that, at a WPE of 20%, the equivalent UV LED system would lead to a 24.6% and 43.4 % reduction in power consumption for the 30 and 40 mJcm-2 scenarios, respectively.","manuscriptTitle":"Improved disinfection performance for 280 nm LEDs over 254 nm low-pressure UV lamps in community wastewater","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2023-01-13 20:59:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2448106/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2023-01-30T05:29:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2023-01-18T23:07:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39d01874-597d-4024-a53f-e87388f0c0da","date":"2023-01-13T22:11:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2023-01-13T13:37:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2023-01-13T01:25:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2023-01-11T14:00:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2023-01-11T13:48:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2023-01-05T21:24:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a934f2d3-60f2-4f55-82f4-263857a512c0","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 13th, 2023","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-10-16T21:02:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-2448106","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34633-7","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2023-05-10 20:47:10","publishedOnDateReadable":"May 10th, 2023"},"versionCreatedAt":"2023-01-13 20:59:23","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-023-34633-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34633-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2448106","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2448106","identity":"rs-2448106","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"ApUGefWb6u5IBVtyqm6d5","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}