Forensic science and the importance of nanoparticles in the field

Forensic science and the importance of nanoparticles in the field | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Forensic science and the importance of nanoparticles in the field Mohammed A ALshaikhi, Battel AlTeraiqi, Ammar Halawani, Ahmed Alzahrani, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8778571/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Nanotechnology has become an essential component of modern forensic science due to its ability to enhance the sensitivity, accuracy, and efficiency of analytical techniques used in criminal investigations. In forensic applications, nanotechnology is primarily employed in the development of reactive (“smart”) materials, microchip technologies, nanomanipulators, and nanoimaging tools for visualization and analysis. These advances have enabled forensic investigators to collect and analyze evidence that could not be effectively examined using conventional techniques. Nanomaterials offer improved performance by facilitating the detection of trace-level evidence, enhancing analytical precision, and accelerating investigative processes. This study was conducted in the Forensic Medicine Departments in the western region of Saudi Arabia, specifically in Al Madinah, Jeddah, and Makkah. A structured questionnaire was prepared and distributed to forensic doctors and consultants to assess their perspectives on the role of nanotechnology in forensic investigations. The study aimed to clarify how nanotechnologies can address current challenges in forensic science, particularly in evidence collection and analysis at crime scenes, as well as their potential contribution to preventive forensic and security practices. Forensic science nanoparticles importance of nanoparticles in Forensic science fingerprint Crime Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction The majority of industries worldwide have adopted advanced nanotechnology, making its application unavoidable in many areas of forensic science. As a result, nanotechnology has become an important tool in modern forensic investigations. Nanoforensics has emerged as a novel approach to forensic science, involving the collection of evidence at a crime scene, its processing in the laboratory, and the presentation of scientific findings in court [ 1 ]. This study aims to determine the importance of nanoparticles in the field of forensic science. Nanotechnology can be applied to a wide range of forensic investigations, including latent fingerprint development, drug and explosive detection, body fluid identification, DNA analysis, and biosensing. The contribution of nanoforensics to crime investigation can be significantly enhanced through the development of faster, more accurate, efficient, and easy-to-use techniques that reveal the true potential of this technology [ 2 ]. Nanotechnology integrates biology, physics, and chemistry to synthesize, design, manipulate, and study matter at the nanometer scale, typically ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm. Nanomaterials have been widely applied in various fields, including biomedical sciences, physical sciences, material sciences, and electronic engineering, due to their unique properties at the nanoscale [ 3 ]. Common nanomaterials include nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, supramolecules, nanorods, and nanofibers. The nanoscale dimensions of these materials provide a large surface-area-to-volume ratio, which enhances molecular interactions by increasing the availability of active sites for chemical reactions. In addition, nanodevices have gained popularity because of their high sensitivity and selectivity. Nanochips, nanosensors, and nanoprobes are widely used in several scientific fields, including metal detection, disease diagnosis, and hybridization experiments [ 4 ]. 2. Literature review Nanotechnology is currently most effectively applied in forensic toxicology, where it is used to detect and quantify toxic substances from biologically relevant forensic samples such as saliva, urine, blood, hair, sweat, vitreous humour, bone remains, and latent fingerprints. In this context, nanosensors based on nanoparticles offer a reliable alternative to conventional on-site toxicological tests, providing faster, more cost-effective, and highly sensitive drug screening methods [ 5 ]. 2.1 Nanoparticles : A nanoparticle is defined as a particle that has at least one dimension ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm. At this scale, nanoparticles exhibit physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ fundamentally from those of individual atoms, molecules, or bulk materials. Nanoparticles can be synthesized from a wide range of materials, including metals, metal oxides, ceramics, polymers, organic compounds, carbon-based materials, and biomolecules [ 6 ]. Forensic science is a multidisciplinary field that applies scientific tools and techniques derived from natural sciences to assist in criminal investigations. Its primary objectives include evidence collection, preservation, analysis, and interpretation to support legal proceedings [ 7 ]. Forensic science plays a crucial role in assisting law enforcement agencies in identifying perpetrators while also safeguarding against the wrongful conviction of innocent individuals. However, the processes of collecting, packaging, preserving, and analyzing forensic evidence present multiple opportunities for error, whether human or instrumental [ 8 ]. Nanotechnology addresses these challenges by enabling precise, accurate, selective, and highly sensitive analyses through the use of nanosprayers, nanosensors, nanochips, and other nanotechnological tools. These technologies allow real-time, on-site analysis of forensic samples, thereby reducing errors associated with sample collection, preservation, and transportation. The effectiveness of nanotechnology in forensic applications largely stems from its high surface-to-volume ratio, which enables the integration of traditionally time-consuming laboratory protocols into compact devices suitable for handheld detection systems [ 9 ]. 2.2 Nanoparticles are classified into three categories : organic, inorganic, and carbon-based. 2.2.1 Organic nanoparticles Organic nanoparticles primarily include polymer-based structures such as ferritin, liposomes, dendrimers, and micelles. Many of these nanoparticles are biodegradable and non-toxic, making them suitable for biomedical and forensic applications. Their hollow core structures, often referred to as nanocapsules, allow them to respond to electromagnetic and thermal stimuli such as light and heat. These properties make organic nanoparticles particularly effective for drug delivery systems [ 10 ]. In addition to their size and surface characteristics, the efficiency of organic nanoparticles depends on factors such as drug-loading capacity, stability, and delivery mechanisms. These nanoparticles are widely used in biomedical applications for targeted drug delivery, where therapeutic agents are delivered directly to specific physiological sites [ 11 ]. 2.2.2 Inorganic nanoparticles Inorganic nanoparticles consist primarily of nanoscale metal and metal oxide particles and do not contain carbon-based structures. These nanoparticles are valued for their chemical stability, catalytic activity, and optical and magnetic properties, which make them suitable for various forensic applications, including sensing and imaging [ 12 ]. 2.2.3 Carbon based Carbon-based nanoparticles are composed entirely of carbon and include materials such as fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon black, and activated carbon. These materials are widely used due to their exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and large surface area. Nanoforensics has significantly advanced DNA analysis through the use of microfluidic devices equipped with nanosensors for the quantitative detection of post-PCR products. Magnetic nanoparticles are also widely used in DNA extraction methods, such as silica-based DNA isolation techniques [ 13 ]. Similarly, nanotechnology has played a vital role in the development and detection of latent fingerprints, particularly on complex surfaces, while also providing investigators with additional information related to lifestyle and environmental exposure [ 14 ]. The increasing prevalence of terrorist activities worldwide has intensified the need for advanced techniques capable of detecting concealed explosives. In this regard, nanotechnology has proven effective in identifying trace amounts of explosive residues at crime scenes [ 15 ]. 2.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Forensic Science : 2.3.1 Forensic GSR Analysis : Gunshot residue (GSR) analysis is a critical component of forensic investigations involving firearm-related crimes. Nanotechnology has significantly improved the detection and interpretation of GSR by enhancing analytical sensitivity and accuracy. Calcium oxide (CaO) nanoparticles are commonly applied in forensic investigations to identify gunshot residue and to determine whether a firearm was discharged during incidents such as suicide, homicide, or accidental shooting [ 16 ]. These nanoparticles assist investigators in distinguishing between different shooting scenarios, including self-defense and intentional harm. The Global System for Standardization (GSR) Common Sense Rating (CSR) system is used to estimate firing distance and proximity between the weapon and the target. Nanotechnology has addressed several limitations associated with conventional GSR detection methods, which are often time-consuming and prone to inaccuracies. Traditional approaches to GSR analysis lack the sensitivity required for detecting trace elements, whereas nanoparticle-based methods offer rapid, reliable, and precise results [ 17 ]. 2.3.2 Nanotechnology in DNA Analysis DNA fingerprinting forms the foundation of individual identification in forensic science and is widely applied in criminal investigations, paternity testing, immigration cases, and homicide investigations. The integration of nanotechnology has significantly expanded the capabilities of DNA analysis by improving detection efficiency and analytical resolution [ 18 ]. Nanomaterials are used to enhance conventional DNA markers, including random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), short tandem repeats (STR), variable number tandem repeats (VNTR), and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). For instance, approximately 250,000 SNP probes can be immobilized on a single silicon chip for polymorphism detection in suspected samples. Nanoprobes incorporated into microfluidic devices enable rapid and sensitive DNA detection, while individual DNA molecules can be immobilized on gold pads or nanotubes for high-resolution analysis using atomic force microscopy [ 19 ]. Gold nanoparticles have been shown to improve DNA amplification efficiency in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) processes. In addition, copper nanoparticles synthesized using microwave-assisted methods have been successfully applied for DNA extraction from skeletal remains. Beyond human DNA identification, lab-on-chip platforms incorporating gold nanorods have been developed for pathogen detection. These nanorods convert near-infrared energy into heat, facilitating pathogen lysis within microfluidic chips and enabling direct transfer to real-time PCR without the need for extensive purification steps [ 20 ]. As material science advances, the development of novel nanomaterials with unique properties has become increasingly important. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have attracted considerable attention in forensic science due to their exceptional magnetic responsiveness, high surface area, and ease of functionalization. These properties simplify forensic analytical procedures and enhance detection efficiency [ 21 ]. Forensic analysis presents numerous challenges, as investigative strategies depend on the nature of the crime, the availability and quality of specimens, and the complexity of the case. Crime scenes often yield partial, degraded, or contaminated samples, making accurate analysis difficult [ 22 ]. Additionally, the global increase in illicit drug use has intensified the need for rapid and reliable detection methods. Conventional forensic techniques are widely used; however, they suffer from limitations such as sample degradation, contamination, low sensitivity, and time-consuming procedures [ 23 ]. Traditional extraction and purification methods, including solvent extraction and chromatography, may result in specimen denaturation and contamination. Similarly, conventional fingerprint powders with large particle sizes can cause overlapping patterns and reduced accuracy. The detection of toxic compounds and synthetic drugs using traditional techniques is often inadequate due to the chemical diversity and complexity of modern illicit substances [ 24 ]. Furthermore, conventional analytical methods lack the selectivity and sensitivity required for detecting trace explosive compounds in cases involving terrorism, chemical warfare, or drug trafficking, while also being costly and inefficient [ 25 ]. To overcome these limitations, the integration of nanotechnology into forensic science has emerged as an advanced solution, offering improved accuracy, faster analysis, and enhanced sensitivity. Nanotechnology-based approaches facilitate real-time analysis and reduce procedural complexity, thereby supporting more effective criminal investigations [ 26 ]. Nanoparticles have gained prominence in forensic analysis due to their small size, modifiable surface properties, and compatibility with various analytical techniques. Several nanoparticles have been investigated for forensic applications, including photoluminescent cadmium sulphide (CdS) nanocrystals for latent fingerprint enhancement and gold nanoparticles for improving PCR efficiency. Despite their advantages, some nanoparticles present challenges such as complex synthesis procedures and limited diffusion efficiency during biomolecule extraction [ 27 ]. In certain forensic scenarios, nanoparticle separation from target sites can be technically challenging. For example, nanoparticles used in fingerprint analysis may bind strongly to biological components, complicating their removal during analysis [ 28 ]. Additionally, some nanoparticles exhibit physical instability, prompting researchers to explore alternative nanomaterials with enhanced performance characteristics. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been extensively studied over the past decade due to their potential to simplify complex forensic procedures. MNPs offer advantages such as high adsorption capacity, tunable surface chemistry, and efficient separation using external magnetic fields. These properties reduce the need for centrifugation or filtration and simplify solid-phase extraction (SPE) processes [ 29 ]. MNPs have demonstrated high efficiency in extracting drugs from hair samples, which is particularly valuable in cases involving substance abuse. Their ability to adsorb target molecules selectively minimizes sample loss and reduces the risk of degradation. Furthermore, MNPs can be combined with other nanomaterials, such as fluorescent quantum dots and functionalized carboxyl groups, to enhance latent fingerprint detection while maintaining operator safety [ 31 , 32 ]. Forensic investigations typically involve the discovery, collection, examination, and analysis of evidence obtained from crime scenes. Both natural polymers, such as hair, DNA, proteins, and nails, and synthetic polymers, including paints, fibers, plastics, and tapes, may serve as forensic evidence [ 33 , 34 ]. The application of nanotechnology has significantly improved the efficiency, precision, selectivity, and sensitivity of forensic analyses. Advanced nanomaterials enable the detection of trace evidence at previously unattainable nanoscale resolutions. These materials exhibit unique mechanical, electrical, optical, chemical, and magnetic properties that enhance the analysis of forensic samples, including DNA, heavy metals, explosives, and gunshot residues. The synthesis of novel nanomaterials continues to provide innovative solutions for evidence collection and detection in forensic science [ 35 ]. 3. Methodology This study was conducted in the Forensic Medicine Departments located in the western region of Saudi Arabia, specifically in Al Madinah, Jeddah, and Makkah. The study aimed to assess the perceptions of forensic professionals regarding the importance and application of nanotechnology in forensic science. 3.1 Study procedures : A structured questionnaire was designed and distributed to forensic doctors and consultants, as well as to medical and statistical consultants working in the western region of Saudi Arabia. The questionnaire focused on evaluating the role of nanotechnology in forensic evidence detection, analysis, and crime reconstruction. The collected data were statistically analyzed, and the results were subsequently recorded and discussed. 4. Results The survey results: The questionnaire collects forensic doctor's opinions and ideas and measures the stages of intellectual communication in society. Table 1 Survey results illustrating forensic professionals’ perceptions regarding the application of nanotechnology in forensic investigations. No. Items Data Analysis Yes No 1 The criminal investigation system uses modern means of forensic evidence using nanotechnology to detect the crime 92.3% 7.7% 2 The most responses were agree with that, the criminal investigation system detects kinetic fingerprinting and biometrics using nanotechnology as one of the initiatives of the General Administration of Forensic Evidence in criminology 88.5% 11.5% 3 Investigative authorities rely on nanotechnology to reconstruct the crime based on hidden traces 76.9% 23.1% 4 The Department of Forensic Evidence and Criminology is interested in the effectiveness of the circuit technology and increasing reliance on it in the future to include protecting citizens and the state from organized crime, and detecting crimes. 100% 0% 5 The Department of Forensic Medicine and Criminology is concerned with reconstructing the atoms and molecules of the crime, and then reconstructing the forensic evidence 76.9% 23.1% 6 Scientific and technical development makes forensic evidence management and criminology play an important role in determining the identity of the perpetrators and basing the criminal incident on them. 88.5% 11.5% 7 The criminal investigation system works using nanotechnology to analyze forensic evidence and provide comprehensive specialized topics for forensic cases 61.5% 38.5% 4.1 Figures (1–8): illustrate participants’ demographic characteristics (gender and age) and their responses to the structured questionnaire on the use and importance of nanotechnology in forensic investigations, including opinions on fingerprinting, biometric analysis, crime reconstruction, forensic evidence management, and case assessment : 5. Discussion The results of the study indicated that the majority of respondents were male (93.3%), with most participants aged between 30 and 40 years. A substantial proportion of respondents (92.3%) agreed that criminal investigation systems employ modern forensic methods based on nanotechnology to detect crimes. Similarly, 88.5% of respondents agreed that nanotechnology is used in kinetic fingerprinting and biometric detection as part of forensic evidence initiatives. Furthermore, 76.9% of respondents indicated that investigative authorities rely on nanotechnology to reconstruct crimes based on hidden traces. All participants (100%) agreed that the Department of Forensic Evidence and Criminology recognizes the effectiveness of circuit technology and intends to increase its future application in protecting citizens and combating organized crime. The findings also revealed that 76.9% of respondents agreed that forensic departments are concerned with reconstructing atomic and molecular evidence to rebuild forensic traces, while 88.5% acknowledged the importance of scientific and technical development in identifying perpetrators and reconstructing criminal incidents. In addition, 61.5% of respondents agreed that nanotechnology is used to analyze forensic evidence and provide comprehensive forensic case assessments. These findings are consistent with the study by Alok and Ritesh [36], which concluded that nanoplatforms enhance evidence detection, collection, and preservation at crime scenes and significantly accelerate the investigation process. Nanodevices have demonstrated effectiveness in analyzing residual evidence from various crimes, including explosions, gunshot incidents, traffic accidents, sexual assaults, arson, cybercrime, and burglaries. The development of handheld nanotechnology-based devices enables real-time evidence analysis at crime scenes, reducing the time required for laboratory-based examinations. The integration of nanotechnology into forensic investigations has the potential to transform crime prevention and security practices. Nanomaterial-based devices may be used for surveillance, tracking, and crime detection, offering additional support for law enforcement agencies. However, before implementing these advanced technologies, authorities must carefully evaluate available options and establish appropriate frameworks to ensure their effective and ethical use. 6. Conclusion This study highlights the critical role of nanotechnology in addressing current challenges in forensic investigations, particularly in evidence collection, analysis, and interpretation at crime scenes. The findings demonstrate that nanoparticles significantly enhance the accuracy, sensitivity, and efficiency of forensic analyses, thereby supporting more reliable criminal investigations and judicial outcomes. Nanotechnology also holds promise for preventive forensic and security applications by enabling early detection of criminal activities and improving investigative capabilities. Additionally, nanoparticles may play an important role in biomedical forensic examinations, particularly in forensic toxicology and pathology, where the visualization and identification of specific bio-organic components are essential. Overall, the integration of nanotechnology into forensic science represents a transformative advancement with significant implications for the future of crime investigation and prevention. Abbreviations NPs Nanoparticles GSR Gunshot Residue DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction STR Short Tandem Repeats SNPs Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms MNPs Magnetic Nanoparticles Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the concerned forensic authorities in the western region of Saudi Arabia, including the Department of Forensic Medicine at the General Directorate of Criminal Evidence and the forensic centers in Makkah and Al Madinah. Official permission was granted to conduct the survey and to use the collected data for academic publication. Written authorization confirming approval for publication and use of study-related material was issued on 26 January 2026 by the responsible authorities and principal investigators. Consent for publication: Formal written consent for publication of the study data and related materials was obtained from the authorized forensic departments and investigators prior to submission of the manuscript, in accordance with institutional and journal requirements. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Author Contribution All authors contributed equally to this work. They were jointly involved in the study conception and design, development of the research methodology, data collection, data analysis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, critical revision of the intellectual content, and final approval of the version to be published. All authors take full responsibility for the integrity and accuracy of the work and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the study. References Li Z, Chen H, Feng S et al (2020b) Development and clinical validation of a sensitive lateral flow assay for rapid urine fentanyl screening in the emergency department. 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distribution of the study participants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/1468f54f8401debb24c7eb38.png"},{"id":102435773,"identity":"bd1188b7-634c-4e6f-961a-12743304ffaa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 16:07:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57747,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants’ responses regarding the use of nanotechnology in criminal investigations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/cf263fb585e004721f162c33.png"},{"id":102746132,"identity":"8355573c-e3ae-49a0-9aa5-5edd279d19e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 08:55:48","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90156,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants’ opinions on the application of nanotechnology in fingerprint identification and biometric analysis.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/725e4a7f0c262f6f4acee5e7.png"},{"id":102745594,"identity":"7fa26b26-7e1a-4ae5-8beb-226275c7a2c2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 08:52:33","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99854,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResponses concerning the role of nanotechnology in crime reconstruction based on hidden forensic traces.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/0faf846fc781f8b361187b33.png"},{"id":102435779,"identity":"5179c5dc-0fc6-4352-8b02-2a44a9946893","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 16:07:09","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108946,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants’ views on the effectiveness of nanotechnology in forensic evidence and criminology practices.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/e7d61d3f4e6a5f87f2a9134c.png"},{"id":102745585,"identity":"915e723e-80dc-4939-b566-7be142d8e0d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 08:52:09","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":93400,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants’ opinions on the impact of scientific and technological development on forensic investigations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/09a196d5e8ab551ce05fb381.png"},{"id":102435776,"identity":"e187ccb0-2e06-4661-a137-379958cb4dc9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 16:07:09","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100466,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResponses regarding the use of nanotechnology in forensic evidence analysis and comprehensive forensic case assessment.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/4fda150e455945a45b76e1aa.png"},{"id":104697091,"identity":"f5a93415-5391-4b22-b158-8042831ac995","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-16 07:42:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1294357,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/1baa0aee-e9cb-40e5-9961-b6cad34c4d0e.pdf"},{"id":102745980,"identity":"49a13ba4-1636-4bea-8840-bb2f962a8fc2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 08:55:07","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16079,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8778571/v1/f2dc376caf260d8372139e94.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Forensic science and the importance of nanoparticles in the field","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe majority of industries worldwide have adopted advanced nanotechnology, making its application unavoidable in many areas of forensic science. As a result, nanotechnology has become an important tool in modern forensic investigations. Nanoforensics has emerged as a novel approach to forensic science, involving the collection of evidence at a crime scene, its processing in the laboratory, and the presentation of scientific findings in court [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. This study aims to determine the importance of nanoparticles in the field of forensic science.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanotechnology can be applied to a wide range of forensic investigations, including latent fingerprint development, drug and explosive detection, body fluid identification, DNA analysis, and biosensing. The contribution of nanoforensics to crime investigation can be significantly enhanced through the development of faster, more accurate, efficient, and easy-to-use techniques that reveal the true potential of this technology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanotechnology integrates biology, physics, and chemistry to synthesize, design, manipulate, and study matter at the nanometer scale, typically ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm. Nanomaterials have been widely applied in various fields, including biomedical sciences, physical sciences, material sciences, and electronic engineering, due to their unique properties at the nanoscale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon nanomaterials include nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, supramolecules, nanorods, and nanofibers. The nanoscale dimensions of these materials provide a large surface-area-to-volume ratio, which enhances molecular interactions by increasing the availability of active sites for chemical reactions. In addition, nanodevices have gained popularity because of their high sensitivity and selectivity. Nanochips, nanosensors, and nanoprobes are widely used in several scientific fields, including metal detection, disease diagnosis, and hybridization experiments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eNanotechnology is currently most effectively applied in forensic toxicology, where it is used to detect and quantify toxic substances from biologically relevant forensic samples such as saliva, urine, blood, hair, sweat, vitreous humour, bone remains, and latent fingerprints. In this context, nanosensors based on nanoparticles offer a reliable alternative to conventional on-site toxicological tests, providing faster, more cost-effective, and highly sensitive drug screening methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.1 Nanoparticles\u003c/b\u003e: A nanoparticle is defined as a particle that has at least one dimension ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm. At this scale, nanoparticles exhibit physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ fundamentally from those of individual atoms, molecules, or bulk materials. Nanoparticles can be synthesized from a wide range of materials, including metals, metal oxides, ceramics, polymers, organic compounds, carbon-based materials, and biomolecules [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForensic science is a multidisciplinary field that applies scientific tools and techniques derived from natural sciences to assist in criminal investigations. Its primary objectives include evidence collection, preservation, analysis, and interpretation to support legal proceedings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Forensic science plays a crucial role in assisting law enforcement agencies in identifying perpetrators while also safeguarding against the wrongful conviction of innocent individuals. However, the processes of collecting, packaging, preserving, and analyzing forensic evidence present multiple opportunities for error, whether human or instrumental [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanotechnology addresses these challenges by enabling precise, accurate, selective, and highly sensitive analyses through the use of nanosprayers, nanosensors, nanochips, and other nanotechnological tools. These technologies allow real-time, on-site analysis of forensic samples, thereby reducing errors associated with sample collection, preservation, and transportation. The effectiveness of nanotechnology in forensic applications largely stems from its high surface-to-volume ratio, which enables the integration of traditionally time-consuming laboratory protocols into compact devices suitable for handheld detection systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 \u003cb\u003eNanoparticles are classified into three categories\u003c/b\u003e: organic, inorganic, and carbon-based.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.2.1 Organic nanoparticles\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic nanoparticles primarily include polymer-based structures such as ferritin, liposomes, dendrimers, and micelles. Many of these nanoparticles are biodegradable and non-toxic, making them suitable for biomedical and forensic applications. Their hollow core structures, often referred to as nanocapsules, allow them to respond to electromagnetic and thermal stimuli such as light and heat. These properties make organic nanoparticles particularly effective for drug delivery systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to their size and surface characteristics, the efficiency of organic nanoparticles depends on factors such as drug-loading capacity, stability, and delivery mechanisms. These nanoparticles are widely used in biomedical applications for targeted drug delivery, where therapeutic agents are delivered directly to specific physiological sites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Inorganic nanoparticles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInorganic nanoparticles consist primarily of nanoscale metal and metal oxide particles and do not contain carbon-based structures. These nanoparticles are valued for their chemical stability, catalytic activity, and optical and magnetic properties, which make them suitable for various forensic applications, including sensing and imaging [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Carbon based\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon-based nanoparticles are composed entirely of carbon and include materials such as fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon black, and activated carbon. These materials are widely used due to their exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and large surface area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanoforensics has significantly advanced DNA analysis through the use of microfluidic devices equipped with nanosensors for the quantitative detection of post-PCR products. Magnetic nanoparticles are also widely used in DNA extraction methods, such as silica-based DNA isolation techniques [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, nanotechnology has played a vital role in the development and detection of latent fingerprints, particularly on complex surfaces, while also providing investigators with additional information related to lifestyle and environmental exposure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The increasing prevalence of terrorist activities worldwide has intensified the need for advanced techniques capable of detecting concealed explosives. In this regard, nanotechnology has proven effective in identifying trace amounts of explosive residues at crime scenes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Forensic Science\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.3.1 Forensic GSR Analysis\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGunshot residue (GSR) analysis is a critical component of forensic investigations involving firearm-related crimes. Nanotechnology has significantly improved the detection and interpretation of GSR by enhancing analytical sensitivity and accuracy. Calcium oxide (CaO) nanoparticles are commonly applied in forensic investigations to identify gunshot residue and to determine whether a firearm was discharged during incidents such as suicide, homicide, or accidental shooting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. These nanoparticles assist investigators in distinguishing between different shooting scenarios, including self-defense and intentional harm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Global System for Standardization (GSR) Common Sense Rating (CSR) system is used to estimate firing distance and proximity between the weapon and the target. Nanotechnology has addressed several limitations associated with conventional GSR detection methods, which are often time-consuming and prone to inaccuracies. Traditional approaches to GSR analysis lack the sensitivity required for detecting trace elements, whereas nanoparticle-based methods offer rapid, reliable, and precise results [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Nanotechnology in DNA Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDNA fingerprinting forms the foundation of individual identification in forensic science and is widely applied in criminal investigations, paternity testing, immigration cases, and homicide investigations. The integration of nanotechnology has significantly expanded the capabilities of DNA analysis by improving detection efficiency and analytical resolution [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanomaterials are used to enhance conventional DNA markers, including random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), short tandem repeats (STR), variable number tandem repeats (VNTR), and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). For instance, approximately 250,000 SNP probes can be immobilized on a single silicon chip for polymorphism detection in suspected samples. Nanoprobes incorporated into microfluidic devices enable rapid and sensitive DNA detection, while individual DNA molecules can be immobilized on gold pads or nanotubes for high-resolution analysis using atomic force microscopy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGold nanoparticles have been shown to improve DNA amplification efficiency in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) processes. In addition, copper nanoparticles synthesized using microwave-assisted methods have been successfully applied for DNA extraction from skeletal remains. Beyond human DNA identification, lab-on-chip platforms incorporating gold nanorods have been developed for pathogen detection. These nanorods convert near-infrared energy into heat, facilitating pathogen lysis within microfluidic chips and enabling direct transfer to real-time PCR without the need for extensive purification steps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs material science advances, the development of novel nanomaterials with unique properties has become increasingly important. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have attracted considerable attention in forensic science due to their exceptional magnetic responsiveness, high surface area, and ease of functionalization. These properties simplify forensic analytical procedures and enhance detection efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForensic analysis presents numerous challenges, as investigative strategies depend on the nature of the crime, the availability and quality of specimens, and the complexity of the case. Crime scenes often yield partial, degraded, or contaminated samples, making accurate analysis difficult [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the global increase in illicit drug use has intensified the need for rapid and reliable detection methods. Conventional forensic techniques are widely used; however, they suffer from limitations such as sample degradation, contamination, low sensitivity, and time-consuming procedures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional extraction and purification methods, including solvent extraction and chromatography, may result in specimen denaturation and contamination. Similarly, conventional fingerprint powders with large particle sizes can cause overlapping patterns and reduced accuracy. The detection of toxic compounds and synthetic drugs using traditional techniques is often inadequate due to the chemical diversity and complexity of modern illicit substances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, conventional analytical methods lack the selectivity and sensitivity required for detecting trace explosive compounds in cases involving terrorism, chemical warfare, or drug trafficking, while also being costly and inefficient [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo overcome these limitations, the integration of nanotechnology into forensic science has emerged as an advanced solution, offering improved accuracy, faster analysis, and enhanced sensitivity. Nanotechnology-based approaches facilitate real-time analysis and reduce procedural complexity, thereby supporting more effective criminal investigations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanoparticles have gained prominence in forensic analysis due to their small size, modifiable surface properties, and compatibility with various analytical techniques. Several nanoparticles have been investigated for forensic applications, including photoluminescent cadmium sulphide (CdS) nanocrystals for latent fingerprint enhancement and gold nanoparticles for improving PCR efficiency. Despite their advantages, some nanoparticles present challenges such as complex synthesis procedures and limited diffusion efficiency during biomolecule extraction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn certain forensic scenarios, nanoparticle separation from target sites can be technically challenging. For example, nanoparticles used in fingerprint analysis may bind strongly to biological components, complicating their removal during analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, some nanoparticles exhibit physical instability, prompting researchers to explore alternative nanomaterials with enhanced performance characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been extensively studied over the past decade due to their potential to simplify complex forensic procedures. MNPs offer advantages such as high adsorption capacity, tunable surface chemistry, and efficient separation using external magnetic fields. These properties reduce the need for centrifugation or filtration and simplify solid-phase extraction (SPE) processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMNPs have demonstrated high efficiency in extracting drugs from hair samples, which is particularly valuable in cases involving substance abuse. Their ability to adsorb target molecules selectively minimizes sample loss and reduces the risk of degradation. Furthermore, MNPs can be combined with other nanomaterials, such as fluorescent quantum dots and functionalized carboxyl groups, to enhance latent fingerprint detection while maintaining operator safety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForensic investigations typically involve the discovery, collection, examination, and analysis of evidence obtained from crime scenes. Both natural polymers, such as hair, DNA, proteins, and nails, and synthetic polymers, including paints, fibers, plastics, and tapes, may serve as forensic evidence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. The application of nanotechnology has significantly improved the efficiency, precision, selectivity, and sensitivity of forensic analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdvanced nanomaterials enable the detection of trace evidence at previously unattainable nanoscale resolutions. These materials exhibit unique mechanical, electrical, optical, chemical, and magnetic properties that enhance the analysis of forensic samples, including DNA, heavy metals, explosives, and gunshot residues. The synthesis of novel nanomaterials continues to provide innovative solutions for evidence collection and detection in forensic science [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the Forensic Medicine Departments located in the western region of Saudi Arabia, specifically in Al Madinah, Jeddah, and Makkah. The study aimed to assess the perceptions of forensic professionals regarding the importance and application of nanotechnology in forensic science.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.1 Study procedures\u003c/b\u003e: A structured questionnaire was designed and distributed to forensic doctors and consultants, as well as to medical and statistical consultants working in the western region of Saudi Arabia. The questionnaire focused on evaluating the role of nanotechnology in forensic evidence detection, analysis, and crime reconstruction. The collected data were statistically analyzed, and the results were subsequently recorded and discussed.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe survey results:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire collects forensic doctor's opinions and ideas and measures the stages of intellectual communication in society.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey results illustrating forensic professionals\u0026rsquo; perceptions regarding the application of nanotechnology in forensic investigations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe criminal investigation system uses modern means of forensic evidence using nanotechnology to detect the crime\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most responses were agree with that, the criminal investigation system detects kinetic fingerprinting and biometrics using nanotechnology as one of the initiatives of the General Administration of Forensic Evidence in criminology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigative authorities rely on nanotechnology to reconstruct the crime based on hidden traces\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Department of Forensic Evidence and Criminology is interested in the effectiveness of the circuit technology and increasing reliance on it in the future to include protecting citizens and the state from organized crime, and detecting crimes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Department of Forensic Medicine and Criminology is concerned with reconstructing the atoms and molecules of the crime, and then reconstructing the forensic evidence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific and technical development makes forensic evidence management and criminology play an important role in determining the identity of the perpetrators and basing the criminal incident on them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe criminal investigation system works using nanotechnology to analyze forensic evidence and provide comprehensive specialized topics for forensic cases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e4.1 Figures (1\u0026ndash;8): illustrate participants\u0026rsquo; demographic characteristics (gender and age) and their responses to the structured questionnaire on the use and importance of nanotechnology in forensic investigations, including opinions on fingerprinting, biometric analysis, crime reconstruction, forensic evidence management, and case assessment\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of the study indicated that the majority of respondents were male (93.3%), with most participants aged between 30 and 40 years. A substantial proportion of respondents (92.3%) agreed that criminal investigation systems employ modern forensic methods based on nanotechnology to detect crimes. Similarly, 88.5% of respondents agreed that nanotechnology is used in kinetic fingerprinting and biometric detection as part of forensic evidence initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, 76.9% of respondents indicated that investigative authorities rely on nanotechnology to reconstruct crimes based on hidden traces. All participants (100%) agreed that the Department of Forensic Evidence and Criminology recognizes the effectiveness of circuit technology and intends to increase its future application in protecting citizens and combating organized crime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also revealed that 76.9% of respondents agreed that forensic departments are concerned with reconstructing atomic and molecular evidence to rebuild forensic traces, while 88.5% acknowledged the importance of scientific and technical development in identifying perpetrators and reconstructing criminal incidents. In addition, 61.5% of respondents agreed that nanotechnology is used to analyze forensic evidence and provide comprehensive forensic case assessments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings are consistent with the study by Alok and Ritesh [36], which concluded that nanoplatforms enhance evidence detection, collection, and preservation at crime scenes and significantly accelerate the investigation process. Nanodevices have demonstrated effectiveness in analyzing residual evidence from various crimes, including explosions, gunshot incidents, traffic accidents, sexual assaults, arson, cybercrime, and burglaries. The development of handheld nanotechnology-based devices enables real-time evidence analysis at crime scenes, reducing the time required for laboratory-based examinations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe integration of nanotechnology into forensic investigations has the potential to transform crime prevention and security practices. Nanomaterial-based devices may be used for surveillance, tracking, and crime detection, offering additional support for law enforcement agencies. However, before implementing these advanced technologies, authorities must carefully evaluate available options and establish appropriate frameworks to ensure their effective and ethical use.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the critical role of nanotechnology in addressing current challenges in forensic investigations, particularly in evidence collection, analysis, and interpretation at crime scenes. The findings demonstrate that nanoparticles significantly enhance the accuracy, sensitivity, and efficiency of forensic analyses, thereby supporting more reliable criminal investigations and judicial outcomes. Nanotechnology also holds promise for preventive forensic and security applications by enabling early detection of criminal activities and improving investigative capabilities. Additionally, nanoparticles may play an important role in biomedical forensic examinations, particularly in forensic toxicology and pathology, where the visualization and identification of specific bio-organic components are essential. Overall, the integration of nanotechnology into forensic science represents a transformative advancement with significant implications for the future of crime investigation and prevention.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNPs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanoparticles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGSR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGunshot Residue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDNA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeoxyribonucleic Acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePCR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymerase Chain Reaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSTR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort Tandem Repeats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSNPs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle Nucleotide Polymorphisms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMNPs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnetic Nanoparticles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the concerned forensic authorities in the western region of Saudi Arabia, including the Department of Forensic Medicine at the General Directorate of Criminal Evidence and the forensic centers in Makkah and Al Madinah. Official permission was granted to conduct the survey and to use the collected data for academic publication. Written authorization confirming approval for publication and use of study-related material was issued on 26 January 2026 by the responsible authorities and principal investigators.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFormal written consent for publication of the study data and related materials was obtained from the authorized forensic departments and investigators prior to submission of the manuscript, in accordance with institutional and journal requirements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no specific funding for this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed equally to this work. They were jointly involved in the study conception and design, development of the research methodology, data collection, data analysis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, critical revision of the intellectual content, and final approval of the version to be published. All authors take full responsibility for the integrity and accuracy of the work and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi Z, Chen H, Feng S et al (2020b) Development and clinical validation of a sensitive lateral flow assay for rapid urine fentanyl screening in the emergency department. 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J Mater Res Technol 12:1856\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMohammed L, Gomaa HG, Ragab D, Zhu J (2017) Magnetic nanoparticles for environmental and biomedical applications: a review. Particuology 30:1\u0026ndash;14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOishi M, Sugiyama S (2016) An efficient particle-based DNA circuit system: catalytic disassembly of DNA/PEG-modified gold nanoparticle-magnetic bead composites for colorimetric detection of miRNA. Small 12:5153\u0026ndash;5158\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePaikrao HM, Tajane DS (2022) Anita Surendra Patil, Ashlesha Dipak Dipale. Applications of Nanotechnology in Forensic Science. 257\u0026ndash;276. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82918-6_11\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-3-030-82918-6_11\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlok Pandya, Ritesh X, Snukla (2018) New perspective of nanotechnology: role in preventive forensic, Pandya and Shukla Egyption. J Forensic Sci 857. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/541 1933-018-0088-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/541 1933-018-0088-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Forensic science, nanoparticles, importance of nanoparticles in Forensic science, fingerprint, Crime","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8778571/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8778571/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNanotechnology has become an essential component of modern forensic science due to its ability to enhance the sensitivity, accuracy, and efficiency of analytical techniques used in criminal investigations. In forensic applications, nanotechnology is primarily employed in the development of reactive (\u0026ldquo;smart\u0026rdquo;) materials, microchip technologies, nanomanipulators, and nanoimaging tools for visualization and analysis. These advances have enabled forensic investigators to collect and analyze evidence that could not be effectively examined using conventional techniques. Nanomaterials offer improved performance by facilitating the detection of trace-level evidence, enhancing analytical precision, and accelerating investigative processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the Forensic Medicine Departments in the western region of Saudi Arabia, specifically in Al Madinah, Jeddah, and Makkah. A structured questionnaire was prepared and distributed to forensic doctors and consultants to assess their perspectives on the role of nanotechnology in forensic investigations. The study aimed to clarify how nanotechnologies can address current challenges in forensic science, particularly in evidence collection and analysis at crime scenes, as well as their potential contribution to preventive forensic and security practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Forensic science and the importance of nanoparticles in the field","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-11 16:07:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8778571/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b5b9d987-918b-4b8a-bdd2-09c1da8c5e0e","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-16T07:41:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-11 16:07:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8778571","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8778571","identity":"rs-8778571","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}