Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies

Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts,... | F1000Research "use strict";function _typeof(t){return(_typeof="function"==typeof Symbol&&"symbol"==typeof Symbol.iterator?function(t){return typeof t}:function(t){return t&&"function"==typeof Symbol&&t.constructor===Symbol&&t!==Symbol.prototype?"symbol":typeof t})(t)}!function(){var t=function(){var t,e,o=[],n=window,r=n;for(;r;){try{if(r.frames.__tcfapiLocator){t=r;break}}catch(t){}if(r===n.top)break;r=r.parent}t||(!function t(){var e=n.document,o=!!n.frames.__tcfapiLocator;if(!o)if(e.body){var r=e.createElement("iframe");r.style.cssText="display:none",r.name="__tcfapiLocator",e.body.appendChild(r)}else setTimeout(t,5);return!o}(),n.__tcfapi=function(){for(var t=arguments.length,n=new Array(t),r=0;r 3&&2===parseInt(n[1],10)&&"boolean"==typeof n[3]&&(e=n[3],"function"==typeof n[2]&&n[2]("set",!0)):"ping"===n[0]?"function"==typeof n[2]&&n[2]({gdprApplies:e,cmpLoaded:!1,cmpStatus:"stub"}):o.push(n)},n.addEventListener("message",(function(t){var e="string"==typeof t.data,o={};if(e)try{o=JSON.parse(t.data)}catch(t){}else o=t.data;var n="object"===_typeof(o)&&null!==o?o.__tcfapiCall:null;n&&window.__tcfapi(n.command,n.version,(function(o,r){var a={__tcfapiReturn:{returnValue:o,success:r,callId:n.callId}};t&&t.source&&t.source.postMessage&&t.source.postMessage(e?JSON.stringify(a):a,"*")}),n.parameter)}),!1))};"undefined"!=typeof module?module.exports=t:t()}(); dataLayer = dataLayer || []; // Standard GTM initialization - Google Consent Mode handles consent automatically (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl+ '>m_auth=hzk0Vc3qFsQYhCrIoHz68A>m_preview=env-1>m_cookies_win=x';f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MWFK8L5J'); ;window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.init={distributed_tracing:{enabled:true},privacy:{cookies_enabled:true},ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]}}; ;NREUM.loader_config={accountID:"438030",trustKey:"438030",agentID:"772317073",licenseKey:"97f8f67f26",applicationID:"772317073"} ;NREUM.info={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net",licenseKey:"97f8f67f26",applicationID:"772317073",sa:1} ;/*! For license information please see nr-loader-spa-1.236.0.min.js.LICENSE.txt */ (()=>{"use strict";var e,t,r={5763:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{P_:()=>l,Mt:()=>g,C5:()=>s,DL:()=>v,OP:()=>T,lF:()=>D,Yu:()=>y,Dg:()=>h,CX:()=>c,GE:()=>b,sU:()=>_});var n=r(8632),i=r(9567);const o={beacon:n.ce.beacon,errorBeacon:n.ce.errorBeacon,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,sa:void 0,queueTime:void 0,applicationTime:void 0,ttGuid:void 0,user:void 0,account:void 0,product:void 0,extra:void 0,jsAttributes:{},userAttributes:void 0,atts:void 0,transactionName:void 0,tNamePlain:void 0},a={};function s(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");if(!a[e])throw new Error("Info for ".concat(e," was never set"));return a[e]}function c(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");a[e]=(0,i.D)(t,o),(0,n.Qy)(e,a[e],"info")}var u=r(7056);const d=()=>{const e={blockSelector:"[data-nr-block]",maskInputOptions:{password:!0}};return{allow_bfcache:!0,privacy:{cookies_enabled:!0},ajax:{deny_list:void 0,enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10},distributed_tracing:{enabled:void 0,exclude_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_tracecontext_headers:void 0,allowed_origins:void 0},session:{domain:void 0,expiresMs:u.oD,inactiveMs:u.Hb},ssl:void 0,obfuscate:void 0,jserrors:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10},metrics:{enabled:!0},page_action:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:30},page_view_event:{enabled:!0},page_view_timing:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:30,long_task:!1},session_trace:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10},harvest:{tooManyRequestsDelay:60},session_replay:{enabled:!1,harvestTimeSeconds:60,sampleRate:.1,errorSampleRate:.1,maskTextSelector:"*",maskAllInputs:!0,get blockClass(){return"nr-block"},get ignoreClass(){return"nr-ignore"},get maskTextClass(){return"nr-mask"},get blockSelector(){return e.blockSelector},set blockSelector(t){e.blockSelector+=",".concat(t)},get maskInputOptions(){return e.maskInputOptions},set maskInputOptions(t){e.maskInputOptions={...t,password:!0}}},spa:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10}}},f={};function l(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All configuration objects require an agent identifier!");if(!f[e])throw new Error("Configuration for ".concat(e," was never set"));return f[e]}function h(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All configuration objects require an agent identifier!");f[e]=(0,i.D)(t,d()),(0,n.Qy)(e,f[e],"config")}function g(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All configuration objects require an agent identifier!");var r=l(e);if(r){for(var n=t.split("."),i=0;i {r.d(t,{D:()=>i});var n=r(50);function i(e,t){try{if(!e||"object"!=typeof e)return(0,n.Z)("Setting a Configurable requires an object as input");if(!t||"object"!=typeof t)return(0,n.Z)("Setting a Configurable requires a model to set its initial properties");const r=Object.create(Object.getPrototypeOf(t),Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(t)),o=0===Object.keys(r).length?e:r;for(let a in o)if(void 0!==e[a])try{"object"==typeof e[a]&&"object"==typeof t[a]?r[a]=i(e[a],t[a]):r[a]=e[a]}catch(e){(0,n.Z)("An error occurred while setting a property of a Configurable",e)}return r}catch(e){(0,n.Z)("An error occured while setting a Configurable",e)}}},6818:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{Re:()=>i,gF:()=>o,q4:()=>n});const n="1.236.0",i="PROD",o="CDN"},385:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{FN:()=>a,IF:()=>u,Nk:()=>f,Tt:()=>s,_A:()=>o,il:()=>n,pL:()=>c,v6:()=>i,w1:()=>d});const n="undefined"!=typeof window&&!!window.document,i="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator),o=n?window:"undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis),a=""+o?.location,s=/iPad|iPhone|iPod/.test(navigator.userAgent),c=s&&"undefined"==typeof SharedWorker,u=(()=>{const e=navigator.userAgent.match(/Firefox[/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);return Array.isArray(e)&&e.length>=2?+e[1]:0})(),d=Boolean(n&&window.document.documentMode),f=!!navigator.sendBeacon},1117:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{w:()=>o});var n=r(50);const i={agentIdentifier:"",ee:void 0};class o{constructor(e){try{if("object"!=typeof e)return(0,n.Z)("shared context requires an object as input");this.sharedContext={},Object.assign(this.sharedContext,i),Object.entries(e).forEach((e=>{let[t,r]=e;Object.keys(i).includes(t)&&(this.sharedContext[t]=r)}))}catch(e){(0,n.Z)("An error occured while setting SharedContext",e)}}}},8e3:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{L:()=>d,R:()=>c});var n=r(2177),i=r(1284),o=r(4322),a=r(3325);const s={};function c(e,t){const r={staged:!1,priority:a.p[t]||0};u(e),s[e].get(t)||s[e].set(t,r)}function u(e){e&&(s[e]||(s[e]=new Map))}function d(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:"",t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:"feature";if(u(e),!e||!s[e].get(t))return a(t);s[e].get(t).staged=!0;const r=[...s[e]];function a(t){const r=e?n.ee.get(e):n.ee,a=o.X.handlers;if(r.backlog&&a){var s=r.backlog[t],c=a[t];if(c){for(var u=0;s&&u {let[t,r]=e;return r.staged}))&&(r.sort(((e,t)=>e[1].priority-t[1].priority)),r.forEach((e=>{let[t]=e;a(t)})))}function f(e,t){var r=e[1];(0,i.D)(t[r],(function(t,r){var n=e[0];if(r[0]===n){var i=r[1],o=e[3],a=e[2];i.apply(o,a)}}))}},2177:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{c:()=>f,ee:()=>u});var n=r(8632),i=r(2210),o=r(1284),a=r(5763),s="nr@context";let c=(0,n.fP)();var u;function d(){}function f(e){return(0,i.X)(e,s,l)}function l(){return new d}function h(){u.aborted=!0,u.backlog={}}c.ee?u=c.ee:(u=function e(t,r){var n={},c={},f={},g=!1;try{g=16===r.length&&(0,a.OP)(r).isolatedBacklog}catch(e){}var p={on:b,addEventListener:b,removeEventListener:y,emit:v,get:x,listeners:w,context:m,buffer:A,abort:h,aborted:!1,isBuffering:E,debugId:r,backlog:g?{}:t&&"object"==typeof t.backlog?t.backlog:{}};return p;function m(e){return e&&e instanceof d?e:e?(0,i.X)(e,s,l):l()}function v(e,r,n,i,o){if(!1!==o&&(o=!0),!u.aborted||i){t&&o&&t.emit(e,r,n);for(var a=m(n),s=w(e),d=s.length,f=0;fn,p:()=>i});var n=r(2177).ee.get("handle");function i(e,t,r,i,o){o?(o.buffer([e],i),o.emit(e,t,r)):(n.buffer([e],i),n.emit(e,t,r))}},4322:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{X:()=>o});var n=r(5546);o.on=a;var i=o.handlers={};function o(e,t,r,o){a(o||n.E,i,e,t,r)}function a(e,t,r,i,o){o||(o="feature"),e||(e=n.E);var a=t[o]=t[o]||{};(a[r]=a[r]||[]).push([e,i])}},3239:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{bP:()=>s,iz:()=>c,m$:()=>a});var n=r(385);let i=!1,o=!1;try{const e={get passive(){return i=!0,!1},get signal(){return o=!0,!1}};n._A.addEventListener("test",null,e),n._A.removeEventListener("test",null,e)}catch(e){}function a(e,t){return i||o?{capture:!!e,passive:i,signal:t}:!!e}function s(e,t){let r=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]&&arguments[2],n=arguments.length>3?arguments[3]:void 0;window.addEventListener(e,t,a(r,n))}function c(e,t){let r=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]&&arguments[2],n=arguments.length>3?arguments[3]:void 0;document.addEventListener(e,t,a(r,n))}},4402:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{Ht:()=>u,M:()=>c,Rl:()=>a,ky:()=>s});var n=r(385);const i="xxxxxxxx-xxxx-4xxx-yxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx";function o(e,t){return e?15&e[t]:16*Math.random()|0}function a(){const e=n._A?.crypto||n._A?.msCrypto;let t,r=0;return e&&e.getRandomValues&&(t=e.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(31))),i.split("").map((e=>"x"===e?o(t,++r).toString(16):"y"===e?(3&o()|8).toString(16):e)).join("")}function s(e){const t=n._A?.crypto||n._A?.msCrypto;let r,i=0;t&&t.getRandomValues&&(r=t.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(31)));const a=[];for(var s=0;s {r.d(t,{Bq:()=>n,Hb:()=>o,oD:()=>i});const n="NRBA",i=144e5,o=18e5},7894:(e,t,r)=>{function n(){return Math.round(performance.now())}r.d(t,{z:()=>n})},7243:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{e:()=>o});var n=r(385),i={};function o(e){if(e in i)return i[e];if(0===(e||"").indexOf("data:"))return{protocol:"data"};let t;var r=n._A?.location,o={};if(n.il)t=document.createElement("a"),t.href=e;else try{t=new URL(e,r.href)}catch(e){return o}o.port=t.port;var a=t.href.split("://");!o.port&&a[1]&&(o.port=a[1].split("/")[0].split("@").pop().split(":")[1]),o.port&&"0"!==o.port||(o.port="https"===a[0]?"443":"80"),o.hostname=t.hostname||r.hostname,o.pathname=t.pathname,o.protocol=a[0],"/"!==o.pathname.charAt(0)&&(o.pathname="/"+o.pathname);var s=!t.protocol||":"===t.protocol||t.protocol===r.protocol,c=t.hostname===r.hostname&&t.port===r.port;return o.sameOrigin=s&&(!t.hostname||c),"/"===o.pathname&&(i[e]=o),o}},50:(e,t,r)=>{function n(e,t){"function"==typeof console.warn&&(console.warn("New Relic: ".concat(e)),t&&console.warn(t))}r.d(t,{Z:()=>n})},2587:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{N:()=>c,T:()=>u});var n=r(2177),i=r(5546),o=r(8e3),a=r(3325);const s={stn:[a.D.sessionTrace],err:[a.D.jserrors,a.D.metrics],ins:[a.D.pageAction],spa:[a.D.spa],sr:[a.D.sessionReplay,a.D.sessionTrace]};function c(e,t){const r=n.ee.get(t);e&&"object"==typeof e&&(Object.entries(e).forEach((e=>{let[t,n]=e;void 0===u[t]&&(s[t]?s[t].forEach((e=>{n?(0,i.p)("feat-"+t,[],void 0,e,r):(0,i.p)("block-"+t,[],void 0,e,r),(0,i.p)("rumresp-"+t,[Boolean(n)],void 0,e,r)})):n&&(0,i.p)("feat-"+t,[],void 0,void 0,r),u[t]=Boolean(n))})),Object.keys(s).forEach((e=>{void 0===u[e]&&(s[e]?.forEach((t=>(0,i.p)("rumresp-"+e,[!1],void 0,t,r))),u[e]=!1)})),(0,o.L)(t,a.D.pageViewEvent))}const u={}},2210:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{X:()=>i});var n=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;function i(e,t,r){if(n.call(e,t))return e[t];var i=r();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(e,t,{value:i,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),i}catch(e){}return e[t]=i,i}},1284:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{D:()=>n});const n=(e,t)=>Object.entries(e||{}).map((e=>{let[r,n]=e;return t(r,n)}))},4351:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{P:()=>o});var n=r(2177);const i=()=>{const e=new WeakSet;return(t,r)=>{if("object"==typeof r&&null!==r){if(e.has(r))return;e.add(r)}return r}};function o(e){try{return JSON.stringify(e,i())}catch(e){try{n.ee.emit("internal-error",[e])}catch(e){}}}},3960:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{K:()=>a,b:()=>o});var n=r(3239);function i(){return"undefined"==typeof document||"complete"===document.readyState}function o(e,t){if(i())return e();(0,n.bP)("load",e,t)}function a(e){if(i())return e();(0,n.iz)("DOMContentLoaded",e)}},8632:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{EZ:()=>u,Qy:()=>c,ce:()=>o,fP:()=>a,gG:()=>d,mF:()=>s});var n=r(7894),i=r(385);const o={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net"};function a(){return i._A.NREUM||(i._A.NREUM={}),void 0===i._A.newrelic&&(i._A.newrelic=i._A.NREUM),i._A.NREUM}function s(){let e=a();return e.o||(e.o={ST:i._A.setTimeout,SI:i._A.setImmediate,CT:i._A.clearTimeout,XHR:i._A.XMLHttpRequest,REQ:i._A.Request,EV:i._A.Event,PR:i._A.Promise,MO:i._A.MutationObserver,FETCH:i._A.fetch}),e}function c(e,t,r){let i=a();const o=i.initializedAgents||{},s=o[e]||{};return Object.keys(s).length||(s.initializedAt={ms:(0,n.z)(),date:new Date}),i.initializedAgents={...o,[e]:{...s,[r]:t}},i}function u(e,t){a()[e]=t}function d(){return function(){let e=a();const t=e.info||{};e.info={beacon:o.beacon,errorBeacon:o.errorBeacon,...t}}(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.init||{};e.init={...t}}(),s(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.loader_config||{};e.loader_config={...t}}(),a()}},7956:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{N:()=>i});var n=r(3239);function i(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]&&arguments[1],r=arguments.length>2?arguments[2]:void 0,i=arguments.length>3?arguments[3]:void 0;return void(0,n.iz)("visibilitychange",(function(){if(t)return void("hidden"==document.visibilityState&&e());e(document.visibilityState)}),r,i)}},1214:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{em:()=>v,u5:()=>N,QU:()=>S,_L:()=>I,Gm:()=>L,Lg:()=>M,gy:()=>U,BV:()=>Q,Kf:()=>ee});var n=r(2177);const i="nr@original";var o=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,a=!1;function s(e,t){return e||(e=n.ee),r.inPlace=function(e,t,n,i,o){n||(n="");var a,s,c,u="-"===n.charAt(0);for(c=0;c 2?n-2:0),o=2;o {r(A[T],e,w),r(E[T],e,w)})),r(l._A,"fetch",y),t.on(y+"end",(function(e,r){var n=this;if(r){var i=r.headers.get("content-length");null!==i&&(n.rxSize=i),t.emit(y+"done",[null,r],n)}else t.emit(y+"done",[e],n)})),t}const O={},j=["pushState","replaceState"];function S(e){const t=function(e){return(e||n.ee).get("history")}(e);return!l.il||O[t.debugId]++||(O[t.debugId]=1,s(t).inPlace(window.history,j,"-")),t}var P=r(3239);const C={},R=["appendChild","insertBefore","replaceChild"];function I(e){const t=function(e){return(e||n.ee).get("jsonp")}(e);if(!l.il||C[t.debugId])return t;C[t.debugId]=!0;var r=s(t),i=/[?&](?:callback|cb)=([^&#]+)/,o=/(.*)\.([^.]+)/,a=/^(\w+)(\.|$)(.*)$/;function c(e,t){var r=e.match(a),n=r[1],i=r[3];return i?c(i,t[n]):t[n]}return r.inPlace(Node.prototype,R,"dom-"),t.on("dom-start",(function(e){!function(e){if(!e||"string"!=typeof e.nodeName||"script"!==e.nodeName.toLowerCase())return;if("function"!=typeof e.addEventListener)return;var n=(a=e.src,s=a.match(i),s?s[1]:null);var a,s;if(!n)return;var u=function(e){var t=e.match(o);if(t&&t.length>=3)return{key:t[2],parent:c(t[1],window)};return{key:e,parent:window}}(n);if("function"!=typeof u.parent[u.key])return;var d={};function f(){t.emit("jsonp-end",[],d),e.removeEventListener("load",f,(0,P.m$)(!1)),e.removeEventListener("error",l,(0,P.m$)(!1))}function l(){t.emit("jsonp-error",[],d),t.emit("jsonp-end",[],d),e.removeEventListener("load",f,(0,P.m$)(!1)),e.removeEventListener("error",l,(0,P.m$)(!1))}r.inPlace(u.parent,[u.key],"cb-",d),e.addEventListener("load",f,(0,P.m$)(!1)),e.addEventListener("error",l,(0,P.m$)(!1)),t.emit("new-jsonp",[e.src],d)}(e[0])})),t}var k=r(5763);const H={};function L(e){const t=function(e){return(e||n.ee).get("mutation")}(e);if(!l.il||H[t.debugId])return t;H[t.debugId]=!0;var r=s(t),i=k.Yu.MO;return i&&(window.MutationObserver=function(e){return this instanceof i?new i(r(e,"fn-")):i.apply(this,arguments)},MutationObserver.prototype=i.prototype),t}const z={};function M(e){const t=function(e){return(e||n.ee).get("promise")}(e);if(z[t.debugId])return t;z[t.debugId]=!0;var r=n.c,o=s(t),a=k.Yu.PR;return a&&function(){function e(r){var n=t.context(),i=o(r,"executor-",n,null,!1);const s=Reflect.construct(a,[i],e);return t.context(s).getCtx=function(){return n},s}l._A.Promise=e,Object.defineProperty(e,"name",{value:"Promise"}),e.toString=function(){return a.toString()},Object.setPrototypeOf(e,a),["all","race"].forEach((function(r){const n=a[r];e[r]=function(e){let i=!1;[...e||[]].forEach((e=>{this.resolve(e).then(a("all"===r),a(!1))}));const o=n.apply(this,arguments);return o;function a(e){return function(){t.emit("propagate",[null,!i],o,!1,!1),i=i||!e}}}})),["resolve","reject"].forEach((function(r){const n=a[r];e[r]=function(e){const r=n.apply(this,arguments);return e!==r&&t.emit("propagate",[e,!0],r,!1,!1),r}})),e.prototype=a.prototype;const n=a.prototype.then;a.prototype.then=function(){var e=this,i=r(e);i.promise=e;for(var a=arguments.length,s=new Array(a),c=0;c e())),t};function m(e,t){i.inPlace(t,["onreadystatechange"],"fn-",E)}function b(){var e=this,t=r.context(e);e.readyState>3&&!t.resolved&&(t.resolved=!0,r.emit("xhr-resolved",[],e)),i.inPlace(e,f,"fn-",E)}if(function(e,t){for(var r in e)t[r]=e[r]}(o,p),p.prototype=o.prototype,i.inPlace(p.prototype,J,"-xhr-",E),r.on("send-xhr-start",(function(e,t){m(e,t),function(e){h.push(e),a&&(y?y.then(A):u?u(A):(w=-w,x.data=w))}(t)})),r.on("open-xhr-start",m),a){var y=c&&c.resolve();if(!u&&!c){var w=1,x=document.createTextNode(w);new a(A).observe(x,{characterData:!0})}}else t.on("fn-end",(function(e){e[0]&&e[0].type===d||A()}));function A(){for(var e=0;e {r.d(t,{t:()=>n});const n=r(3325).D.ajax},6660:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{A:()=>i,t:()=>n});const n=r(3325).D.jserrors,i="nr@seenError"},3081:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{gF:()=>o,mY:()=>i,t9:()=>n,vz:()=>s,xS:()=>a});const n=r(3325).D.metrics,i="sm",o="cm",a="storeSupportabilityMetrics",s="storeEventMetrics"},4649:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{t:()=>n});const n=r(3325).D.pageAction},7633:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{Dz:()=>i,OJ:()=>a,qw:()=>o,t9:()=>n});const n=r(3325).D.pageViewEvent,i="firstbyte",o="domcontent",a="windowload"},9251:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{t:()=>n});const n=r(3325).D.pageViewTiming},3614:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{BST_RESOURCE:()=>i,END:()=>s,FEATURE_NAME:()=>n,FN_END:()=>u,FN_START:()=>c,PUSH_STATE:()=>d,RESOURCE:()=>o,START:()=>a});const n=r(3325).D.sessionTrace,i="bstResource",o="resource",a="-start",s="-end",c="fn"+a,u="fn"+s,d="pushState"},7836:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{BODY:()=>A,CB_END:()=>E,CB_START:()=>u,END:()=>x,FEATURE_NAME:()=>i,FETCH:()=>_,FETCH_BODY:()=>v,FETCH_DONE:()=>m,FETCH_START:()=>p,FN_END:()=>c,FN_START:()=>s,INTERACTION:()=>l,INTERACTION_API:()=>d,INTERACTION_EVENTS:()=>o,JSONP_END:()=>b,JSONP_NODE:()=>g,JS_TIME:()=>T,MAX_TIMER_BUDGET:()=>a,REMAINING:()=>f,SPA_NODE:()=>h,START:()=>w,originalSetTimeout:()=>y});var n=r(5763);const i=r(3325).D.spa,o=["click","submit","keypress","keydown","keyup","change"],a=999,s="fn-start",c="fn-end",u="cb-start",d="api-ixn-",f="remaining",l="interaction",h="spaNode",g="jsonpNode",p="fetch-start",m="fetch-done",v="fetch-body-",b="jsonp-end",y=n.Yu.ST,w="-start",x="-end",A="-body",E="cb"+x,T="jsTime",_="fetch"},5938:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{W:()=>o});var n=r(5763),i=r(2177);class o{constructor(e,t,r){this.agentIdentifier=e,this.aggregator=t,this.ee=i.ee.get(e,(0,n.OP)(this.agentIdentifier).isolatedBacklog),this.featureName=r,this.blocked=!1}}},9144:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{j:()=>m});var n=r(3325),i=r(5763),o=r(5546),a=r(2177),s=r(7894),c=r(8e3),u=r(3960),d=r(385),f=r(50),l=r(3081),h=r(8632);function g(){const e=(0,h.gG)();["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","inlineHit","addRelease","addPageAction","setCurrentRouteName","setPageViewName","setCustomAttribute","interaction","noticeError","setUserId"].forEach((t=>{e[t]=function(){for(var r=arguments.length,n=new Array(r),i=0;i 1?r-1:0),i=1;i {e.exposed&&e.api[t]&&o.push(e.api[t](...n))})),o.length>1?o:o[0]}(t,...n)}}))}var p=r(2587);function m(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{},m=arguments.length>2?arguments[2]:void 0,v=arguments.length>3?arguments[3]:void 0,{init:b,info:y,loader_config:w,runtime:x={loaderType:m},exposed:A=!0}=t;const E=(0,h.gG)();y||(b=E.init,y=E.info,w=E.loader_config),(0,i.Dg)(e,b||{}),(0,i.GE)(e,w||{}),(0,i.sU)(e,x),y.jsAttributes??={},d.v6&&(y.jsAttributes.isWorker=!0),(0,i.CX)(e,y),g();const T=function(e,t){t||(0,c.R)(e,"api");const h={};var g=a.ee.get(e),p=g.get("tracer"),m="api-",v=m+"ixn-";function b(t,r,n,o){const a=(0,i.C5)(e);return null===r?delete a.jsAttributes[t]:(0,i.CX)(e,{...a,jsAttributes:{...a.jsAttributes,[t]:r}}),x(m,n,!0,o||null===r?"session":void 0)(t,r)}function y(){}["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","inlineHit","addRelease"].forEach((e=>h[e]=x(m,e,!0,"api"))),h.addPageAction=x(m,"addPageAction",!0,n.D.pageAction),h.setCurrentRouteName=x(m,"routeName",!0,n.D.spa),h.setPageViewName=function(t,r){if("string"==typeof t)return"/"!==t.charAt(0)&&(t="/"+t),(0,i.OP)(e).customTransaction=(r||"http://custom.transaction")+t,x(m,"setPageViewName",!0)()},h.setCustomAttribute=function(e,t){let r=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]&&arguments[2];if("string"==typeof e){if(["string","number"].includes(typeof t)||null===t)return b(e,t,"setCustomAttribute",r);(0,f.Z)("Failed to execute setCustomAttribute.\nNon-null value must be a string or number type, but a type of was provided."))}else(0,f.Z)("Failed to execute setCustomAttribute.\nName must be a string type, but a type of was provided."))},h.setUserId=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return b("enduser.id",e,"setUserId",!0);(0,f.Z)("Failed to execute setUserId.\nNon-null value must be a string type, but a type of was provided."))},h.interaction=function(){return(new y).get()};var w=y.prototype={createTracer:function(e,t){var r={},i=this,a="function"==typeof t;return(0,o.p)(v+"tracer",[(0,s.z)(),e,r],i,n.D.spa,g),function(){if(p.emit((a?"":"no-")+"fn-start",[(0,s.z)(),i,a],r),a)try{return t.apply(this,arguments)}catch(e){throw p.emit("fn-err",[arguments,this,"string"==typeof e?new Error(e):e],r),e}finally{p.emit("fn-end",[(0,s.z)()],r)}}}};function x(e,t,r,i){return function(){return(0,o.p)(l.xS,["API/"+t+"/called"],void 0,n.D.metrics,g),i&&(0,o.p)(e+t,[(0,s.z)(),...arguments],r?null:this,i,g),r?void 0:this}}function A(){r.e(439).then(r.bind(r,7438)).then((t=>{let{setAPI:r}=t;r(e),(0,c.L)(e,"api")})).catch((()=>(0,f.Z)("Downloading runtime APIs failed...")))}return["actionText","setName","setAttribute","save","ignore","onEnd","getContext","end","get"].forEach((e=>{w[e]=x(v,e,void 0,n.D.spa)})),h.noticeError=function(e,t){"string"==typeof e&&(e=new Error(e)),(0,o.p)(l.xS,["API/noticeError/called"],void 0,n.D.metrics,g),(0,o.p)("err",[e,(0,s.z)(),!1,t],void 0,n.D.jserrors,g)},d.il?(0,u.b)((()=>A()),!0):A(),h}(e,v);return(0,h.Qy)(e,T,"api"),(0,h.Qy)(e,A,"exposed"),(0,h.EZ)("activatedFeatures",p.T),T}},3325:(e,t,r)=>{r.d(t,{D:()=>n,p:()=>i});const n={ajax:"ajax",jserrors:"jserrors",metrics:"metrics",pageAction:"page_action",pageViewEvent:"page_view_event",pageViewTiming:"page_view_timing",sessionReplay:"session_replay",sessionTrace:"session_trace",spa:"spa"},i={[n.pageViewEvent]:1,[n.pageViewTiming]:2,[n.metrics]:3,[n.jserrors]:4,[n.ajax]:5,[n.sessionTrace]:6,[n.pageAction]:7,[n.spa]:8,[n.sessionReplay]:9}}},n={};function i(e){var t=n[e];if(void 0!==t)return t.exports;var o=n[e]={exports:{}};return r[e](o,o.exports,i),o.exports}i.m=r,i.d=(e,t)=>{for(var r in t)i.o(t,r)&&!i.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:t[r]})},i.f={},i.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(i.f).reduce(((t,r)=>(i.f[r](e,t),t)),[])),i.u=e=>(({78:"page_action-aggregate",147:"metrics-aggregate",242:"session-manager",317:"jserrors-aggregate",348:"page_view_timing-aggregate",412:"lazy-feature-loader",439:"async-api",538:"recorder",590:"session_replay-aggregate",675:"compressor",733:"session_trace-aggregate",786:"page_view_event-aggregate",873:"spa-aggregate",898:"ajax-aggregate"}[e]||e)+"."+{78:"ac76d497",147:"3dc53903",148:"1a20d5fe",242:"2a64278a",317:"49e41428",348:"bd6de33a",412:"2f55ce66",439:"30bd804e",538:"1b18459f",590:"cf0efb30",675:"ae9f91a8",733:"83105561",786:"06482edd",860:"03a8b7a5",873:"e6b09d52",898:"998ef92b"}[e]+"-1.236.0.min.js"),i.o=(e,t)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,t),e={},t="NRBA:",i.l=(r,n,o,a)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(n);else{var s,c;if(void 0!==o)for(var u=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),d=0;d {s.onerror=s.onload=null,clearTimeout(h);var i=e[r];if(delete e[r],s.parentNode&&s.parentNode.removeChild(s),i&&i.forEach((e=>e(n))),t)return t(n)},h=setTimeout(l.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:s}),12e4);s.onerror=l.bind(null,s.onerror),s.onload=l.bind(null,s.onload),c&&document.head.appendChild(s)}},i.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},i.j=364,i.p="https://js-agent.newrelic.com/",(()=>{var e={364:0,953:0};i.f.j=(t,r)=>{var n=i.o(e,t)?e[t]:void 0;if(0!==n)if(n)r.push(n[2]);else{var o=new Promise(((r,i)=>n=e[t]=[r,i]));r.push(n[2]=o);var a=i.p+i.u(t),s=new Error;i.l(a,(r=>{if(i.o(e,t)&&(0!==(n=e[t])&&(e[t]=void 0),n)){var o=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),a=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;s.message="Loading chunk "+t+" failed.\n("+o+": "+a+")",s.name="ChunkLoadError",s.type=o,s.request=a,n[1](s)}}),"chunk-"+t,t)}};var t=(t,r)=>{var n,o,[a,s,c]=r,u=0;if(a.some((t=>0!==e[t]))){for(n in s)i.o(s,n)&&(i.m[n]=s[n]);if(c)c(i)}for(t&&t(r);u {i.r(o);var e=i(3325),t=i(5763);const r=Object.values(e.D);function n(e){const n={};return r.forEach((r=>{n[r]=function(e,r){return!1!==(0,t.Mt)(r,"".concat(e,".enabled"))}(r,e)})),n}var a=i(9144);var s=i(5546),c=i(385),u=i(8e3),d=i(5938),f=i(3960),l=i(50);class h extends d.W{constructor(e,t,r){let n=!(arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3])||arguments[3];super(e,t,r),this.auto=n,this.abortHandler,this.featAggregate,this.onAggregateImported,n&&(0,u.R)(e,r)}importAggregator(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};if(this.featAggregate||!this.auto)return;const r=c.il&&!0===(0,t.Mt)(this.agentIdentifier,"privacy.cookies_enabled");let n;this.onAggregateImported=new Promise((e=>{n=e}));const o=async()=>{let t;try{if(r){const{setupAgentSession:e}=await Promise.all([i.e(860),i.e(242)]).then(i.bind(i,3228));t=e(this.agentIdentifier)}}catch(e){(0,l.Z)("A problem occurred when starting up session manager. This page will not start or extend any session.",e)}try{if(!this.shouldImportAgg(this.featureName,t))return void(0,u.L)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName);const{lazyFeatureLoader:r}=await i.e(412).then(i.bind(i,8582)),{Aggregate:o}=await r(this.featureName,"aggregate");this.featAggregate=new o(this.agentIdentifier,this.aggregator,e),n(!0)}catch(e){(0,l.Z)("Downloading and initializing ".concat(this.featureName," failed..."),e),this.abortHandler?.(),n(!1)}};c.il?(0,f.b)((()=>o()),!0):o()}shouldImportAgg(r,n){return r!==e.D.sessionReplay||!1!==(0,t.Mt)(this.agentIdentifier,"session_trace.enabled")&&(!!n?.isNew||!!n?.state.sessionReplay)}}var g=i(7633),p=i(7894);class m extends h{static featureName=g.t9;constructor(r,n){let i=!(arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2];if(super(r,n,g.t9,i),("undefined"==typeof PerformanceNavigationTiming||c.Tt)&&"undefined"!=typeof PerformanceTiming){const n=(0,t.OP)(r);n[g.Dz]=Math.max(Date.now()-n.offset,0),(0,f.K)((()=>n[g.qw]=Math.max((0,p.z)()-n[g.Dz],0))),(0,f.b)((()=>{const t=(0,p.z)();n[g.OJ]=Math.max(t-n[g.Dz],0),(0,s.p)("timing",["load",t],void 0,e.D.pageViewTiming,this.ee)}))}this.importAggregator()}}var v=i(1117),b=i(1284);class y extends v.w{constructor(e){super(e),this.aggregatedData={}}store(e,t,r,n,i){var o=this.getBucket(e,t,r,i);return o.metrics=function(e,t){t||(t={count:0});return t.count+=1,(0,b.D)(e,(function(e,r){t[e]=w(r,t[e])})),t}(n,o.metrics),o}merge(e,t,r,n,i){var o=this.getBucket(e,t,n,i);if(o.metrics){var a=o.metrics;a.count+=r.count,(0,b.D)(r,(function(e,t){if("count"!==e){var n=a[e],i=r[e];i&&!i.c?a[e]=w(i.t,n):a[e]=function(e,t){if(!t)return e;t.c||(t=x(t.t));return t.min=Math.min(e.min,t.min),t.max=Math.max(e.max,t.max),t.t+=e.t,t.sos+=e.sos,t.c+=e.c,t}(i,a[e])}}))}else o.metrics=r}storeMetric(e,t,r,n){var i=this.getBucket(e,t,r);return i.stats=w(n,i.stats),i}getBucket(e,t,r,n){this.aggregatedData[e]||(this.aggregatedData[e]={});var i=this.aggregatedData[e][t];return i||(i=this.aggregatedData[e][t]={params:r||{}},n&&(i.custom=n)),i}get(e,t){return t?this.aggregatedData[e]&&this.aggregatedData[e][t]:this.aggregatedData[e]}take(e){for(var t={},r="",n=!1,i=0;i t.max&&(t.max=e),e 2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2];super(e,r,j.t,n),c.il&&((0,t.OP)(e).initHidden=Boolean("hidden"===document.visibilityState),(0,N.N)((()=>(0,s.p)("docHidden",[(0,p.z)()],void 0,j.t,this.ee)),!0),(0,O.bP)("pagehide",(()=>(0,s.p)("winPagehide",[(0,p.z)()],void 0,j.t,this.ee))),this.importAggregator())}}var P=i(3081);class C extends h{static featureName=P.t9;constructor(e,t){let r=!(arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2];super(e,t,P.t9,r),this.importAggregator()}}var R,I=i(2210),k=i(1214),H=i(2177),L={};try{R=localStorage.getItem("__nr_flags").split(","),console&&"function"==typeof console.log&&(L.console=!0,-1!==R.indexOf("dev")&&(L.dev=!0),-1!==R.indexOf("nr_dev")&&(L.nrDev=!0))}catch(e){}function z(e){try{L.console&&z(e)}catch(e){}}L.nrDev&&H.ee.on("internal-error",(function(e){z(e.stack)})),L.dev&&H.ee.on("fn-err",(function(e,t,r){z(r.stack)})),L.dev&&(z("NR AGENT IN DEVELOPMENT MODE"),z("flags: "+(0,b.D)(L,(function(e,t){return e})).join(", ")));var M=i(6660);class B extends h{static featureName=M.t;constructor(r,n){let i=!(arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2];super(r,n,M.t,i),this.skipNext=0;try{this.removeOnAbort=new AbortController}catch(e){}const o=this;o.ee.on("fn-start",(function(e,t,r){o.abortHandler&&(o.skipNext+=1)})),o.ee.on("fn-err",(function(t,r,n){o.abortHandler&&!n[M.A]&&((0,I.X)(n,M.A,(function(){return!0})),this.thrown=!0,(0,s.p)("err",[n,(0,p.z)()],void 0,e.D.jserrors,o.ee))})),o.ee.on("fn-end",(function(){o.abortHandler&&!this.thrown&&o.skipNext>0&&(o.skipNext-=1)})),o.ee.on("internal-error",(function(t){(0,s.p)("ierr",[t,(0,p.z)(),!0],void 0,e.D.jserrors,o.ee)})),this.origOnerror=c._A.onerror,c._A.onerror=this.onerrorHandler.bind(this),c._A.addEventListener("unhandledrejection",(t=>{const r=function(e){let t="Unhandled Promise Rejection: ";if(e instanceof Error)try{return e.message=t+e.message,e}catch(t){return e}if(void 0===e)return new Error(t);try{return new Error(t+(0,D.P)(e))}catch(e){return new Error(t)}}(t.reason);(0,s.p)("err",[r,(0,p.z)(),!1,{unhandledPromiseRejection:1}],void 0,e.D.jserrors,this.ee)}),(0,O.m$)(!1,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),(0,k.gy)(this.ee),(0,k.BV)(this.ee),(0,k.em)(this.ee),(0,t.OP)(r).xhrWrappable&&(0,k.Kf)(this.ee),this.abortHandler=this.#e,this.importAggregator()}#e(){this.removeOnAbort?.abort(),this.abortHandler=void 0}onerrorHandler(t,r,n,i,o){"function"==typeof this.origOnerror&&this.origOnerror(...arguments);try{this.skipNext?this.skipNext-=1:(0,s.p)("err",[o||new F(t,r,n),(0,p.z)()],void 0,e.D.jserrors,this.ee)}catch(t){try{(0,s.p)("ierr",[t,(0,p.z)(),!0],void 0,e.D.jserrors,this.ee)}catch(e){}}return!1}}function F(e,t,r){this.message=e||"Uncaught error with no additional information",this.sourceURL=t,this.line=r}let U=1;const q="nr@id";function G(e){const t=typeof e;return!e||"object"!==t&&"function"!==t?-1:e===c._A?0:(0,I.X)(e,q,(function(){return U++}))}function V(e){if("string"==typeof e&&e.length)return e.length;if("object"==typeof e){if("undefined"!=typeof ArrayBuffer&&e instanceof ArrayBuffer&&e.byteLength)return e.byteLength;if("undefined"!=typeof Blob&&e instanceof Blob&&e.size)return e.size;if(!("undefined"!=typeof FormData&&e instanceof FormData))try{return(0,D.P)(e).length}catch(e){return}}}var X=i(7243);class W{constructor(e){this.agentIdentifier=e,this.generateTracePayload=this.generateTracePayload.bind(this),this.shouldGenerateTrace=this.shouldGenerateTrace.bind(this)}generateTracePayload(e){if(!this.shouldGenerateTrace(e))return null;var r=(0,t.DL)(this.agentIdentifier);if(!r)return null;var n=(r.accountID||"").toString()||null,i=(r.agentID||"").toString()||null,o=(r.trustKey||"").toString()||null;if(!n||!i)return null;var a=(0,_.M)(),s=(0,_.Ht)(),c=Date.now(),u={spanId:a,traceId:s,timestamp:c};return(e.sameOrigin||this.isAllowedOrigin(e)&&this.useTraceContextHeadersForCors())&&(u.traceContextParentHeader=this.generateTraceContextParentHeader(a,s),u.traceContextStateHeader=this.generateTraceContextStateHeader(a,c,n,i,o)),(e.sameOrigin&&!this.excludeNewrelicHeader()||!e.sameOrigin&&this.isAllowedOrigin(e)&&this.useNewrelicHeaderForCors())&&(u.newrelicHeader=this.generateTraceHeader(a,s,c,n,i,o)),u}generateTraceContextParentHeader(e,t){return"00-"+t+"-"+e+"-01"}generateTraceContextStateHeader(e,t,r,n,i){return i+"@nr=0-1-"+r+"-"+n+"-"+e+"----"+t}generateTraceHeader(e,t,r,n,i,o){if(!("function"==typeof c._A?.btoa))return null;var a={v:[0,1],d:{ty:"Browser",ac:n,ap:i,id:e,tr:t,ti:r}};return o&&n!==o&&(a.d.tk=o),btoa((0,D.P)(a))}shouldGenerateTrace(e){return this.isDtEnabled()&&this.isAllowedOrigin(e)}isAllowedOrigin(e){var r=!1,n={};if((0,t.Mt)(this.agentIdentifier,"distributed_tracing")&&(n=(0,t.P_)(this.agentIdentifier).distributed_tracing),e.sameOrigin)r=!0;else if(n.allowed_origins instanceof Array)for(var i=0;i 2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2];super(r,n,Z.t,i),(0,t.OP)(r).xhrWrappable&&(this.dt=new W(r),this.handler=(e,t,r,n)=>(0,s.p)(e,t,r,n,this.ee),(0,k.u5)(this.ee),(0,k.Kf)(this.ee),function(r,n,i,o){function a(e){var t=this;t.totalCbs=0,t.called=0,t.cbTime=0,t.end=E,t.ended=!1,t.xhrGuids={},t.lastSize=null,t.loadCaptureCalled=!1,t.params=this.params||{},t.metrics=this.metrics||{},e.addEventListener("load",(function(r){_(t,e)}),(0,O.m$)(!1)),c.IF||e.addEventListener("progress",(function(e){t.lastSize=e.loaded}),(0,O.m$)(!1))}function s(e){this.params={method:e[0]},T(this,e[1]),this.metrics={}}function u(e,n){var i=(0,t.DL)(r);i.xpid&&this.sameOrigin&&n.setRequestHeader("X-NewRelic-ID",i.xpid);var a=o.generateTracePayload(this.parsedOrigin);if(a){var s=!1;a.newrelicHeader&&(n.setRequestHeader("newrelic",a.newrelicHeader),s=!0),a.traceContextParentHeader&&(n.setRequestHeader("traceparent",a.traceContextParentHeader),a.traceContextStateHeader&&n.setRequestHeader("tracestate",a.traceContextStateHeader),s=!0),s&&(this.dt=a)}}function d(e,t){var r=this.metrics,i=e[0],o=this;if(r&&i){var a=V(i);a&&(r.txSize=a)}this.startTime=(0,p.z)(),this.listener=function(e){try{"abort"!==e.type||o.loadCaptureCalled||(o.params.aborted=!0),("load"!==e.type||o.called===o.totalCbs&&(o.onloadCalled||"function"!=typeof t.onload)&&"function"==typeof o.end)&&o.end(t)}catch(e){try{n.emit("internal-error",[e])}catch(e){}}};for(var s=0;s 1?e[1]=i:e.push(i)}else e[0]&&e[0].headers&&s(e[0].headers,n)&&(this.dt=n);function s(e,t){var r=!1;return t.newrelicHeader&&(e.set("newrelic",t.newrelicHeader),r=!0),t.traceContextParentHeader&&(e.set("traceparent",t.traceContextParentHeader),t.traceContextStateHeader&&e.set("tracestate",t.traceContextStateHeader),r=!0),r}}function x(e,t){this.params={},this.metrics={},this.startTime=(0,p.z)(),this.dt=t,e.length>=1&&(this.target=e[0]),e.length>=2&&(this.opts=e[1]);var r,n=this.opts||{},i=this.target;"string"==typeof i?r=i:"object"==typeof i&&i instanceof Y?r=i.url:c._A?.URL&&"object"==typeof i&&i instanceof URL&&(r=i.href),T(this,r);var o=(""+(i&&i instanceof Y&&i.method||n.method||"GET")).toUpperCase();this.params.method=o,this.txSize=V(n.body)||0}function A(t,r){var n;this.endTime=(0,p.z)(),this.params||(this.params={}),this.params.status=r?r.status:0,"string"==typeof this.rxSize&&this.rxSize.length>0&&(n=+this.rxSize);var o={txSize:this.txSize,rxSize:n,duration:(0,p.z)()-this.startTime};i("xhr",[this.params,o,this.startTime,this.endTime,"fetch"],this,e.D.ajax)}function E(t){var r=this.params,n=this.metrics;if(!this.ended){this.ended=!0;for(var o=0;o 2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2];super(e,t,we.t,r),this.importAggregator()}}new class{constructor(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:(0,_.ky)(16);c._A?(this.agentIdentifier=t,this.sharedAggregator=new y({agentIdentifier:this.agentIdentifier}),this.features={},this.desiredFeatures=new Set(e.features||[]),this.desiredFeatures.add(m),Object.assign(this,(0,a.j)(this.agentIdentifier,e,e.loaderType||"agent")),this.start()):(0,l.Z)("Failed to initial the agent. Could not determine the runtime environment.")}get config(){return{info:(0,t.C5)(this.agentIdentifier),init:(0,t.P_)(this.agentIdentifier),loader_config:(0,t.DL)(this.agentIdentifier),runtime:(0,t.OP)(this.agentIdentifier)}}start(){const t="features";try{const r=n(this.agentIdentifier),i=[...this.desiredFeatures];i.sort(((t,r)=>e.p[t.featureName]-e.p[r.featureName])),i.forEach((t=>{if(r[t.featureName]||t.featureName===e.D.pageViewEvent){const n=function(t){switch(t){case e.D.ajax:return[e.D.jserrors];case e.D.sessionTrace:return[e.D.ajax,e.D.pageViewEvent];case e.D.sessionReplay:return[e.D.sessionTrace];case e.D.pageViewTiming:return[e.D.pageViewEvent];default:return[]}}(t.featureName);n.every((e=>r[e]))||(0,l.Z)("".concat(t.featureName," is enabled but one or more dependent features has been disabled (").concat((0,D.P)(n),"). This may cause unintended consequences or missing data...")),this.features[t.featureName]=new t(this.agentIdentifier,this.sharedAggregator)}})),(0,T.Qy)(this.agentIdentifier,this.features,t)}catch(e){(0,l.Z)("Failed to initialize all enabled instrument classes (agent aborted) -",e);for(const e in this.features)this.features[e].abortHandler?.();const r=(0,T.fP)();return delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.api,delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.[t],delete this.sharedAggregator,r.ee?.abort(),delete r.ee?.get(this.agentIdentifier),!1}}}({features:[J,m,S,class extends h{static featureName=oe;constructor(t,r){if(super(t,r,oe,!(arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2]),!c.il)return;const n=this.ee;let i;(0,k.QU)(n),this.eventsEE=(0,k.em)(n),this.eventsEE.on(se,(function(e,t){this.bstStart=(0,p.z)()})),this.eventsEE.on(ae,(function(t,r){(0,s.p)("bst",[t[0],r,this.bstStart,(0,p.z)()],void 0,e.D.sessionTrace,n)})),n.on(ce+ne,(function(e){this.time=(0,p.z)(),this.startPath=location.pathname+location.hash})),n.on(ce+ie,(function(t){(0,s.p)("bstHist",[location.pathname+location.hash,this.startPath,this.time],void 0,e.D.sessionTrace,n)}));try{i=new PerformanceObserver((t=>{const r=t.getEntries();(0,s.p)(te,[r],void 0,e.D.sessionTrace,n)})),i.observe({type:re,buffered:!0})}catch(e){}this.importAggregator({resourceObserver:i})}},C,xe,B,class extends h{static featureName=de;constructor(e,r){if(super(e,r,de,!(arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2])||arguments[2]),!c.il)return;if(!(0,t.OP)(e).xhrWrappable)return;try{this.removeOnAbort=new AbortController}catch(e){}let n,i=0;const o=this.ee.get("tracer"),a=(0,k._L)(this.ee),s=(0,k.Lg)(this.ee),u=(0,k.BV)(this.ee),d=(0,k.Kf)(this.ee),f=this.ee.get("events"),l=(0,k.u5)(this.ee),h=(0,k.QU)(this.ee),g=(0,k.Gm)(this.ee);function m(e,t){h.emit("newURL",[""+window.location,t])}function v(){i++,n=window.location.hash,this[ve]=(0,p.z)()}function b(){i--,window.location.hash!==n&&m(0,!0);var e=(0,p.z)();this[pe]=~~this[pe]+e-this[ve],this[ye]=e}function y(e,t){e.on(t,(function(){this[t]=(0,p.z)()}))}this.ee.on(ve,v),s.on(be,v),a.on(be,v),this.ee.on(ye,b),s.on(ge,b),a.on(ge,b),this.ee.buffer([ve,ye,"xhr-resolved"],this.featureName),f.buffer([ve],this.featureName),u.buffer(["setTimeout"+le,"clearTimeout"+fe,ve],this.featureName),d.buffer([ve,"new-xhr","send-xhr"+fe],this.featureName),l.buffer([me+fe,me+"-done",me+he+fe,me+he+le],this.featureName),h.buffer(["newURL"],this.featureName),g.buffer([ve],this.featureName),s.buffer(["propagate",be,ge,"executor-err","resolve"+fe],this.featureName),o.buffer([ve,"no-"+ve],this.featureName),a.buffer(["new-jsonp","cb-start","jsonp-error","jsonp-end"],this.featureName),y(l,me+fe),y(l,me+"-done"),y(a,"new-jsonp"),y(a,"jsonp-end"),y(a,"cb-start"),h.on("pushState-end",m),h.on("replaceState-end",m),window.addEventListener("hashchange",m,(0,O.m$)(!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),window.addEventListener("load",m,(0,O.m$)(!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),window.addEventListener("popstate",(function(){m(0,i>1)}),(0,O.m$)(!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),this.abortHandler=this.#e,this.importAggregator()}#e(){this.removeOnAbort?.abort(),this.abortHandler=void 0}}],loaderType:"spa"})})(),window.NRBA=o})(); window.jQuery || document.write(' ') CKEDITOR_BASEPATH='https://f1000research.com/js/vendor/ckeditor/' window.reactTheme = 'research'; window.MathJax = { CommonHTML: { linebreaks: { automatic: true } }, 'HTML-CSS': { linebreaks: { automatic: true } }, SVG: { linebreaks: { automatic: true } }, AuthorInit: function() { MathJax.Hub.Register.MessageHook('End Process', function () { let timeout = false; // holder for timeout id const delay = 250; // delay after event is "complete" to run callback const reflowMath = function() { const dispFormulas = document.querySelectorAll('.disp-formula.panel'); if (!dispFormulas) { return; } for (const dispFormula of dispFormulas) { const child = dispFormula.querySelector('.MathJax_Preview').nextSibling.firstChild; const isMultiline = MathJax.Hub.getAllJax(dispFormula)[0].root.isMultiline; if (dispFormula.offsetWidth < child.offsetWidth || isMultiline) { MathJax.Hub.Queue(['Rerender', MathJax.Hub, dispFormula]); } } }; window.addEventListener('resize', function() { clearTimeout(timeout); // clear the timeout timeout = setTimeout(reflowMath, delay); // start timing for event "completion" }); }); }, }; if (window.location.hash == '#_=_'){ window.location = window.location.href.split('#')[0] } !function(f,b,e,v,n,t,s){if(f.fbq)return;n=f.fbq=function() {n.callMethod? n.callMethod.apply(n,arguments):n.queue.push(arguments)} ;if(!f._fbq)f._fbq=n; n.push=n;n.loaded=!0;n.version='2.0';n.queue=[];t=b.createElement(e);t.async=!0; t.src=v;s=b.getElementsByTagName(e)[0];s.parentNode.insertBefore(t,s)}(window, document,'script','https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/fbevents.js'); fbq('init', '1641728616063202'); fbq('track', "PixelInitialized", {}); (function(h,o,t,j,a,r){ h.hj=h.hj||function(){(h.hj.q=h.hj.q||[]).push(arguments)}; h._hjSettings={hjid:2318163,hjsv:6}; a=o.getElementsByTagName('head')[0]; r=o.createElement('script');r.async=1; r.src=t+h._hjSettings.hjid+j+h._hjSettings.hjsv; a.appendChild(r); })(window,document,'https://static.hotjar.com/c/hotjar-','.js?sv='); search file_upload Submit your research search menu close search Browse Gateways & Collections How to Publish Submit your Research My Submissions Article Guidelines Article Guidelines (New Versions) Open Data, Software and Code Guidelines Open Data and Accessible Source Materials Guidelines (HSS) Open Data, Software and Code Guidelines (PSE) Prepublication Checks Production Process Posters and Slides Guidelines Document Guidelines Article Processing Charges Peer Review Finding Article Reviewers About How it Works For Reviewers Our Advisors Policies Glossary FAQs For Developers Newsroom Contact My Research Submissions Content and Tracking Alerts My Details Sign In file_upload Submit your research { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "ScholarlyArticle", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134" }, "headline": "Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from...", "datePublished": "2025-01-27T14:45:14", "dateModified": "2025-07-11T13:02:09", "author": [ { "@type": "Person", "name": "Babafemi Laoye" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Peter Olagbemide" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Tolulope A. Ogunnusi" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Oghenerobor B. Akpor" } ], "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "F1000Research", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "https://f1000research.com/img/AMP/F1000Research_image.png", "height": 480, "width": 60 } }, "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "https://f1000research.com/img/AMP/F1000Research_image.png", "height": 1200, "width": 150 }, "description": "Heavy metal contamination has gradually become a highly significant global issue due to its continual existence in the environment and bioaccumulation in the ecosystems, posing deleterious risks to human health. The major objectives of the review is to investigate the sources, pathways, and toxicological impacts of heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic, elucidating their health consequences and plausible mitigation strategies. Furthermore, the review explores the dual origins of heavy metal contamination; natural geological processes and anthropogenic activities such as industrial emissions, mining, and agricultural practices. These heavy metals seep into soil, water, and food chains, leading to bioaccumulation, bio-magnification and causing significant health risks, including cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and reproductive toxicity. Additionally, the addition of indigenous case studies from Nigeria, such as lead poisoning in Zamfara State and contamination in the Great Kwa River of Cross Rivers State underscores the disproportionate impact of heavy metal pollution in developing nations. The key findings from this review via the selected case studies revealed the socio-economic and environmental dimensions of the issue, providing a contextual understanding of region-specific vulnerabilities and health outcomes. To address these problems, the review evaluates already existing mitigation strategies, including chelation therapy and phytoremediation, while proposing sustainable, cost-effective solutions for reducing exposure and mitigating impacts. It emphasizes the importance of integrative approaches involving policy, community engagement, and technological innovations to fight heavy metal contamination effectively. In conclusion, this review contributes to the understanding of heavy metal toxicity, giving and showcasing very much important insights into the sources and health implications of contamination. By integrating theoretical perspectives with practical solutions, this review provides a robust framework for informing policy makers and advancing sustainable environmental management practices." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134", "name": "Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable..." } } ] } Home Browse Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Laoye B, Olagbemide P, Ogunnusi TA and Akpor OB. Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.4 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Review Revised Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] Babafemi Laoye https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0903-754X 1 , Peter Olagbemide https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4127-8132 1 , Tolulope A. Ogunnusi 1 , Oghenerobor B. Akpor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4256-1549 1 Babafemi Laoye https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0903-754X 1 , Peter Olagbemide https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4127-8132 1 , Tolulope A. Ogunnusi 1 , Oghenerobor B. Akpor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4256-1549 1 PUBLISHED 11 Jul 2025 Author details Author details 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria Babafemi Laoye Roles: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Peter Olagbemide Roles: Resources, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Tolulope A. Ogunnusi Roles: Resources, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Oghenerobor B. Akpor Roles: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS This article is included in the Public Health and Environmental Health collection. Abstract Heavy metal contamination has gradually become a highly significant global issue due to its continual existence in the environment and bioaccumulation in the ecosystems, posing deleterious risks to human health. The major objectives of the review is to investigate the sources, pathways, and toxicological impacts of heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic, elucidating their health consequences and plausible mitigation strategies. Furthermore, the review explores the dual origins of heavy metal contamination; natural geological processes and anthropogenic activities such as industrial emissions, mining, and agricultural practices. These heavy metals seep into soil, water, and food chains, leading to bioaccumulation, bio-magnification and causing significant health risks, including cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and reproductive toxicity. Additionally, the addition of indigenous case studies from Nigeria, such as lead poisoning in Zamfara State and contamination in the Great Kwa River of Cross Rivers State underscores the disproportionate impact of heavy metal pollution in developing nations. The key findings from this review via the selected case studies revealed the socio-economic and environmental dimensions of the issue, providing a contextual understanding of region-specific vulnerabilities and health outcomes. To address these problems, the review evaluates already existing mitigation strategies, including chelation therapy and phytoremediation, while proposing sustainable, cost-effective solutions for reducing exposure and mitigating impacts. It emphasizes the importance of integrative approaches involving policy, community engagement, and technological innovations to fight heavy metal contamination effectively. In conclusion, this review contributes to the understanding of heavy metal toxicity, giving and showcasing very much important insights into the sources and health implications of contamination. By integrating theoretical perspectives with practical solutions, this review provides a robust framework for informing policy makers and advancing sustainable environmental management practices. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Heavy metal; Phytoremediation; DNA; Cadmium; Lead; Arsenic; Mecury Anthropogenic; Bioaccumulation; Bio-magnification. Corresponding Author(s) Babafemi Laoye ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Babafemi Laoye Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2025 Laoye B et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Laoye B, Olagbemide P, Ogunnusi TA and Akpor OB. Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.4 ) First published: 27 Jan 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.1 ) Latest published: 11 Jul 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.4 ) Revised Amendments from Version 3 This version now has the case studies summarized in tabular form, which includes global cases. In addition, the abstract was restructured, as well as other editorial amendments and references harmionization. This version now has the case studies summarized in tabular form, which includes global cases. In addition, the abstract was restructured, as well as other editorial amendments and references harmionization. See the authors' detailed response to the review by Muyiwa Michael Orosun See the authors' detailed response to the review by Rupesh Kumar See the authors' detailed response to the review by Qudrat Ullah READ REVIEWER RESPONSES 1. Introduction Heavy metals are naturally occurring elements with a relatively high density present in the ecosystem ( De Carvalho Machado and Dinis-Oliveira, 2023 ; Ali and Khan, 2018 ). They are popularly known as metals of environmental concern ( Kothapalli, 2021 ; Rahman and Singh, 2020 ). Heavy metal pollution or contamination in water is one of the most consequential environmental issues ( Mishra et al. , 2019 ). This is due to the sturdiness of heavy metals, which cannot be consumed by the body, and the danger they pose to the health of humans contaminated water with heavy metals is used for irrigating crops, and during the rainy season, the water fills groundwater sources, contaminating the drinking water. Thus, heavy metals present in the crops, groundwater, and drinking water lead to several health risks ( Vielee and Wise Jr, 2023 ; Vetrimurugan et al. , 2017 ). Heavy metals are stable and do not break down into less toxic products. Heavy metals bio accumulate in the food chain and can therefore have debilitating impacts on the health of humans ( Acharya, 2024 ). The complex metabolic machinery in our body is affected by heavy metal pollution or toxicity, leading to negative health manifestations such as hemolytic anemia ( Teschke, 2024 ), nerve damage ( Aljelehawy, 2022 ), nausea ( Engwa et al. , 2019 ) diarrhea ( Su et al. , 2023 ) and feto-maternal bleeding ( Tabassum et al. , 2023 ). Lead is toxic to the kidney ( Khalaf et al. , 2024 ), liver ( Chen et al. , 2023 ) reproductive and nervous systems of people of all ages. Mainly, lead poisoning in children can cause behavioral and cognitive problems ( Gudadhe et al. , 2024 ). Inorganic arsenic (iAs) is the most prevalent toxic form of arsenic in drinking water, which increases the rate of skin diseases in humans ( Abtahi et al. , 2023 ). Cadmium has been implicated to cause hypercalciuria in humans ( Obaid et al. , 2023 ). A recent review revealed that of this exposure to cadmium in human leads to a 31% increase in risk of lung cancer ( Farahmandian et al. , 2024 ). Moreso, mercury have been implicated to cause kidney diseases in humans as a result of bioaccumulation ( Kumar et al. , 2023 ). Also, occupational exposure to chronic viral infections can lead to skin and nasal ulcers, as well as lung cancer ( Yasmeen and Hafeez, 2023 ) Heavy metals have also been implicated to cause skin pigmentation ( de Carvalho, 2023 ) skin tumors ( Fu and Xi, 2020 ) and dermatitis ( Alam et al. , 2019 ). Moreso, it is imperative to be abreast of the rationale and significance of this review shedding light on the impacts of “Heavy Metal Contamination on Human Health”. Water is very much the most vigorous arsenal for life, however when water is polluted or contaminated with heavy metals like Mercury (Hg), Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd), Pb (lead), As (Arsenic), and Nickel (Ni) it leads to vulnerable diseases such as neural disorders ( Singh and Sharma, 2024 ), psychosomatic ( Teschke, 2024 ; Hosen, 2021 ) mental retardation in neonates ( Dórea, 2019 ) tumorigenesis and even death ( Kothapalli, 2021 ). Heavy metal contamination cannot be overemphasized heavy contamination in the food chain, e.g. in fish, milk, drinking water, and also crops irrigated with polluted water that accumulate heavy metals ( Ugoeze et al. , 2021 ). Research have shown that the irrigation water had not only been responsible for the contamination of the crops but also the water sources in the surroundings of the dumping site areas ( Nyiramigisha, 2021 ). For example, the potential health hazard due to the consumption of contaminated vegetables may arise when the heavy metals are ingested by the consumer ( Rai et al. , 2019 ), or the soils are contaminated to such an extent that they enter into the food chain, and dietary intake as well as drinking water become further contaminated ( Nkwunonwo et al. , 2020 ). Heavy metals have received considerable attention as a result of too much utilization in different industries, as well as their debilitating injurious impact on human health and the environment ( Vielee and Wise Jr, 2023 ; Kaur and Sharma, 2021 ). Heavy metal contamination in the ecosystem as an effect human health via different routes, including soil, water, and industrial emissions ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ). There is a great need to pin point risk populations, and identify plausible avenues and methodology to ameliorate the debilitating effects of heavy metals in our environment. 2. Sources of heavy metal contamination In the natural ecosystem, heavy metals are introduced to the environment perpetually from bed rocks and volcanic substances as a result of disintegration of rocks (weathering) ( Deng et al. , 2022 ). Contamination of heavy metals in the environment is largely due to human interferences (anthropogenic activities) ( Christophoridis et al. , 2019 ). Anthropogenic heavy metals are derived from (a) industrial activities, including the mining, smelting and refining of ores, steel production, and other metallurgical operations; electrical products manufacturing; product finishing and surface coating such as painting and electroplating; the application of heavy metal-based pesticides; preservation of woods and leather ( Marriage and Gjerde, 2024 ; Obasi et al. , 2022 ), (b) uncontrolled disposal of effluents and smudges from heavy industries ( Elbasiouny et al. , 2021 ); household disposal of domestic hazardous wastes ( Elbeshbishy and Okoye, 2019 ) and (c) other sources such as the disposal of domestic sewage sludge on agricultural land ( Latosińska et al. , 2021 ) sewer drop manholes ( Wicke et al. , 2021 ) and gully traps made of cast iron ( Rana et al. , 2024 ) welding operations ( Abdullahi and Sani, 2020 ), motor vehicles, source of emissions ( Kryshtopa et al. , 2019 ) and second-hand tobacco smoke ( Karatela et al. , 2019 ). Furthermore, besides point sources (mainly from industrial processes), whereas they can also get into the environment from nonpoint sources (from the atmosphere and from the water, land and biomass already contaminated by a previous heavy metals pollution ( Wang et al. , 2022a ). When introduced into the environment, heavy metals are exposed to a plethora of environmental processes and are distributed into the atmosphere, water and soil. Once in the environment, heavy metals are either degraded or stored ( Dongre, 2021 ). The net effect, whether the heavy metals are degraded or accumulated, depends on the duration and the quantity of the release and the difficulty in degrading the compound ( Rahman and Singh, 2020 ). As a result of numerous geochemical, mineral residues and deposits, it is very much difficult to categorize heavy metals. Classifying the source of contamination of heavy metals is very difficult because of the various linkage and interconnectivity of a plethora of courses or regions associated with the same origin and nature. Moreso, research has shown different sources following sources based on mechanism of release ( Obasi and Akudinobi, 2020 ). It is imperative to understand that heavy metals are present in the earth’s crust and are part of the exponential scale of the naturally occurring elements ( Ali and Khan, 2018 ). The primary source of heavy metals in the environment is the geologic origin of the major and accessory minerals contained in the soil and rocks ( Subasinghe et al. , 2022 ; Hultman and Pollard, 2022 ). Heavy metals are naturally occurring elements and are released in diverse ways from rocks and soils ( Bharti and Sharma, 2022 ). Weathering, tectonic activity, and pan-genetic processes represent a trio of principal mechanisms of heavy metal geological introduction from primary or secondary minerals ( Wu et al. , 2021 ). Human activities in terms heavy metal release is categorized into two; Essential and non-essential ( Campbell and Gailer, 2016 ). Essential heavy metals such as copper, zinc, iron, and others are known for their vital role in human health, while non-essential heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, and antimony have been reported to cause a high level of biological toxicity ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ). Human activities (anthropogenic), mainly industrial processes, have been reported to lead to an increase in the release of non-essential heavy metals into the environment at a dazzling rate, leading to an ecosystem crisis ( Mansor et al. , 2024 ). Heavy metal poisoning can lead to a variety of illnesses in humans, some potentially lethal, including blood ( Zahra et al. , 2017 ) and neuromuscular problems ( Toledano, 2020 ) and many forms of cancer ( Khanniri et al. , 2023 ). Moreso, as human population increases year in year out, heavy metal pollution never decreases instead it increases significantly, leading to potential health hazards as a result of changes in environmental conditions and demographic trends ( Crocetto et al. , 2023 ). Human beings and the environment is exposed to heavy metals via various sources. Human activities are responsible (anthropogenic activities) for approximately 60% of metal pollution in various terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems throughout the world ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ; Mondal, 2023 ). The joint precipitation of heavy metals from innate and anthropogenic activities in various environmental spaces has been revealed and reported in various research ( Chen et al. , 2021 ; Verma et al. , 2021 ; Akoto and Anning, 2021 ; Li et al. , 2020 ). Human activities are the major source of heavy metal pollution globally ( Adnan et al. , 2022 ; Rai et al. , 2019 ). The two most important anthropogenic sources of heavy metals are as follows: (1) Industrial sources: These sources are responsible for the deterioration of air quality within urban and industrial areas ( Roy et al. , 2024 ) (2) Non-point sources: Non-point sources are responsible for the overall deposition of heavy metals within the environment ( Hussain et al. , 2023 ). The focus of this review is to discuss the health impacts of heavy metal contamination in Nigeria. Although there are plethora of research studies that has reported the debilitating but no research has been done over the years to discuss the effects of heavy metals on the health due to contamination from various sources using case studies in the Nigerian environmental context. 3. Common heavy metals of concern Over the years, research have shown of that several heavy metals are ubiquitously prevalent in the ecosystem, which are of global concern as a result of to their deleterious effects on human health ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ). Although, many heavy metals, such as copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn), are essential for normal cellular performance, these metals, however, can also be toxic to the human body when present in excess of the normal concentration ( Jomova et al. , 2022 ) Literature has revealed a few popular heavy metals which have shown to cause vicious health effects. Moreso, distinguishing and varying attributes have also been described a plethora of literature ( Meharg and Meharg, 2021 ; Mishra et al. , 2019 : Charkiewicz et al. , 2023 ; Baig et al. , 2024a , 2024b ). Lead is eccentrically the oldest popularly known and the most surplus heavy metal pollutant/contaminant ( Sable et al. , 2024 ) and it is unsusceptible to corrosion under brassy environmental conditions while being easily transformed into various forms at room temperature ( Rihan et al. , 2020 ). Over the years, lead has been widely used in gasoline (Collin et al. , 2022), paint ( Charkiewicz and Backstrand, 2020 ), water pipelines ( Levin et al. , 2021 ), and batteries ( Kumar et al. , 2022 ), in the production of cooking utensils ( Kuhangana et al. , 2024 ) construction materials ( Dong et al. , 2023 ) and the toy industry ( Yazdanfar et al. , 2022 ). As a result of this, the primary sources of lead exposure have been from the atmosphere ( Wu et al. , 2022 ), water ( Charkiewicz and Backstrand, 2020 ), food and drinking water ( Gump et al. , 2020 ), contaminated soil and dust ( Stanek et al. , 2020 ) or lead-containing consumer products, especially vintage items ( Guney et al. , 2020 ) and flaking peeling paints ( Afolayan et al. , 2021 ). Also, mercury has been reported in research as a key component of dental amalgam, and arsenic-containing compounds have also been reported being used for chemotherapeutic and insecticidal purposes ( Khatun et al. , 2022 ; Genchi et al. , 2020b ). Also, mecury and arsenic take part in microbial methylation mechanisms in their inorganic forms which involves the addition of a methyl group to the toxic moiety to form a less toxic, but mainly water-soluble and easily absorbed, methylated compound ( Byeon et al. , 2021 ). Precisely, chronic release of inorganic mercury or other organic moieties in the air to disrupt motor and sensory functions leads to the emergence of Minamata disease ( Niede and Benbi, 2022 ). In the same vein, subtly, arsenic-laden underground water bombards cereals and tubers to develop a mild form of neurotoxicity in contaminated areas due to long-term arsenic exposure ( Sevak and Pushkar, 2024 ), Methylmercury (Me-Hg) in seafood, particularly in pregnant mothers’ diet, has been implicated to sparks off neurobehavioral symptoms during early development ( Wu et al. , 2024 ), and fish and seafood likely account for 90% of Hg exposure in people residing near rivers and lakes ( Vergara et al. , 2024 ). Furthermore, Cadmium is a highly toxic non-essential element used in electroplating, the television industry, battery production, and coating agents of iron and steel products ( Sable et al. , 2024 ). The major route of human exposure of cadmium is via the ingestion of polluted food, such as rice, shellfish and vegetables ( Zhao et al. , 2023 ) or through inhalation of tobacco smoke ( Genchi et al. , 2020b ). Alarminly, a huge proportion of cigarettes are haphazardly intermittently irrigated with cadmium fertilizers, which may subsequently release the heavy metal (cadmium) from tobacco during smoking. 3.1 Lead In recent years, widespread human exposure to heavy metals has fascinated increasing public awareness to the probable threat to public health ( Qureshi, 2021 ). Lead (Pb) has much long been reported by researchers and medical experts to have baleful effects on human health ( Wang et al. , 2022b ). The major sources of lead exposure are environmental lead pollution ( Raj and Das, 2023 ). Particularly, there is no safe portal for lead exposure, and the toxicological profile of lead is influenced by the age at exposure, sex ( Gade et al. , 2021 ) and genetic polymorphism ( Sekovanić et al. , 2020 ). Furthermore, lead pollution is an environment-related global health concern, recognized as a public health issue by several global organizations ( WHO, 2023 ; Muzamil et al. , 2024 ; Słota et al. , 2022 ; Obeng-Gyasi, 2019 ). Metallic lead is relatively unreactive under many conditions ( Liu et al. , 2021 ). When heated or subjected to moist air, it can be oxidized and form a variety of inorganic and organic lead compounds, which can further decompose into other lead materials, such as organo-lead and alkyllead ( Nielsen, 2020 ). Inorganic and organic lead are the two main species linked with detrimental human health effects ( Borah et al. , 2020 ). Due to the long-term presence of lead, in the atmosphere, soil, and water, the exposure of the global population to lead inevitably results in pollution of resources and impacts on the biota ( Mousavi, et al. , 2022 ). Occupational exposures have long been closely associated with painters who use paints containing lead pigments and workers exposed to smoke from burning fuels containing added organic halogenated lead ( Wei et al. , 2022 ; Thangavel et al. , 2022 ). In addition to providing extensive exposure to lead, anthropogenic activities have been reported to trigger environmental spills, such as zinc-lead and copper-silver deposits in the Mississippi valley ( Rosa et al. , 2023 ). The introduction of Tetraethyl lead (TEL) into gasoline supplies also contributed to significant environmental pollution, with large-scale human exposure ( Sarkar, 2020 ). Lead has also been reported to be released from smelters, recycling centers in municipal areas ( Du et al. , 2020 ) and young ones have been lead-exposed by previously used sources of drinking water ( Olufemi et al. , 2022 ). However, lifestyle choices such as smoking and the use of lead-containing diet fillings have been reported as other means of human exposure to lead. Also research has shown that use of beauty products such as cosmetic products facial creams ( Rico et al. , 2023 ) and surfactants containing lead-based chemicals can result in direct lead toxicity without consuming them ( Abed et al. , 2023 ). Furthermore, in developing countries, increasing occurrences of lead poisoning have been reported and linked to informal or unregulated electronic waste (e-waste) management practices resulting in severe environmental contamination ( Gollakota et al. , 2020 ) Through various exposure routes (ingestion, inhalation and dermal exposure), lead pollutants threaten human health ( Natasha et al. , 2020 ). Particularly In humans, lead can trigger impacts widely, and these harmful effects are persistent ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ), hence, long-term lead accumulated in the body can increase the gravity of the toxic effects with advancing age. Research have shown that lead exposure to humans can affect the following systems negatively; pulmonary ( Wei et al. , 2020 ), bone ( Boskabady et al. , 2022 ), hepatic and renal systems ( Satarug et al. , 2020 ) neurologic ( Eiró et al. , 2021 ) cognitive and behaviour system ( Shvachiy et al. , 2020 ). Over the years, lead exposure have been reported in a plethora of articles to cause anemia in many individuals ( Wang et al. , 2021 ; Mukisa et al. , 2020 ; Kaneko et al. , 2020 ) particularly children being susceptible to the neurotoxic effects ( Brittenham et al. , 2023 ) Some of the weighty consequences of chronic exposure are arthritis ( Fang et al. , 2023 ) and chronic kidney disease that may lead to renal dysfunction ( Balali-Mood et al. , 2021 ). Considering its plausible worrisome effects on the wellbeing of humans and the ecosystem lead exposure is very much a major public health concern globally ( WHO, 2023 ). 3.2 Mercury Mercury contamination is amongst the most significant and universal pollution problems in the aquatic environment ( Gupta and Yadav, 2024 ). It primarily occurs in the aquatic environment ( Luo et al. , 2020 ). In industries, huge amounts of effluents containing mercury are discharged as a result of poor industrial operations (pharmaceutical, paint, paper, and other industries), fertilizer industry, landfill leaching, and carbon combustion. Dead zones, otherwise termed as zones of oxygen-depleted water, have been reported to be the repository of huge deposits of inorganic mercury ( AlgarnI et al. , 2023 ; Jonidi Jafari et al. , 2020 ). The mercury in the environment rapidly makes its entry into aquatic biota. The mercury is consecutively transported to the aquatic food chain via bioaccumulation ( Saidon et al. , 2024 ). Aquatic diet have been reported to contain a huge amount of mercury ( Barone et al. , 2021 ) which puts the concept of food from the aquatic environment in doubt. The widespread presence of mercury contaminated fish in all types of water bodies has grave effects on the global aquatic environment, economy, and public health ( Abhishek et al. , 2022 ). Therefore, it imperative to fathom the coaction between mercury content in fish and the source of water, fish size, and type of species, well-known poisoning effects, extreme intolerance effects, and treatments. Hence, this review will provide an unbiased interpretation of the effects of heavy metal mercury on global health and the aquatic environment. 3.3 Cadmium Cadmium (Cd) is toxic, nonessential, and carcinogenic for humans and animals ( Genchi et al. , 2020b ). Cadmium exposure to the environment is primarily due to anthropogenic activities ( Zhao et al. , 2023 ; Knoell and Wyatt, 2021 ; Adil et al. , 2020 ), just like every other heavy metals and not much of natural sources exist. Cadmium have been reported to be present in tobacco products , particularly cigarettes ( Dinh et al. , 2021 ). Also, cadmium is also present in foods, such as shellfish, rice, mushrooms, drinking water, spinach, and other green leafy vegetables ( Genchi et al. , 2020b ), with rice being one of the major routes of exposure via food. Major sources of cadmium pollution are nonferrous smelters ( Wei et al. , 2022 ), industrial production involving cadmium ( Suhani et al. , 2021 ), incineration of municipal waste and sewage sludges Król et al. , 2022 ). Research have shown that bio- transfer is the common way for the entry of cadmium into the food web ( Peana et al. , 2022 ; Sun et al. , 2020 ) Cadmium is taken up by the plants and also accumulates in the soil ( Sterckeman and Thomine, 2020 ), it is also easily ignored in the environment for a longer time due to its chemical nature and releases gradually unlike other metals. Also, cadmium takes a longer time to degrade in the environment due to its long biological half-life ( Genchi et al. , 2020a ). Human exposure to high-level of cadmium have been reported in a plethora of research to leading to severe damage to the liver, kidneys, and lungs ( Satarug, 2012 ; Branca et al. , 2020 ; Knoell and Wyatt, 2021 ; Chandravanshi, et al. , 2021 ; Owonikoko et al. , 2023 ; Farh et al. , 2024 ). Also, lots of animal studies have shown neurotoxic effects as a result of cadmium exposure ( Branca et al. , 2020 ; Zhou et al. , 2020 ; Gade et al. , 2021 ; Ruczaj and Brzóska, 2023 ; Patel et al. , 2021 ) Clinical symptoms such as headaches ( Söderholm et al. , 2020 ), osteoarthritis ( Frangos and Maret, 2020 ; Xia et al. , 2022 ) dizziness ( Dumpala et al. , 2024 ), cough ( Li et al. , 2020 ), bronchitis ( Ibrahimou et al. , 2021 ), and fever has been reported via research to be associated with cadmium exposure ( Elmas, 2023 ) Furthermore, plausible bone damages have been reported to be caused by cadmium exposure ( Ma et al. , 2022 ). Also, research as also emphasized in recent years that low-level chronic cadmium may also lead to kidney damage ( Tsai et al. , 2021 ), which primarily focuses on the degree of damage observed in the process of β2-microglobulin excretion and α-glutathione-S-transferase in the urine of human ( Polaka et al. , 2023 ). A recent study has revealed that cadmium-induced renal tubulointerstitial injury might ultimately lead to decreased functionality ( Xu et al. , 2021 ) Also a plethora of research have revealed that environmental that environmental exposure to cadmium also causes endocrine and hormone-disrupting effects ( Rai et al. , 2019 ; Li and Li, 2020 ; Nazarian et al. , 2024 ; Yang et al. , 2024 ). A recent study have also revealed that cadmium exposure in humans through inhalation may induce lung cancer ( Lee and Lee, 2024 ) and cadmium ingestion through tobacco has been reported to cause oral cancer ( Satir, 2022 ). In addition, environmental cadmium may be associated with primary liver cancer ( Cirovic and Satarug, 2024 ) Research has also revealed that children exposed to cadmium via dietary intake exhibit lower intelligence than those not exposed ( Kampouri et al. , 2024 ). 3.4 Arsenic Arsenic is a metalloid which is naturally present lithosphere ( Meharg and Meharg, 2021 ). It enters the environment either due to anthropogenic usage or through removal from iron, manganese, and aluminum oxides ( Raju, 2022 ). Several anthropogenic sources, such as mining activities, smelting, and burning of fossil fuels, release arsenic into the environment ( Kar, 2022 ). Chronic or acute exposure to arsenic have been reported to cause debilitating health effects ( Thankachan et al. , 2023 Muzaffar et al. , 2023 ; Rehman et al. , 2020 ). Organo-arsenic compounds dominate arsenic exposure, but these compounds have been reported to transform into inorganic forms and hence more toxic forms in the body ( Valskys et al. , 2022 ). Groundwater is the primary source of arsenic exposure ( Monteiro De Oliveira et al. , 2021 ), about 21 countries have been found to contain arsenic-ridden drinking water ( WHO, 2022 ). Chronic exposure to arsenic-rich drinking water may lead to the development of skin lesions ( Rajiv et al. , 2023 ; WHO, 2022 ), internal cancers of the blood vessels ( Rahaman et al. , 2021 ) or urinary bladders among others ( Jaafarzadeh et al. , 2023 ). This phenomenon have been reflected in a plethora of studies ( Mayer and Goldman, 2016 ; Kumar and Ghosh, 2019 ; Rahaman et al. , 2021 ; Kumar et al. , 2022 ; Rehman et al. , 2020 ; Chikkanna et al. , 2019 ). Cadmium has been implicated in several biological pathways to cause carcinogenesis ( Peana et al., 2022 ; Zhu and Costa, 2020 ; Cui et al. , 2021 ; Luparello, 2021 ) including oxidative stress ( Branca et al. , 2020 ). mitochondrial DNA damage and apoptosis ( Mohamed, 2022 ) impairment of DNA methylation ( Genchi et al. , 2020b ), and changes in methyltransferases ( Sun et al. , 2021 ). Moreso, It is acute arsenic exposure can lead to systemic poisoning and ultimately death ( Ganie et al. , 2024 ). A single lethal dose of arsenic compounds ranges between 100 to 200 mg ( Chen et al. , 2021 ). Symptoms of acute poisoning include diarrhea, poor appetite, extreme tiredness, sores on the skin, numbness, muscle cramps and hair loss ( Rehberg and Rehberg, 2024 ). However, acute poisonings from waterborne arsenic exposure are uncommon ( Roy and Edwards, 2022 ). Long-term skin exposure may cause skin changes, such as darkening of the skin ( Passeron et al. , 2020 ) and the appearance of small “corns” or “warts” on the palms soles, and body ( Hamza et al. , 2022 ). Also, research studies have revealed plausible effects of arsenic exposure on reproductive health and impaired fetal brain development ( Dutta et al. , 2022 ). 4. Routes of human exposure and mechanisms of heavy metal toxicity 4.1 Routes of human exposure to heavy metals The avenues through which humans come into contact with heavy metals vary greatly between different contaminants and among different populations. Ingestion represents the main route of exposure for most human population groups ( Kabir et al. , 2022 ). Affected individuals generally include those living close to contaminated areas , those accidentally exposed to pollutants and occupationally-exposed individuals . Inhalation ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ) and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact may also represent more relevant exposure routes for special populations, such as workers engaged in mining smelting ( Xu et al. , 2021 ; Li et al. , 2020 ) or in the production and application of herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers . Human exposure to heavy metals includes, at least, ten different interconnected exposure pathways. These pathways include affected food and drinking water resources and lead to the wide distribution of hazardous heavy metals in the tissues, organs, and fluids of the human body ( Zhao et al. , 2022 ). Taken together, human intake of heavy metals is driven by lifestyle local environment ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ) occupation ( Baig et al. , 2024b ), nutrition and the occurrence and concentration of heavy metals in affected air, water, and soil resources ( Fu and Xi, 2020 ). Ingestion represents the major pathway of human exposure to heavy metals. A number of food sources contain considerable levels of heavy metals, such as crops grown in heavy metals-contaminated soils ( Bwatanglang et al. , 2022 ) fish from mercury-contaminated waters and beverages containing lead carried by deteriorated distribution systems. Human dietary intake typically ranges from approximately 0.1 to 1.0 g/day, with higher intake levels observed in diets rich in seafood and other wild foods. Overall, high daily intakes and the evidence from research suggest that moderate to high levels of heavy metal residues in food and water can trigger significant toxicological effects in humans ( Ahmad et al. , 2021 ). a. Ingestion The major medium for human exposure to toxic metals is ingestion ( Dippong et al. , 2024 ). This is facilitated by the consumption of micro- or macro-nutrients and subsequent accumulation of metals in human food, water, air, or soil ( Kara et al. , 2024 ). An acute part usually comes from water used for gardening or agriculture ( Munir et al. , 2021 ). Stationary plants take up toxic metals from the soil and enrich the water table, this water is used for cultivating terrestrial and aqueous food as well ( Zheng et al. , 2023 ; Chaturvedi et al. , 2021 ; Wicke et al. , 2021 ). Research have shown that children are particularly susceptible to soil contamination due to hand-to-mouth activities and due to their low body mass ( Karatela et al. , 2020 ) and potential for higher ingestion of air, water, and food in comparison to adults on a body weight basis ( Frings et al. , 2024 ; Ahmad et al. , 2021 ). During pregnancy, the narrow teenaged pelvis tends to concentrate nutrients and lead into mothers’ bone thickness ( Haeusler et al., 2021 ) calcium is rapidly pulled out during menopause. The lead stored in the bones may cause fetal wastage, fertility decrements, and low birth weight (Collin et al. , 2022). Exposure via this route may result in poor breathing and hence directly absorbed through cell membranes of the lung ( Khoshakhlagh et al. , 2024 ). Water can also be very high in toxic metals and hence be detrimental to the consumer ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ). Food grown near or processed with such commodities from contaminated water will also result in toxic ingestion ( Yüksel et al. , 2023 ). The taste of water is important to determine when water becomes unfit for human consumption; therefore, heavy metals in solution or in a state of suspension can be ingested through water as drinking water or through food and is vital to prevent water and food pollution ( Mazinder Baruah and Singh, 2022 ; Sonone et al. , 2020 ). Fish rearing in polluted soil, nitrogenized ponds take up metals via food and gill; hence fish as a food can affect the public and should not be cooked and fed to children ( Porretti et al. , 2022 ). Fish is a good indicator for bioaccumulation of metals ( Sheikhzadeh and Hamidian, 2021 ; Pironti et al. , 2021 ). b. Inhalation Humans are predominantly exposed to toxic heavy metals from a plethora of industries in the surroundings ( Singh et al. , 2023 ). Inhalation happens as a result of direct exposure; as a result, it is one of the most hazardous routes ( Yasmeen and Hafeez, 2023 ; Sonwani et al. , 2021 ; Kurt and Basaran, 2020 ). The heavy metals are present both in particles and in fumes ( Hedberg et al. , 2021 ; Sonwani et al. , 2021 ). Inhalation of particles is more common, although heavy metals are excreted from the system as they are insoluble in water. Heavy metal inhalation have been reported to cause a plethora of disorders that exert their effects on numerous body systems ( Fulke et al. , 2024 ). Even if the systemic manifestations are not noticeable at the outset, the disease will ultimately harm other systems, ( Abd Elnabi et al. , 2023 ) particularly the central nervous system . Approximately 95% of inhaled lead particles are 1-2 μm in diameter and therefore do not eliminate easily and persist in the body for a long time. Respiratory disturbances can be induced by long-term or higher-lead exposure ( Dumková et al. , 2020 ). Airborne free cadmium have shown to produce hazardous effects by the respiratory system ( Bhattacharyya et al. , 2023 ); conversely, its oxide and chloride have been reported to have no effect ( Genchi et al. , 2020a ). Moreso, exposure to a higher level of cadmium have been reported via literature to cause inflammation and emphysema ( Wang et al. , 2024 ). Also, there is strong evidence from literature that heavy metal have impacted workers; revealing nickel refinery workers have been reported to have more nasal and nasal-chronic disorders than non-impacted workers ( Kurt and Basaran, 2020 ; Syurin and Vinnikov, 2022 ). Cadmium sulfate and smoker’s cadmium have been revealed to be deleterious to the upper respiratory pathways ( Genchi et al. , 2020b ). c. Dermal contact Heavy metals are a growing threat to general public health and exhibit known toxic impacts on humans and the environment ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ) Nowadays, heavy metals are scattered in every nook and cranny of the environment ( Adeola, 2020 ; Kumar et al. , 2023 ). The circulation of heavy metals occurs through the air, water, and food cycle, with plants representing the primary source ( Sonone et al. , 2020 ). Nonetheless exposure to heavy metals can also be via the skin. The dermal surface area in adults varies from 1.5 to 2 m 2 , whereas in children, the ratio of skin surface area to body weight is higher ( Zhao et al. , 2023 ). Hence, children are at a higher risk of exposure to heavy metals in the environment compared to adults ( Zheng et al. , 2023 ). Even dust on the floor of houses and soil can cause health problems when inhaled or ingested with food ( Roy et al. , 2024 ). The uptake of heavy metals, either through respiration or via the skin, now creates debilitating health hazards ( Edo et al. , 2024 ; Passeron et al. , 2020 ). To determine the significance of dermal contact as a route of human exposure to toxic metals, it is imperative to fathom that wherever required, metal ions must be mobilized from the surface of a contaminant particle that contacts human skin. However, toxic metals are normally present in an oxidized or insoluble state in natural environmental particles ( Saravanan et al. , 2022 ). 4.2 Mechanisms of heavy metal toxicity Heavy metals exert their toxic effects in a highly complex process with thorough mechanisms which are yet to be understood ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ; Engwa et al. , 2019 ). However, several direct mechanisms have been proven to be involved in exerting the deleterious effects of heavy metals including oxidative stress DNA damage ( Fu and XI, 2020 ), membrane damage quenching of in vivo antioxidants ( Pisoschi et al. , 2021 ), protein dysfunction and enzyme inactivation ( Balali-Mood et al. , 2021 ). In an effort to elucidate the mechanisms of metal toxicity, Shi et al. (2004) reported that via oxidative stress, heavy metals were able to form complexes with biological molecules such as lipids, proteins, and DNA, which lead to cell injury by generating or regulating the content of reactive oxygen species (ROS) effects ( Acharya, 2024 ; Fasae and Abolaji, 2022 ). Reduced antioxidant status effects and dysregulation of antioxidant enzymes have been reported to decrease antioxidant status effects and allow formation of free radicals, thus cumulative body injury ( García-Sánchez et al. , 2020 ). Metallic oxides are able to reduce cytochromes and to generate active oxygen species this can further result in cellular levels of adsorption and the resultant genomic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) methylation ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ). All of the aforementioned mechanisms may gradually results into carcinogenesis. A review by Adil et al. (2020) heavy metals in various cells were able to induce changes in signal transduction pathways, thus alterations in gene expression, DNA repair organelles, cause inflammation, and genotoxic stress. All these changes ultimately lead to carcinogenesis. One highly prominent DNA modifying mechanism that is thought to occur is the generation of ROS. In addition to ROS generation, metals have also been found to have a direct effect on DNA via the formation of metal-DNA adducts where a single base pair is displaced and metal ions then sit in the space created ( Marchi, 2023 ). a. Oxidative stress The human body has a conglomerate of elements such as heavy metals that perform numerous functions in the body ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ). Some metals are essential for the homeostasis of the organisms (REF). while some are toxic when they overly interact and get supplemented in the cells (REF). A plethora of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium have no specified physiological function ( Balali-Mood et al. , 2021 ). Above that, they disrupt numerous enzymatic processes happening inside the body ( Muzaffar et al. , 2023 ). The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is noticeable by metals, concerning oxidative stress that ultimately leads to imbalances between the body’s antioxidant defense mechanisms and prooxidants ( Afzal et al. , 2023 ). In recent years, extensive heavy metal poisoning cases have been reported in a plethora of research ( Guo et al. , 2020 ; Hu et al. , 2020 ; Obasi and Akudinobi, 2020 ). Hence, it has become an imperative area of research to investigate the source and remediation of heavy metals. Oxidative stress is an unpleasant condition created by the buildup of free radicals or any mismatch between the production of free radicals and application of antioxidants ( Marchi 2023 ; Martemucci et al. , 2022 ). Many pathological and psychological disorders have been reported to have been caused by oxidative stress in the human body ( Kowalczyk et al. , 2021 ). It can further spur up numerous acute or chronic diseases ( Wood et al. , 2021 ). If the balance between the formation of free radicals and the ability of cells to survive against a redox any of an abnormality in the production of antioxidants surpasses the free radicals, oxidative stress will occur ( Chaudhary et al. , 2023 ). In the cells of humans oxidative stress gives rise to the formation of free radical products that are life-threatening to the physiology of the cell ( Zahra et al. , 2017 ). Heavy metal toxicity can directly be linked with oxidative stress, either by redox-cycling or by deactivation of antioxidant systems ( Nowicka, 2022 ). Antioxidants act as a natural defense system and neutralize excessive production of oxidants in the body due to any plausible agents ( Pisoschi et al. , 2021 ). Also, Cu has been reported to catalyze production of ROS, as a result serving as electron carriers and causing oxidative stress, this process may also induce harm to the DNA, proteins, lipids and cytoplasmic molecules ( Abd Elnabi et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, Heavy metals such as Zn, As, Cd and Pb have been implicated to under oxidation aforementioned elements undergo oxidation and attain their respective oxidative states (Zn 2+, As 3+ , Cd 2+ , As 2+ , and Pb 2+ ), thereby leading to oxidative stress as well and forming string bonds amongst biomolecules ( Abd Elnabi et al., 2023 ). b. DNA damage Over the years, several studies, including in vitro and in vivo studies, have shown the direct and indirect genotoxic and cytogenetic effects of several metals ( Sánchez-Alarcón et al. , 2021 ). Damage of DNA can be caused by metals such as Ni, NiO, and NiSO4 ( Genchi et al. , 2020a ). DNA damage have been investigated in irradiated and non-irradiated cells/nickel-containing solution, revealing he results of this study showed that DNA strand breaks, induced by nickel-titanium (NiTi) and pure nickel under the presence of ultraviolet light caused the result of the synergy between the UV light and the nickel ( Umaña et al. , 2024 ). The mechanism(s) leading to nicking of DNA by nickel is not yet fully understood in the scientific world understood, but studies have shown that nickel binding to chromatin can affect the structure of the DNA and greatly increase susceptibility to strand scission by stripping the histone proteins from the chromatin ( Kasprzak, 2023 ; Sekovanić et al. , 2020 ). Also affecting the DNA genome, heavy metals such as cadmium in particular binds to the p53 protein which is the guardian of the genome and prevents the protein from performing its transcriptional activity and also prevents the protein from DNA repair ( Qu and Zheng, 2024 ). Heavy metals also cause DNA replication stress and therefore induction of tumorigenesis (Cancer), developmental disorders and also neurological disorders ( Ren et al., 2024 ). Heavy metal-induced DNA damage is a serious risk factor for many human health issues, including cancer ( Paithankar et al. , 2021 ), aging ( Vielee and Wise JP Jr . , 2023 ), and neurodegenerative diseases ( Stoccoro and Coppedè, 2024 ). The damaging effect of exposure to metal ions and other nonessential metals on DNA has been investigated in many in vitro and in vivo studies ( Ren et al. , 2024 ; Kasprzak, 2023 ; Fasae and Abolaji, 2022 ; Slobodian et al. , 2021 ; Peana et al. , 2021 ). The negative effects of heavy metals on genetic material occur mainly at four major levels: cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic, depending on the exposure dose, duration, and concentration ( Dutta and Ruden, 2024 ; Stoccoro and Coppedè, 2024 ; Mitra et al. , 2022 ). c. Protein dysfunction Changes in protein expression and phosphorylation have been reported in several tissues after exposure to heavy metals ( Mondal, 2023 ; Mansoor et al. , 2023 ; Renu et al. , 2021 ; Fu and Xi et al. , 2020 ). The human body has several classes of proteins, including enzymes with well-conserved active sites, transmembrane proteins, signal transduction proteins, or transporters that heavy metals may bind to, disrupting their function ( Riziotis and Thornton, 2022 ). Consequently, heavy metal-binding proteins may not be released from the transporter or receptor, forming a new entity that may continuously send signal transduction, resulting in persistent acute or chronic contamination, e.g. lead intoxication , Furthermore, some proteins have been reported to be sensitive to heavy metals ( Pillai et al. , 2020 ). Although, the effect that heavy metals have on proteins is not always very much clear but there may be a catalytic role for the heavy metals, for example Cd have been reported to collapse the structure of the hemoglobin tetramer, leading to the release of free alpha plus Cd and beta chains ( Pillai et al. , 2020 ). Cadmium affects signal pathways Cd can disrupt cellular signaling pathways, for example the Mitogen Activated Protein kinase (MAPK) and p53 pathways, either through direct or indirect mechanisms. The disruption impairs cellular functions and triggers specific biological responses across different cell types, diminishing the ability to adapt to environmental changes, aggravating pathological conditions, and ultimately impacting the overall health humans ( Qu and Zheng, 2024 ). Furthermore, cadmium have been implicated to affect the enzymatic function of several proteins, including kinases, transcription factors, and metalloprotease ( Mondal, 2023 ). Chronic exposure of patients (humans) to cadmium (i.e., Cd-induced itai-itai disease) has been reported by medical experts ( Dutta et al. , 2022 ; Sakurai et al. , 2023 ) and sporadically accelerating breakdown of postmenopausal women bone by inhibiting the function of matrix metalloproteases, which stimulates bone formation and thus exacerbates the hypercalciuretic effect on the body ( Ciosek et al. , 2023 Rastgar et al. , 2022 ). Also, lead exposure have shown to cause causes amino acid substitution and increased expression of heavy metal-responsive proteins, accompanied by the induction of heme oxygenase-1 ( Kapoor et al. , 2021 ; Haeusler et al. 2021 ). 4.3 Recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms A study by Kurita et al. (2025) revealed that exposure to heavy metals at fetal stage may disrupt the epigenetics a child at fetal stage by posing the child at risk of development of disease at adulthood. Heavy metals such as Hg, Pb and Cd was reported among many other metals as the metals that disrupt the DNA; DNA methylation and affecting the DNA of the germ cells. More so, another study by Yu et al. (2024) reported to damage the nervous system and may result into progressive neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Also the study further suggests that heavy metals could trigger epigenetic changes by altering protein expression and genetic sequence, although this process is still not clearly understood. Also a study by Dutta and Ruden (2024) revealed that arsenic crosses the placenta and could pose as an endocrine disruptor and a potent carcinogen. This study also suggests that exposure to arsenic can disrupt fetal and childhood health and development, thereby leading to a plethora of diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and even death during adulthood or childhood. The epigenetic alterations caused by Arsenic exposure are often mediated through changes in DNA methylation (DNAm) patterns ( Dutta and Ruden, 2024 ). 5. Health effects of heavy metal exposure and case studies Throughout the regions of the world, humans are habitually exposed to various toxic metals via water, food, and air ( Parui et al. , 2024 ). In the Homo sapiens species these metals are known to bioaccumulate and biomagnify thereby leading to injury in a plethora of body systems ( Parida and Patel 2023 ; Shah and Kumar, 2022 ; Semwal et al. , 2022 ). High level of heavy metal in the blood may result into a negative cardiovascular effects with individuals showing signs like increase in heart rate ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ) and arterial stiffness ( Wan et al. , 2023 ). Some heavy metals that can cross the blood-brain barrier induce neurotoxic effects such as neuropathy and cognitive dysfunction or encephalopathy ( Singh and Sharma, 2021 ; Baig et al. , 2024a ). Other non-neurotoxic symptoms, such as gastric erosion and vomiting, increase the mortality risk for poisonings and septicemia when exposed to high levels ( Parida and Patel 2023 ; Benhalima et al. , 2023 ). Long-term exposure to lead and cadmium is the most common causes of chronic kidney disease and is significantly associated with decreased estimated glomerular filtration rate, consistent with the underlying pathology of chronic kidney disease ( Satarug et al. , 2020 ). In pregnant mothers, babies, research has shown that at a level of mercury in the form of methylmercury of 1 ppm can result into numerous inappropriate effects on brain development ( Fujimura and Usuki, 2022 ). Also, research has shown via animal experimental studies that low accumulation of heavy metals in tissues can cause adverse effects on the reproductive system such as sperm quality ( Heidari et al. , 2021 ) hormone levels, mutations, sperm necrosis, fertilization capacity and pregnancy . However, some cases of human death have been reported via due to oral exposure to heavy metals ( Street et al. , 2024 ; Fu and Xi, 2020 ; Satarug et al. , 2020 M Balali-Mood et al. , 2021 ). Besides all of these aforementioned effects, heavy metals have also been reported to propagate tumorigenesis, thereby leading to cancer ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ). A detailed understanding of the mechanisms of improvement and toxicity of heavy metals will help to provide an improved specialized approach. Taken together, a plethora of studies have described and shown the toxic effects on the nervous, cardiovascular and reproductive systems after exposure to heavy metals, and also suggest that the administration of heavy metals in medical applications should be viewed by the accumulating body of evidence as a potentially hazardous route ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ; Taslima et al. , 2022). In addition, these heavy metal-induced diseases have deleterious impact on the quality of life of individuals ( Briffa et al. , 2020 ). 5.1 Neurological effects The deleterious effects observed by the effects of heavy metals may be in the form of neurodevelopmental disorders like autism ( Błażewicz and Grabrucker, 2022 ) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders ( Gu et al. , 2024 ). Medical experts have reported cognitive impairments in patients and seizures as a result of heavy metal contamination (Singh and Sharma). Along with these, changes in the level of some neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, noradrenaline, and dopamine in humans as a result of heavy metal accumulation ( Pyatha et al. , 2023 ). Hence, suggesting that neurotoxicity has a huge health effect which should be considered at heavy metal-contaminated sites ( Baig et al. , 2024b ). Also, Heavy metals are known to act as neurotoxicants to all age groups of humans ( Gade et al. , 2021 ). Exposure to heavy metals during pregnancy have been reported to result into various neurodevelopmental disorders in children ( Ijomone et al. , 2020 ; Heng et al. , 2022 ; Ding et al. , 2023 ; Farmani et al. , 2024 ; Nehzomi and Shirani, 2024 ). The cognitive functions of exposed children have been reported to be pathetic ( Ding et al. , 2023 ). Lead has been implicated to cause as a result of exposure in children ( Parithathvi et al. , 2024 ). About 1 in 100 children has autism of people have been diagnosed with autism ( Nehzomi and Shirani, 2024 ; WHO, 2023 ). A study shows that children with autism spectrum disorder have lifted harbors of various heavy metals-small molecular weight proteins such as zinc and copper ( Błażewicz and Grabrucker, 2022 ). In recent literature, mercury, lead, arsenic and cadmium have emerged as the two most common heavy metals linked to attention deficit hyper activity disorder (ADHD) in recent literature ( Dutta et al. , 2022 ). The deficiency in zinc in the body of the individual is responsible. Noradrenergic and dopaminergic dysfunction have also been reported in heavy metal neurotoxicity ( Medda et al. , 2020 ). Other forms of toxicity reported via literature in terms of prolonged exposure, is a decrease in the level of acetylcholine, which leads to cognitive and behavioral alterations ( Althobaiti, 2024 ). Apart from all of these, effects like Parkinsonism, depression and anxiety have also been reported in recent studies ( Mitra et al. , 2022 ; Vellingiri et al. , 2022 ; Baig et al. , 2024a ; Tizabi et al. , 2024 ). The presence of genotoxicity on neurological systems of patients on exposure to heavy metals has also been reported via literature ( Stoccoro and Coppedè, 2024 ). Taken together, neurotoxicity is basically one of the important endpoints for site assessment and clean-up goals, and immediate action should be taken to prevent heavy metal exposure. 5.2 Cardiovascular effects Animal studies of heavy metals have revealed cardiovascular effects ( Sonone et al. , 2020 ; Mitra et al. , 2022 ). This strongly indicates an association between heavy metals and the development of hypertension or hypertension-induced end-organ damage. Cadmium is the most widely studied heavy metal with respect to cardiovascular toxicity ( Garai et al. , 2021 ). Experimental studies suggest that Cd in a general population is associated with atherosclerosis or peripheral arterial disease ( Barregard et al. , 2021 ). Also, lead has been implicated in numerous processes associated with cellular stimulation leading to atherosclerotic plaque formation ( Libby, 2021 ), as well as affecting the integrity of blood vessel walls through neurotoxic and cardiotoxic effects ( Rajpoot et al. , 2024 ). The mechanism that shows the effects of another heavy metal, arsenic, on cardiovascular health is yet to be understood. In a study that included some Bangladesh’s rural community members as well as individuals from a more general (urban as well as rural) health center, the authors reported an exposure-response relation between arthritis and heavy metal exposure, particularly for inorganic arsenic ( Choi et al. , 2011 ). Taken together, evidence suggests that agricultural tasks can inadvertently lead to the uptake of high levels of heavy metals and that these heavy metals may act in a discriminatory nature, targeting the meninges and/or dopaminergic system, culminating in Parkinson’s disease. 5.3 Reproductive effects Reproductive structures are very much imperative not only for existence of an individual but also for growth, enlargement and multiplication ( Massányi et al. , 2020 ). The response of reproductive organs to toxic substances differs from that of other target organs, and they may serve as an ideal measurement for the deleterious effects of environmental contamination on animal and human health ( Massányi et al. , 2020 ). Heavy metal exposure can cause a plethora of deleterious effects on the reproductive region of human health ( Fulke et al. , 2024 ). Heavy metals can cause sperm DNA damage and lower sperm quality, thus affecting male fertility ( López-Botella et al. , 2021 ) Heavy metals can also disturb sex steroid hormone levels and types of semen, resulting in subfertility ( Bhardwaj et al. , 2021 ). On the other hand, lead, cadmium, and mercury can damage the ovaries of females who are then further at the risk of giving birth to anatomically or neurologically malformed offspring because of heavy metal-induced prenatal effects ( Yan et al. , 2023 ). During the entire process of maturation of sperm, the cells are exposed to generated reactive oxygen species. This excessive exposure can lead to oxidative stress resulting in sperm DNA damage ( Gautam et al. , 2024 ), which can be one of the reasons for making sperm immobile. Lead has been reported in literature to disrupt sex steroid homeostasis in human circulation ( Kasten-Jolly and Lawrence, 2017 ). Lower levels of luteinizing hormone, progesterone, and 17OH-progesterone have been linked with an increase in cadmium accumulation in testes and seminal plasma of infertile and asthenospermic men ( Obasi et al. , 2022 ). Also, research as shown that once copper gets absorbed into the systemic circulation, it temporarily disrupts spermatozoa production, maturation, and hormonal homeostasis ( Bhardwaj et al. , 2021 ). Meta-analysis evidence has revealed that the epididymis is very much sensitive to heavy metal contamination ( Machado-Neves, 2022 ). Furthermore, lead and cadmium are endocrine disruptors that harm the male and female reproductive system, thereby disturbing the fertility of humans. Cadmium for example was reported by Machado-Neves (2022) to be deleterious to the epididymis, leading reduction in the weight of the epidermis and reducing the number of sperms. Moreso, aluminum has also been implicated cause reduction in blood level of FSH and LH ( Ojoghoro et al. , 2021 ), therefore affecting male fertility ( Ali et al. , 2024 ; Di Ciaula and Portincasa, 2021 ). Similarly in females, heavy metals can cause negative effects in the female reproductive tracts, a recent study by Tian et al. (2024) revealed that lead is highly linked to diminished ovarian reserve at during the reproductive age of females. A plethora of research over the years have implicated cadmium in the reduction of ovaries in females ( Nna et al. , 2017 ; Nasiadek et al. , 2019 ; Massányi et al. , 2020 ; Ruslee et al. , 2020 ). Exposure to lead and transfer of lead across the placenta may cause miscarriage in females and subfertility ( Dutta et al. , 2022 ). An increased spontaneous abortion rate as a result of lead poisoning has also been reported in animals ( Mosaad et al. , 2024 ). Therefore, essential to assess the reproductive health of females areas in the environment likely to be contaminated with heavy metals. 5.4 Itai-Itai disease Itai-itai disease is the most popular case of cadmium (Cd) pollution reported in Japan ( Sasaki et al. , 2024 ). The term “itai-itai” is from a Japanese word which means “it hurts, it hurts” in English vocabulary ( Kaji, 2015 ). Around 1500 people had severe symptoms such as liver damage, osteomalacia, and bone deformities during the initial phase of the outbreak. Mostly women were the victims, and the male to female ratio of the patients was 1:2 or 1:3 ( Kasuya, 2000 ) Furthermore, The damage it caused in the Jinzu River basin (Japan) and surrounding areas in Toyama Prefecture was recorded by Kozukue as early as 1981. It was reported that the cause of the itai-itai disease was huge ingestion of rice. Much higher cadmium levels were found in the rice which was consumed by patients than by people living in the non-polluted areas ( Kasuya, 2000 ). The main clinical symptoms were osteomalacia, renal dysfunctions, and pathological fractures. It was also reported that there were single cases of lung and prostatic cancers among the patients ( Zhang et al. , 2023 ). The cases of chemical-induced itai-itai patients, especially, showed severe osteomalacia manifested in similar deformities of the elbow, femoral neck, and knee. 6. Case studies of heavy metal pollution in Nigeria 6.1 A case study at Ondo Town, Nigeria In a recent study by Orimisan et al. (2024) investigation of precisely five heavy metals (copper, lead, and nickel iron, cadmium,) were scrutinized in two vegetables ( Talinum triangulare and Chromolaena odorata ) at two dumpsites in Ondo town, Nigeria. A dumpsite located between Ondo Town and Okeigbo was represented as site A and another dumpsite located at Okelaje-Ondo road was represented as Site B. Surprisingly the heavy metal levels identified in and vegetables were below WHO threshold limit with the exception of Cadmium in the control site except for cadmium in site A which was slightly higher. The heavy metals concentration examined in this investigation followed the sequence Fe > Cu > Cd > Ni > Pb for soil from locations A, and Fe > Pb > Cu > Ni > Cd for soil from sites B The dumpsites and the tested two vegetables revealed elevated levels of the heavy metals in comparison to the control area, suggesting a gradual accumulation of these metals in these vegetables. Although the concentration of heavy metals detected in the vegetables in these areas in Ondo town had minimal levels of the selected heavy metals tested, but the fact that they were present in the vegetables is a huge problem, hence may bio accumulate gradually, integrate into the food chain causing chronic debilitating health hazards ( Table 1 ). Table 1. Summary of Nigerian heavy metal pollution case studies and outcomes. S/N Case study location Medium affected Key heavy metals Major findings Health/environmental outcomes 1 Ondo Town ( Orimisan et al ., 2024 ) Soil, Vegetables ( Talinum triangulare , Chromolaena odorata ) Fe, Cu, Cd, Ni, Pb Cd slightly exceeded WHO limit at Site A; higher metal content near dumpsites Potential bioaccumulation in vegetables; long-term chronic exposure risk 2 Bade LGA, Yobe ( Suleiman et al., 2021 ) Borehole Water Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Ni Pb exceeded USEPA limits in all wards; multiple metals above threshold in some wards Risk of renal failure, kidney stones, hypertension; unfit for drinking 3 Great Kwa River, Calabar ( Nneoyi-Egbe, 2024 ) River Water and Shrimp Cu, Cr, Mn, Pb, Ni, Cd Higher heavy metal levels in shrimp than water; Cu and Cr especially high Risk of bioaccumulation and biomagnification; seafood unsafe over time 4 Zamfara State ( Augusto et al., 2021 ; Abdullahi and Lasisi, 2024 ) Soil, Dust, Children’s Blood Lead (Pb) Widespread Pb poisoning in children due to artisanal mining Acute lead poisoning, child mortality, long-term neurological damage 5 Ogoni, Rivers State ( Sam et al., 2022 ; Nwoma and Anyika, 2024 ) Soil, Surface Water Crude oil-associated metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, etc.) Massive pollution from oil spills and gas flaring; poor remediation efforts Ecosystem collapse, livelihood loss, toxic exposure, social conflict 6 Zamfara Gold Mines ( Jamilu, 2023 ; Abu Khatita, 2024 ) Soil, Air, Water, Blood Pb, Cd, Hg, Ni Gold mining caused repeated Pb epidemics; children’s BLLs dangerously high Lead toxicity, infant deaths, chronic illness, international concern 7 Itakpe Iron Ore Mine ( Akande et al., 2020 ) Water, Sediment Fe, Mn Elevated Mn and Fe in nearby creeks; spread over 10+ km radius Water pollution, aquatic ecosystem disruption, potential human exposure 6.2 Case study of Gashua town, Bade Local Government area Yobe A study by Suleiman et al. (2021) revealed heavy metal contamination in drinking water at six wards in Bade local government area, Yobe, Nigeria, which was as a turnout of pollution in the environment, ultimately affecting the drinking water in Gahua town Gombe negatively. The level of concentration of the following heavy metals; Iron, Manganese, Cadmium, Cobalt, Copper, Mercury and Nickel in boreholes across six wards the Gashua metropolis were assayed. The wards are as follows; Lawan Musa, Sabon Gari, Sarkin Hausawa Katuzu, Lawan Fannami, and Zango Wards. Water samples collected from eighteen sampling point across six urban wards showed no significant difference in terms of heavy metal contamination. Albeit, Suleiman et al. (2021) suggested that water from some ward were not suitable for drinking because of the huge build up some of the heavy metals that may cause kidney stones or renal failure. The mean concentration from the study by Suleiman et al. (2021) for Cadmium showed higher levels in Lawan Fannami, Zango and Lawan Musa wards. Sabon Gari and Lawan Musa revealed higher values of Copper (Cu). Katuzu and Lawan Fannami have higher value of iron concentration that is higher than the acceptable standard, suggesting if precautionary measures are not taken it may lead to hideous diseases which can lead death. Alarmingly, all the six wards from this study have higher value of Lead (Pb) that is higher than the accepted standard using USEPA standard of 0.015 mg/kg. The continuous accumulation of this element may lead to serious health problem such as renal failure and kidney stones. Katuzu ward revealed higher concentration of Manganese (Mn) of 0.27, which is higher than the accepted standard. Zango, Sarkin Hausawa. The mean concentration for Mercury (Hg) shows that they are within acceptable value with no trace in Sabon Gari ward while a higher value in Lawan Fannami ward. Taken together, this case study suggests a heavy metal contamination is of great concern in Nigeria owing to the fact that there is the presence of very much common heavy metals that may be injurious to the health and can cause serious havoc to the body of human and may even results into death ( Table 1 ). 6.3 Case at the Great Kwa River, Calabar A recent study by Nneoyi-Egbe (2024) on heavy metal contamination on shrimps and water at the great Kwa river, Calabar Cross River, Nigeria revealed pollution of both the shrimps and water from the Great Kwa River by a plethora of heavy metals, which in turn poses a health risk to aquatic ecosystem and humans. Amongst the heavy metals studied in this research in Calabar, Copper had the highest concentrations in shrimps (33.17 ± 0.79 ppm) and chromium water (27.68 ± 0.34ppm). The heavy metals were found in higher concentrations in the shrimp than in water, except for manganese which had a significantly (p<0.05) higher concentration in water (15.05 ± 0.67ppm) as against 14.02 ± 0.93ppm in shrimp). The results of the research indicate significant Lead, Cadmium, Nickel, Chromium, Copper and Manganese content in shrimps and water from the Great Kwa River. It is a matter of great concern for both the environment and public health. Heavy metals are known to be toxic and can cause a range of health problems in humans, including neurological disorders, cancer, and kidney damage. Lead, Cadmium, Nickel and Chromium are particularly dangerous because they can accumulate in the body over time and cause chronic health effects. Moreover exposure to these heavy metals is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and impaired cognitive function, neurological and behavioral changes, leading to decreased mobility, altered swimming behavior, and reduced foraging abilities. Moreover, lead can accumulate in the tissues of shrimps over time, leading to chronic exposure and bioaccumulation ( Table 1 ). This can result in bio magnification, a process where the concentration of lead increases as it moves up the food chain, ultimately affecting humans who consume contaminated seafood. Lead contamination in water can also have significant environmental and public health impacts. High levels of lead in water can cause a range of health problems in humans, including developmental delays in children, decreased intelligence quotient, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in adults. The Great Kwa River in Cross River State, Nigeria, has faced significant environmental challenges due to industrial discharges and agricultural runoff over the years. These contaminants, precisely heavy metals have led to increases levels of heavy metals in aquatic ecosystem, especially in shrimp species, posing health risks to local communities relying on these resources for food. For now, there is no recent data on efforts for cleaning up the Great Kwa River, constant pollution of this river therefore creates significant health risk and is of great concern. Over a long period of time, bioaccumulation of heavy metals via consumption of sea food from the Great Kwa River or drinking of water from the river could potentially lead to a plethora of diseases in humans such as; neurological disorder, cancer, renal disorder, cadmium linked diabetes, developmental disorders and reproductive issues. Taken together, for this case study, heavy metal concentration was present more in Fish than water at the great Kwa river, and this may cause deleterious effect to the humans consuming shrimps and periwinkle in that area. 6.4 Case of lead poisoning in Zamfara state Following a report on 6th November 2009, the Zamfara State Ministry of Health confirmed an unprecedented outbreak of child mortality in eight of the fourteen local government areas of the Shinkafi and Bakura communities in Zamfara State, Northern Nigeria. Affected communities were predominantly peasant farmers. ( Augusto et al. , 2021 ). The mortality affected 34.6% of the population, with a case fatality rate of 30.5%. Over 52% of those who died were children less than five years old ( Augusto et al. , 2021 ). It was further reported that the cause of the deaths was that the children had excessively high levels of lead in their blood ( Table 1 ). Four to five months later, two sister communities in the Gusau local government area of the state became afflicted as well. These two affected communities are situated away from the six contaminated villages in Bukuyyum and Anka local government areas of Zamfara State, Nigeria ( Abdullahi and Lasisi, 2024 ). There is no current clean up in Zamfara as of today to reduce heavy metal contamination, and this is of great public health concern. The long-term effects of heavy metal contamination in Zamfara could lead to cognitive disorders, neurological issues in children, the crises in Zamfara over the years opened the eyes of the government to establish stringent regulatory frameworks as regards artisanal mining. 6.5 Case of Ogoni, River state The Ogoni land is an oil-rich region located in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The land and its ethnic group, the Ogoni people, shot to worldwide attention in 1992 when the Nigerian military dictator suppressed a demonstration by the Ogoni people. The Ogoni land can best be described as the treasure or scrap of Nigeria ( Amosu and Adeosun, 2021 ). The authorities ordered the arrest and subsequently the trial and execution of nine of the movement’s leaders, including the most prominent and their offense was murder ( Okpebenyo et al. , 2023 ). They had been convicted on what are generally considered to be false testimony and mishandled evidence. The movement fought against the disregard of environmental best practices by oil prospecting companies that held sway in the Ogoni land ( Okpebenyo et al. , 2023 ). Companies developing the area were particularly criticized. Areas were inadequately treated after drilling had been completed, and the local people received little or no benefits from oil prospecting ( Sam et al. , 2022 ). Many lives have been lost indirectly and directly from the activities of the oil and gas explorers in Ogoni land and other inhabitants near these wells and rigs ( Nwoma and Anyika, 2024 ). The entire ecological system of Ogoni land is severely compromised, and the future of the people of Ogoni is shaky. Cases of massive standing surface oil pollution are very visible in numerous places in the area. Ogoni oil has gained a bad reputation among heavy metal users. In some cases, just the mention of the origin of the crude oil is enough to lose a sale or a customer ( Ben, 2022 ). Any breakdown of the process control in the industry processing Ogoni crude oil must result in a heavy metal disaster of of world proportions. The Ogoni land can best be described as the treasure or scrap of Nigeria ( Idialu, 2021 ) ( Table 1 ). 6.6 Case of Zamfara gold mine cases and the Itakpe Iron ore mine Three major goldmines attributed to two distinct lead poisoning epidemics of extraordinary scale and remarkable geological background were recorded in Nigeria in recent history. The first, recorded in Bagega, was in 2010 ( Jamilu, 2023 ). In the aftermath of an episode of acute fatal childhood lead poisoning, with more than 400 elevated blood lead levels. What can be described as the second major goldmine activity occurred in Anka Local Government of Zamfara in 2020, with a similarity to the Bagega contamination ( Abu Khatita, 2024 ). Recorded cases of children with elevated blood lead levels have ranged from 24.3% to 60%; over 350 children were reported to have died, and in both of these cases, ( Akinwumi et al. , 2023 ; Ezechukwu, 2023 ; Wilde et al. , 2024 ) the mining involved grinding and milling of lead-rich ore, exposures from dust inhalation, and other pathways of the soil and water compartments ( Mahdi et al. , 2023 ). Yet a third contamination with no epidemic status and of considerably fewer numbers was recorded in the Tsafe area in 2020, and the 2020 official status alone still pins both it and the 2020 exceedance incidences as being among the largest recorded in research that examined this throughout the world ( Kasongo et al. , 2024 ). A characteristic that has generally defined gold mining in Nigeria is that the mining and grinding of ore releases airborne dust that contains lead, cadmium, mercury, cyanide, and/or other substances used in the process ( Escobedo-Monge et al. , 2024 ). Another incident of heavy metal contamination with conditions similar to the case described above occurred at the Itakpe iron ore mine in Nigeria in 1985 ( Akande et al. , 2020 ). Geologically, there are suspicions that manganese was present in heavy metal concentrations, both as an oxide and as a carbonate ( Barde et al. , 2024 ). The incident affected over 10 km of creeks lying near the exploration mine. The river contained high concentrations of iron and manganese deriving from the presence of iron ore on the plateau ( Isinkaye et al. , 2023 ). 6.7 Comparison of Nigeria cases study with global examples A plethora of countries across the globe has reported heavy metal contamination in recent times. To mention a few, in this review cases in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh will be compared with the cases in Nigeria. To start with a case study of heavy metal pollution was reported by Iqbal et al. (2024) in Lahore Pakistan, the study revealed high heavy metal pollution in water with chromium, lead copper and nickel being the major culprits. Furthermore the study in Pakistan revealed that none of the groundwater were certified for drinking. Comparing this case study in Pakistan with the case study in Bade local government Yobe, Nigeria which was reported by Suleiman et al. (2021) , there are huge similarities, the results from Suleiman et al . (2021) , revealed heavy metal contamination in drinking water at six wards, in this study the heavy metals that were implicated were Iron, Manganese, lead, cadmium, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper and Mercury. This result from the Yobe case study was further slightly dissimilar to the case reported in Pakistan by Iqbal et al. (2024) because of the presence of Cadmium, Manganese, Mercury, Cobalt, and Iron was not detected in the case study reported in Pakistan. But taken together both studies revealed the water tested and assayed for heavy metal contamination in both studies was not fit for drinking. Furthermore, comparing another study in India by Jeyasanta and Patterson (2025) in a study that explored the dietary intake of heavy metals from seafood and the human health implications with a case study of the great KWA river in Calabar, Nigeria reported by Nneoyi-Egbe (2024) a huge similarity is very well evident as both studies reported heavy metal contamination in seafood. In the study in India, the level of heavy metal contamination was statistically significant, with mollusk having the highest concentration levels followed by fish and crustaceans ( Jeyasanta and Patterson, 2025 ). For the study of the great KWA river in Nigeria, the study was different from that of India in the sense that besides seafood (Shrimp) the river water was also tested for heavy metal contamination; with results indicating the presence heavy metal contamination in both the river water (KWA) and the seafood. Also the study in the great KWA river did not factor in hazard quotient and hazard index. Hazard quotient in the case study in India was less than 1 which revealed the heavy metals in the sea food did not pose significant health risk but the hazard index was greater than 1. Which further implies that over a period of time if this seafood is being consumed at old age it may result into debilitating diseases affecting the health of humans and may also lead to tumorigenesis. In the same vein comparing another global case study in Bangladesh with the case study in Ondo town Nigeria. Precisely these 2 studies explored heavy metal contamination levels soils and vegetables. The study in Bangladesh by Samma et al. (2024) and in Ondo town in Nigeria by Orimisan et al. (2024) reported heavy metal contamination in soils and the vegetables. The study in Bangladesh revealed Pb and Cr contamination in in tomato, pepper, cauliflower and cabbage) which were beyond safe limits, whereas copper was within safe limits, also the heavy metals within the soil were the vegetables was grown was within safe limits. While the study in Ondo town reported heavy metal contamination. This research in Bangladesh also reported hazard index greater than 1 across all the district tested. Dissimilar to the case study in Ondo town, Nigeria, the vegetables and the soil had heavy metals below the WHO limits except for Cadmium which exceeded the threshold. On the other hand, but for the study in Bangladesh it was only Pb and Cr that exceeded the limits in the vegetables, and copper was within safe limit. Also besides the above difference, the vegetables that were tested for in the study by Orimisan et al . (2024) was Talinum and Chromoleana which is quite different from pepper, cabbage, tomato and cauliflower that were tested for by Samma et al. (2024) . Also, the study by Orimisan et al. (2024) did not factor in Hazard index but the study in Bangladesh revealed a Hazard index greater than 1, suggesting that accumulation of heavy metals over a long period of time from consumption of the vegetables may be potentially hazardous to human health ( Table 2 ). Table 2. Cross cutting observations: Nigeria’s context in global perspectives. S/N Key features and dimensions Global trends (Pakistan, Bangladesh and India Nigerian challenges and realities 1 Contaminant Diversity Usually 3–4 metals (e.g., Pb, Cr, Ni, Cu). Broader range including Hg, Mn, Cd, Co, Fe. 2 Risk Assessment Tools HQ, HI, Monte Carlo often applied. Mostly absent or poorly integrated. 3 Exposure Pathways Focused: Water or food separately. Multiple pathways in single studies. 4 Health Data Integration surveillance Often linked to disease. Weak data linkage to hospital or health records. 5 Policy and Regulation Partial enforcement, emerging policies. Low regulatory oversight, lack of inter-agency coordination. 6 Community Awareness Limited but improving. Generally low awareness, especially in rural areas. 7. Heavy metal pollution mitigation strategies Mitigation of heavy metal bioaccumulation, contamination and pollution is very much imperative in terms of the environment, as widespread pollution increases human exposure and will definitely cause debilitating effects on the human body. Several strategies exist for the decontamination and removal of heavy metals from both the environment and the human body ( Wang et al. , 2022a ; Kowalczyk et al. , 2021 ). Since the discovery of the problem of environmentally accumulated heavy metals, various technologies have been developed to reduce or eliminate the concentration of heavy metals that have polluted the soil and water. The three main technologies are in situ stabilization and phytoremediation in the environment and chelation therapy to reduce metal-induced oxidative stress, signal transduction, and organ-specific physiology within human beings ( Kumar et al. , 2023 ). ‘In situ’ refers to on-site or on-area-site and can be accomplished without removing soil from contaminated sites. Chelation is a demure and direct strategy for scavenging the excess metal ions in vital organs of the body, which shows excellent results in flu treatment. In the environmental field, research focusing on bioaccumulation of metals by plants led to the development of technologies to extract heavy metals from the environment, so-called phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is a green technology and is a site-specific technology, which can ultimately reduce the risk of human exposure to toxic substances and environmental remediation costs. Phytoremediation technology includes phytoextraction, phytodegradation, phytostabilization, rhizofiltration, phytovolatilization, phytostimulation, rhizodegradation, rhizofiltration, and hyperaccumulation ( Lee and Lee, 2024 ; Ali, 2023 ; Chen and Costa, 2021 ). The term phytoremediation is used to describe a set of processes involving the ability of certain plants to remove, degrade, or immobilize a variety of contaminants present in the environment so they are no longer harmful ( Yaashikaa et al. , 2022 ). In the case of heavy metals, the term was coined by the US EPA in the early 90s to define the “use of green plants to remove pollutants from the environment or render them harmless”. Phytoremediation is being envisaged as a sustainable approach for in situ remediation of contaminated soils, sediments, and groundwater, due to economic and environmental considerations. This technology can be used to reduce the level of metals in a toxic range for human health and greatly reduce the uptake of these contaminants by plants. In fact, it seems to be effective in plant-only systems, where metals do not accumulate in the food chain, and whenever proper disposal procedures for the harvested material are followed. Since the steel industry is a primary source of contamination by metals and metalloids like chromium, lead, and zinc, good results in terms of removal, stabilization, or reduction can be of interest. In particular, phytoremediation technology appears to be particularly suitable for agricultural substrates or in regions with a view to re-cultivation. Taken together it is very much imperative that safe phytoremediation technology is used to avoid potential harm. Chelation therapy is a therapeutic intervention in which chelating agents are administered to individuals for the removal of toxic heavy metals from the body ( Bjørklund et al. , 2020 ). Chelating agents are essentially metal binders and remove them from their sites of deposition in the tissues, in this way, the heavy metal toxins are eliminated in the urine ( Gerhardsson, 2022 ). There are two routes of administration, namely by the oral and parenteral routes, of which the parenteral route is the most effective. Chelation therapy is of benefit in cases of lead and mercury poisoning ( Angle, 2023 ). Chelation could prevent various toxicological manifestations of heavy metals, thus markedly improving various pathophysiological functions. Chelation therapy has been shown to have successful outcomes in cases of lead overload in patients such as children and pregnant women ( Singh et al. , 2021 ). However, chelation therapy is ineffective in treating advanced malignancies ( Kontoghiorghes, 2022 ). Despite such knowledge, chelation therapy has also been reported to be effective in the treatment of other heavy metals in the environmental setting ( Glicklich et al. , 2020 ). Another most common use of chelation therapy is in the treatment of cardiac and cerebral vascular ailments ( Ravalli et al. , 2022 ). This therapy is aimed at removing the vascular oxidative injury caused by superoxide and hydroxyl anions by binding these mobilized metal ions (Fe2+ and Ca2+) ( Kontoghiorghes et al. , 2020 ). Lead poisoning is the most common cause of neuropathy, and it usually requires an individual to undergo chelation therapy to excrete lead out ( Bhasin et al. , 2023 ). It is imperative to note as well that nanomaterials can be used for water decontamination to prevent accumulation of heavy metals via drinking in the body. Nanotechnology is the future for heavy metal contamination mitigation and nanomaterials have the potential to play a germane role in the advancement of future water treatment technology ( Yadav et al., 2024 ). Nanoparticles has been reported as an alternative approach for mitigation having a vibrant oxidation power that can oxidize and mineralize various heavy metals. Nanoparticles have the potential to provide a very low-cost and environmentally friendly solution to heavy metal contamination ( Asghar et al., 2024 ). 8. Research gaps and future directions Although this study revealed the thorough assessment of heavy metal pollution in Nigeria amongst various sectors, a plethora of crucial gaps remain that limit our cognition and response abilities. Addressing these gaps is imperative for the creation of a workable strategy to mitigate the environmental and health impacts of heavy metals on humans. While this study focuses majorly on phytoremendiation, chelation therapy and nanotechnology as a form of remediation, it did not profer solution in terms of membrane filtration, microbial and enzymatic bioremendiation. In the future, more studies needs to be done to access the possibility and cost effectiveness of these techniques so has to able to reduce heavy metal contamination levels. The use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future research studies would help to shed more light on the impact of heavy metals on human health. Also, the is lack of proper surveillance and monitoring systems in Nigeria as regards heavy metal contamination, there is a need for a geographical information system and remote sensing systems that will be able to identify hotspots. Besides this, there is also lack of longitudinal health studies on heavy metal contamination, most of the studies have been crosssectional, the longitudinal studies as regards heavy metal contamination will help to fathom susceptibility levels amongst age and also help to determine and identify chronic exposure effects. 9. Conclusion In conclusion, heavy metals are major sources of contamination and have adverse effects on human health when their levels exceed the regulatory standards. Heavy metal residues in food, water, and air occurs can lead to debilitating health problems, e.g., anemia, cancer, kidney disease and neurologic disorders. The removal of metals from the body appears to be limited and slow and may depend on age, sex, and individual genetic variation. This review has been able to indicate chronic heavy metals across different sectors in Nigeria including recent contamination as in the case of the great Kwa river in Calabar in the year 2024. Taken together, several challenges, including bioavailability assessment to predict the potential for heavy metal bioaccumulation and toxicity in humans, and reducing heavy metal intake, legislations to ensure enforcement of existing and future regulatory methods, and encouraging food production in uncontaminated areas, must be addressed by scientists, regulatory bodies, and stakeholders in order to protect human health. However, this review presents a novel contribution by contextualizing the problems within Nigeria’s unique environmental, industrial, and socio-economic landscape. Unlike many global studies that focus on isolated contamination incidents or singular exposure routes, this review synthesizes a broad spectrum of case studies from Nigeria which including the lead poisoning crisis in Zamfara, the Great Kwa River shrimp contamination, and agricultural pollution in Ondo state revealing the scale, complexity, and urgency of the issue in developing nations. Furthermore, this review has highlighted chronic heavy metal contamination across significant sectors in Nigeria, including agricultural sector, riverine sector, and mining and oil exploration sector. To address these ongoing challenges, a set of prioritized, actionable recommendations is essential: increase public awareness and stakeholder engagement to encourage community involvement in environmental protection efforts and increase responsible waste disposal; scaling up of phytoremediation pilot studies and investing in research based on indigenous plants which can help in extracting heavy metals from water and the soil; enforcement of regulatory frameworks especially in mining areas to ensure adherence to environmental safety standards and reduce illegal mining operations. The scope of mitigation strategies reviewed was limited, focusing primarily on phytoremediation and policy recommendations. Advanced or emerging technologies, such as nanotechnology, electrochemical methods, membrane filtration, or microbial bioremediation were not analyzed in depth. Additional studies are required to find an effective, quick, and safe method for the removal of these metals. This study was limited to areas agricultural, riverine, and mining and oil exploratory areas and existing technologies were not considered in this review. Future research studies should focus on tracing the sources of heavy metals in the environment to find effective ways to overcome this contamination. Moreover, future practices and policies should focus on the development and implementation of economic strategies to mitigate contamination with toxic heavy metals. The use of Artificial intelligence (AI) via predictive modelling could be a cost effective mitigation strategy as it can enhance predictive accuracy in remote areas which are not properly monitored, this will also help to compensate for limited data and maximizing ground surveillance. With AI predictive modelling tools for mitigation of heavy metal contamination Nigeria can evolve from a proactive environmental health management system that not only responds to crises but anticipates and prevents them. The novelty of this review lies in its mixture of public health, environmental sciences and global comparisms showing how Nigeria’s unique socio-economic, industrial, and regulatory contexts drawing out the consequences and patterns of heavy metal exposure. Unlike prior studies that focus on isolated incidents or single regions, this study offers a rare cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of heavy metal pollution in Nigeria, identifying both localized health impacts and broader environmental trends. This review finally will serve as an imperative tool for both international and national stakeholders/policymakers and international stakeholders seeking to understand and mitigate heavy metal pollution in developing regions. Ethics and consent Ethics and consent were not required. Data availability No data are associated with this article. References Abd Elnabi MK, Elkaliny NE, Elyazied MM, et al. : Toxicity of heavy metals and recent advances in their removal: a review. Toxics. 2023; 11 : 580. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Abdullahi A, Lasisi NO: Assessment of Effects of Maternal Age and Other Factors on Risk of Birth Defects in Zamfara State, Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manag. 2024; 28 : 3877–3881. Abdullahi IL, Sani A: Welding Fumes Composition and Their Effects on Blood Heavy Metals In Albino Rats. Toxicol. Rep. 2020; 7 : 1495–1501. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Abed MS, Moosa AA, Alzuhairi MA: Heavy Metals in Cosmetics and Tattoos: A Review of Historical Background, Health Impact, and Regulatory Limits. J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 2023; 100 : 390. Abhishek K, Shrivastava A, Vimal V, et al. : Biochar Application for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation, Contaminants Immobilization and Soil Fertility Enhancement: A State-of-the-Art Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2022; 853 : 585–662. Abtahi M, Dobaradaran S, Koolivand A, et al. : Assessment of Cause-Specific Mortality and Disability-Adjusted Life Years (Dalys) Induced By Exposure to Inorganic Arsenic through Drinking Water and Foodstuffs in Iran. Sci. Total Environ. 2023; 856 : 159118. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Abu Khatita AM: Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Street Dust from Mahd Ad Dhahab Gold Mine, Saudi Arabia. J. Taibah Univ. Sci. 2024; 18 : 2281067. Publisher Full Text Acharya S: Heavy Metal Contamination in Food: Sources, Impact, and Remedy. Food Safety and Quality in the Global South. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 2024; pp. 233–261. Adeola FO: Global Impact of Chemicals and Toxic Substances on Human Health and the Environment. Handbook of Global Health. 2020; 1 : 30. Adil MF, Sehar S, Chen G, et al. : Cadmium-Zinc Cross-Talk Delineates Toxicity Tolerance in Rice via Differential Genes Expression and Physiological/Ultrastructural Adjustments. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2020; 190 : 110–176. Adnan M, Xiao B, Xiao P, et al. : Research Progress on Heavy Metals Pollution in the Soil of Smelting Sites in China. Toxics. 2022; 10 : 231. Afolayan GO, Amagon KI, Amah LE, et al. : Evaluation of Heavy Metals in Selected Paint Brands and Paint Chips from Old Buildings in Selected Local Government Areas in Lagos State, Nigeria. University of Lagos Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 2021; 7 : 1–2. Afzal S, Abdul Manap AS, Attiq A, et al. : From Imbalance to Impairment: The Central Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in Oxidative Stress-Induced Disorders and Therapeutic Exploration. Front. Pharmacol. 2023; 14 : 1269581. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Ahmad W, Alharthy RD, Zubair M, et al. : Toxic And Heavy Metals Contamination Assessment In Soil and Water to Evaluate Human Health Risk. Sci. Rep. 2021; 1 : 17006. Akande S, Ajaka EO, Alabi OO, et al. : Effects of Varied Process Parameters on Froth Flotation Efficiency: A Case Study of Itakpe Iron Ore. Niger. J. Technol. 2020; 39 : 807–815. Publisher Full Text Akinwumi IA, Adegoke SA, Oyelami OA, et al. : High Blood Lead Levels of Children in a Gold Mining Community in Osun State, Nigeria: An Urgent Call for Action. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2023; 117 : 714–726. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Akoto R, Anning AK: Heavy Metal Enrichment and Potential Ecological Risks from Different Solid Mine Wastes at a Mine Site in Ghana. Environ. Adv. 2021; 3 : 100–128. Alam MF, Akhter M, Mazumder B, et al. : Assessment of Some Heavy Metals in Selected Cosmetics Commonly Used In Bangladesh and Human Health Risk. J. Anal. Sci. Technol. 2019; 10 : 1–8. Algarni S, Tirth V, Alqahtani T, et al. : Contribution of Renewable Energy Sources to the Environmental Impacts and Economic Benefits for Sustainable Development. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2023; 56 : 30–98. Ali FE, Badran KS, Baraka MA, et al. : Mechanism and Impact of Heavy Metal-Aluminum (Al) Toxicity on Male Reproduction: Therapeutic Approaches with Some Phytochemicals. Life Sci. 2024; 12 : 24–61. Ali H, Khan E: What are heavy metals? Long-Standing Controversy over the Scientific Use of the Term ‘Heavy Metals’–Proposal of a Comprehensive Definition. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 2018; 100 : 6–19. Publisher Full Text Ali SR: Phytoremediation Technique for Agricultural Pollutants. Advanced Technologies for Water Quality Treatment and Management. Apple Academic Press; 2023; pp 227–260. Aljelehawy QHA: Effects of the Lead, Cadmium, Manganese Heavy Metals, and Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticles on Nerve Cell Function in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases. Cent. Asian J. Med. Pharm. Sci. 2022; 2 : 5–36. Althobaiti NA: Heavy Metals Exposure and Alzheimer’s disease: Underlying Mechanisms and Advancing Therapeutic Approaches. Behav. Brain Res. 2024; 115 : 212. Amosu CO, Adeosun TA: Consequence of oil and Waste Spills on the Environment of Ogoniland, Rivers State, Nigeria. Indian J. Manag. Lang. 2021; 1 : 15–28. Angle CR: Chelation Therapies for Metal Intoxication. Toxicology of Metals. Volume CRC Press; 2023; 1 . : 487–504. Asghar N, Hussain A, Nguyen DA, et al. : Advancement in Nanomaterials for Environmental Pollutants Remediation: A Systematic Review on Bibliometrics Analysis, Material Types, Synthesis Pathways, and Related Mechanisms. J. Nanobiotechnology. 2024; 22 :26. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Augusto O, Maisa A, Lawal AM, et al. : Exploring Factors Influencing Patient Mortality and loss To Follow-Up in Two Paediatric Hospital Wards in Zamfara, North-West Nigeria, 2016-2018. PLoS One. 2021; 16 : 12. Baig A, Qadir A, Saadat HB, et al. : Impacts of Heavy Metals and Behavioral Changes in Humans. J. Basic Emerg. Sci. 2024a; 1 : 56–67. Baig A, Sial SA, Qasim M, et al. : Harmful Health Impacts of Heavy Metals and Behavioral Changes in Humans. Indonesian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Analytics. 2024b; 3 : 77–90. Publisher Full Text Balali-Mood M, Naseri K, Tahergorabi Z, et al. : Toxic Mechanisms of Five Heavy Metals: Mercury, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium, and Arsenic. Front. Pharmacol. 2021; 12 : 643–972. Barde BG, Adeleye AO, Oladeji AA, et al. : Heavy Metals Pollution and Ecological Risk Assessment around Artisanal Gold Mines in Zamfara, Nigeria.2024. Barone G, Storelli A, Meleleo D, et al. : Levels of Mercury, Methylmercury and Selenium in Fish: Insights into Children Food Safety. Toxics. 2021; 9 : 39. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Barregard L, Sallsten G, Harari F, et al. : Cadmium Exposure and Coronary Artery Atherosclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Population-Based Study of Swedish Middle-Aged Adults. Environ. Health Perspect. 2021; 129 : 67–77. Ben I: The Development of a Framework for Assessing the Impact of Oil Spills in the Ogoni Land of Nigeria Niger Delta. Glasgow Caledonian University; 2022. (Doctoral dissertation). Benhalima L, Sandra AMRI, Bensouilah M: Dual resistance to heavy metals and antibiotics of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from Carassius carassius (Linnaeus, 1758) in Lake Tonga, Algeria. Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Biologia. 2023; 235 : 249. Bhardwaj JK, Paliwal A, Saraf P: Effects of Heavy Metals on Reproduction Owing to Infertility. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol. 2021; 35 : 22823. Bharti R, Sharma R: Effect of Heavy Metals: An overview. Mater. Today Proc. 2022; 51 : 880–885. Bhasin T, Lamture Y, Kumar M, et al. : Unveiling the Health Ramifications of Lead Poisoning: A Narrative Review. Cureus. 2023; 15 : 10. Bhattacharyya K, Sen D, Laskar P, et al. : Pathophysiological Effects of Cadmium (II) On Human Health-A Critical Review. J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2023; 34 : 249–261. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Bjørklund G, Oliinyk P, Lysiuk R, et al. : Arsenic Intoxication: General Aspects and Chelating Agents. Arch. Toxicol. 2020; 94 : 1879–1897. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Błażewicz A, Grabrucker AM: Metal Profiles In Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Crosstalk between Toxic and Essential Metals. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 24 : 308. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Borah P, Kumar M, Devi P: Types of Inorganic Pollutants: Metals/Metalloids, Acids, and Organic Forms. Inorganic Pollutants in Water. Elsevier; 2020; pp. 17–31. Boskabady M, Ghorani V, Beigoli S, et al. : The Effects of Environmental Lead on Teeth and Bone Status and the Mechanisms of These Effects, Animal and Human Evidence, a Review. Toxin Rev. 2022; 41 : 1396–1415. Publisher Full Text Branca JJ, Fiorillo C, Carrino D, et al. : Cadmium-Induced Oxidative Stress: Focus on the Central Nervous System. Antioxidants. 2020; 9 : 492. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Briffa J, Sinagra E, Blundell R: Heavy Metal Pollution in the Environment and Their Toxicological Effects on Humans. Heliyon. 2020; 6 : 9. Brittenham GM, Moir-Meyer G, Abuga KM, et al. : Biology of Anemia: Public Health Perspective. J. Nutr. 2023; 153 : S7–S28. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Bwatanglang IB, Obulapuram PK, Mohammad F, et al. : Metal Oxide-Involved Photocatalytic Technology in Cosmetics and Beauty Products. Metal Oxides for Optoelectronics and Optics-Based Medical Applications. Elsevier; 2022; pp. 301–337. Byeon E, Kang HM, Yoon C, et al. : Toxicity Mechanisms of Arsenic Compounds in Aquatic Organisms. Aquat. Toxicol. 2021; 237 : 105–901. Campbell PG, Gailer J: Effects of Non-Essential Metal Releases on the Environment and Human Health. Metal Sustainability: Global Challenges, Consequences, and Prospects. 2016; 221–252. Publisher Full Text Chandravanshi L, Shiv K, Kumar S: Developmental toxicity of cadmium in infants and children: A review. Environ. Anal. Health Toxicol. 2021; 36 : 1. Publisher Full Text Charkiewicz AE, Backstrand JR: Lead Toxicity and Pollution in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2020; 17 : 43–85. Charkiewicz AE, Omeljaniuk WJ, Nowak K, et al. : Cadmium Toxicity and Health Effects—A Brief Summary. Molecules. 2023; 28 : 6620. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Chaturvedi P, Shukla P, Giri BS, et al. : Prevalence and Hazardous Impact of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products and Antibiotics in Environment: A Review on Emerging Contaminants. Environ. Res. 2021; 194 : 110–664. Chaudhary P, Janmeda P, Docea AO, et al. : Oxidative Stress, Free Radicals and Antioxidants: Potential Crosstalk in the Pathophysiology of Human Diseases. Front. Chem. 2023; 11 : 1158–1198. Chen H, Zhu C, Zhou X: Effects Of Lead and Cadmium Combined Heavy Metals on Liver Function and Lipid Metabolism in Mice. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2023; 201 : 2864–2876. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Chen QY, Costa M: Arsenic: A Global Environmental Challenge. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2021; 61 : 47–63. Publisher Full Text Chen YG, Huang JH, Luo R, et al. : Impacts of Heavy Metals and Medicinal Crops on Ecological Systems, Environmental Pollution, Cultivation, and Production Processes in China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2021; 219 (112): 336. Chikkanna A, Mehan L, Sarath PK, et al. : Arsenic Exposures, Poisoning, And Threat To Human Health: Arsenic Affecting Human Health. Environmental Exposures and Human Health Challenges. IGI Global; 2019; pp. 86–105. Publisher Full Text Choi H, Kile M, Hoffman E, et al. : Age and Gender Modifies Dose-response Relationship between Tubewell Arsenic Exposure and Toenail Arsenic Concentration. Epidemiology. 2011; 22 : 49. Christophoridis C, Bourliva A, Evgenakis E, et al. : Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on the Levels of Heavy Metals in Marine Surface Sediments of the Thessaloniki Bay, Northern Greece: Spatial Distribution, Sources and Contamination Assessment. Microchem. J. 2019; 104 : 141. Ciosek Ż, Kot K, Rotter I: Iron, zinc, copper, cadmium, mercury, and bone tissue. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2023; 20 : 21–97. Cirovic A, Satarug S: Toxicity Tolerance in the Carcinogenesis of Environmental Cadmium. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024; 25 : 18–51. Crocetto F, Risolo R, Colapietro R, et al. : Heavy Metal Pollution and Male Fertility: An Overview on Adverse Biological Effects and Socio-Economic Implications. Endocrine, Metabolic and Immune Disorders-Drug Targets Formerly Current Drug Targets-Immune, Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders. 2023; 23 : 129–146. Cui ZG, Ahmed K, Zaidi SF, et al. : Ins And Outs of Cadmium-Induced Carcinogenesis: Mechanism and Prevention. Cancer Treat. Res. Commun. 2021; 27 : 100–372. De Carvalho Machado C, Dinis-Oliveira RJ: Clinical and Forensic Signs Resulting From Exposure to Heavy Metals and Other Chemical Elements of the Periodic Table. J. Clin. Med. 2023; 12 : 25–91. Deng H, Tu Y, Wang H, et al. : Environmental Behavior, Human Health Effect, and Pollution Control of Heavy Metal (loid) s Toward full life cycle processes. Eco-Environ. Health. 2022; 4 : 229–243. Di Ciaula A, Portincasa P: The Role of Environmental Pollution in Endocrine Diseases. Endocrinology and Systemic Diseases. 2021; 435–465. Publisher Full Text Ding M, Shi S, Qie S, et al. : Association between Heavy Metals Exposure (Cadmium, Lead, Arsenic, Mercury) and Child Autistic Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Pediatr. 2023; 11 : 1169733. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Dinh QP, Novirsa R, Jeong H, et al. : Mercury, Cadmium, and Lead in Cigarettes from International Markets: Concentrations, Distributions and Absorption Ability of Filters. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2021; 46 : 401–411. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Dippong T, Resz MA, Tănăselia C, et al. : Assessing Microbiological And Heavy Metal Pollution in Surface Waters Associated with Potential Human Health Risk Assessment at Fish Ingestion Exposure. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024; 476 : 135187. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Dong Y, Gao Z, Di J, et al. : Experimental Study on Solidification and Remediation of Lead–Zinc Tailings Based on Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP). Constr. Build. Mater. 2023; 369 : 130611. Publisher Full Text Dongre RS: Chromium and Lead as Soil Pollutants: Insights on Toxicity Profiles and Their Remediation. J. Adv. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2021; 9 : 1–16. Publisher Full Text Dórea JG: Environmental Exposure to Low-Level Lead (Pb) Co-Occurring with Other Neurotoxicants in Early Life and Neurodevelopment of Children. Environ. Res. 2019; 177 : 108–641. Du B, Zhou J, Lu B, et al. : Environmental And Human Health Risks From Cadmium Exposure Near an Active Lead-Zinc Mine and a Copper Smelter, China. Sci. Total Environ. 2020; 720 : 137585. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Dumková J, Smutná T, Vrlíková L, et al. : A Clearance Period after Soluble Lead Nanoparticle Inhalation Did Not Ameliorate the Negative Effects on Target Tissues Due to Decreased Immune Response. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020; 21 : 8738. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Dumpala S, Ramaneswari K, Chintada V: Cadmium-Induced Neurotoxicity. Cadmium Toxicity Mitigation. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; 2024; pp. 103–118. Dutta S, Ruden DM: Heavy Metals in Umbilical Cord Blood: Effects on Epigenetics and Child Development. Cells. 2024; 13 : 17–75. Dutta S, Gorain B, Choudhury H, et al. : Environmental and Occupational Exposure of Metals and Female Reproductive Health. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022; 29 : 62067–62092. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Edo GI, Samuel PO, Oloni GO, et al. : Environmental Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Ecotoxicology of Heavy Metals. Chem. Ecol. 2024; 40 : 322–349. Publisher Full Text Eiró LG, Ferreira MKM, Frazão DR, et al. : Lead Exposure and its Association with Neurological Damage: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021; 28 : 37001–37015. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Elbasiouny H, Darwesh M, Elbeltagy H, et al. : Ecofriendly Remediation Technologies for Wastewater Contaminated with Heavy Metals with Special Focus on using Water Hyacinth and Black Tea Wastes: A Review. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2021; 193 : 449. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Elbeshbishy E, Okoye F: Improper Disposal of Household Hazardous Waste: Landfill/Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant. Municipal Solid Waste Management. 2019; 183 . Publisher Full Text Elmas B: Determination of Mercury, Cadmium, Arsenic Levels and Their Relationship with Seizure Duration in Children with Simple Febrile Seizures. Online Turkish Journal of Health Sciences. 2023; 8 : 533–538. Engwa GA, Ferdinand PU, Nwalo FN, et al. : Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans. Poisoning In the Modern World-New Tricks for an Old Dog. 2019; 10 : 70–90. Escobedo-Monge MF, Bahillo-Curieses P, Parodi-Román J, et al. : Calcium, Phosphate, and Vitamin D in Children and Adolescents with Chronic Diseases: A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients. 2024; 16 : 13–49. Ezechukwu CC: PANCONF 2023 Annual General Conference: 54th Annual General and Scientific Conference of the Paediatrics Association of Nigeria (PANCONF), 17th-21st January, 2023. Niger. J. Paediatr. 2023; 50 : 13–92. Publisher Full Text Fang L, Zhao H, Chen Y, et al. : The Combined Effect of Heavy Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Arthritis, Especially Osteoarthritis, In the US Adult Population. Chemosphere. 2023; 316 : 137–870. Farahmandian P, Mohammadian-Hafshejani A, Fadaei A, et al. : Investigating the Relationship between Exposure to Cadmium and Lung Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J. Health Saf. Work. 2024; 14 : 199–215. Farh RMF, Atwa HA, Khafagy AA, et al. : Assessment of Mercury, Lead and Cadmium Levels among Children with Type 1 Diabetes in Suez Canal Region. Egypt. J. Hosp. Med. 2024; 97 : 3738–3743. Farmani R, Mehrpour O, Kooshki A, et al. : Exploring the Link between Toxic Metal Exposure and ADHD: A Systematic Review of Pb and Hg. J. Neurodev. Disord. 2024; 16 : 44. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Fasae KD, Abolaji AO: Interactions and Toxicity of Non-Essential Heavy Metals (Cd, Pb and Hg): Lessons from Drosophila Melanogaster. Curr. Opin. Insect Sci. 2022; 51 : 100–900. Frangos T, Maret W: Zinc and Cadmium in the Aetiology and Pathogenesis of Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Nutrients. 2020; 13 : 53. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Frings S, Schmidt-Schippers R, Lee WK: Epigenetic Alterations in Bioaccumulators of Cadmium: Lessons from Mammalian Kidneys and Plants. Environ. Int. 2024; 191 : 109000. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Fu Z, Xi S: The Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Metabolism. Toxicol. Mech. Methods. 2020; 30 : 167–176. Publisher Full Text Fujimura M, Usuki F: Cellular Conditions Responsible for Methylmercury-Mediated Neurotoxicity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 23 : 7218. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Fulke AB, Ratanpal S, Sonker S: Understanding Heavy Metal Toxicity: Implications on Human Health, Marine Ecosystems and Bioremediation Strategies. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2024; 206 : 116–707. Gade M, Comfort N, Re DB: Sex-Specific Neurotoxic Effects of Heavy Metal Pollutants: Epidemiological, Experimental Evidence and Candidate Mechanisms. Environ. Res. 2021; 201 : 111–558. Ganie SY, Javaid D, Hajam YA, et al. : Arsenic Toxicity: Sources, Pathophysiology and Mechanism. Toxicol. Res. 2024; 1 : 111. Garai P, Banerjee P, Mondal P, et al. : Effect of Heavy Metals on Fishes: Toxicity and Bioaccumulation. J. Clin. Toxicol. 2021; 1 : 18. García-Sánchez A, Miranda-Díaz AG, Cardona-Muñoz EG: The Role of Oxidative Stress in Physiopathology and Pharmacological Treatment with Pro-And Antioxidant Properties in Chronic Diseases. Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev. 2020; 1 : 2082145. Gautam R, Priyadarshini E, Patel AK, et al. : Assessing The Impact And Mechanisms of Environmental Pollutants (Heavy Metals And Pesticides) on The Male Reproductive System: A Comprehensive Review. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 2024; 42 : 126–153. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Genchi G, Carocci A, Lauria G, et al. : Nickel: Human Health and Environmental Toxicology. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2020a; 17 : 679. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Genchi G, Sinicropi MS, Lauria G, et al. : The Effects of Cadmium Toxicity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2020b; 17 : 3782. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Gerhardsson L: Diagnosis and Treatment of Metal Poisoning General Aspects. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Academic Press; 2022; pp. 663–684. Glicklich D, Shin CT, Frishman WH: Heavy Metal Toxicity in Chronic Renal Failure and Cardiovascular Disease: Possible Role for Chelation Therapy. Cardiol. Rev. 2020; 28 (6): 312–318. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Gollakota AR, Gautam S, Shu CM: Inconsistencies Of E-Waste Management In Developing Nations–Facts and Plausible Solutions. J. Environ. Manag. 2020; 261 : 110–234. Gu Q, Liu J, Zhang X, et al. : Association between Heavy Metals Exposure and Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) In Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry. 2024; 1–21. Publisher Full Text Gudadhe S, Singh SK, Ahsan J: Cellular and Neurological Effects of Lead (Pb) Toxicity. Lead Toxicity Mitigation: Sustainable Nexus Approaches. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; 2024; pp. 125–145. Gump BB, Hruska B, Parsons PJ, et al. : Dietary Contributions to Increased Background Lead, Mercury, and Cadmium in 9–11 Year Old Children: Accounting For Racial Differences. Environ. Res. 2020; 185 : 109–308. Guney M, Kismelyeva S, Akimzhanova Z, et al. : Potentially Toxic Elements in Toys and Children’s Jewelry: A Critical Review of Recent Advances in Legislation and In Scientific Research. Environ. Pollut. 2020; 264 : 114–627. Guo B, Hong C, Tong W, et al. : Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in a Soil-Rice System: A Case Study in the Jin-Qu Basin of China. Sci. Rep. 2020; 10 : 11490. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Gupta S, Yadav U: Biomagnification of Mercury in Aquatic Ecosystem and Effect on Human Being. J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci. 2024; 12 : 8–18. Haeusler M, Grunstra ND, Martin RD, et al. : The Obstetrical Dilemma Hypothesis: There’s Life In The Old Dog Yet. Biol. Rev. 2021; 96 : 2031–2057. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Hamza M, Alam S, Rizwan M, et al. : Health Risks Associated With Arsenic Contamination And Its Biotransformation Mechanisms. Environment: A Review. Hazardous Environmental Micro-Pollutants, Health Impacts and Allied Treatment Technologies; 2022; 241–288. Hedberg YS, Wei Z, McCarrick S, et al. : Welding Fume Nanoparticles from Solid and Flux-Cored Wires: Solubility, Toxicity, and Role of Fluorides. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021; 413 : 125–273. Heidari AH, Zamiri MJ, Nazem MN, et al. : Detrimental Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Heavy Metals on Histology, Size And Trace Elements of Testes and Sperm Parameters In Kermani Sheep. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2021; 207 : 111–563. Heng YY, Asad I, Coleman B, et al. : Heavy Metals and Neurodevelopment of Children in Low and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review. PLoS One. 2022; 17 : 3. Hosen L: Studies on Bioaccumulation and Mobilization of Heavy Metals in Crops and Vegetables Grown Around Industrial Environments.2021. Hu B, Shao S, Ni H, et al. : Current Status, Spatial Features, Health Risks, and Potential Driving Factors of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution in China at Province Level. Environ. Pollut. 2020; 266 : 114–961. Hultman PA, Pollard KM: Immunotoxicology of Metals. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Academic Press; 2022; pp. 543–564. Hussain H, Mahmood S, Khalid A, et al. : Seasonal Variation in Non-Point Source Heavy Metal Pollution in Satpara Lake and Its Toxicity in Trout Fish. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2023; 195 : 901. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Ibrahimou B, Sun N, Azim SI, et al. : Interaction between Chronic Bronchitis and Blood Cadmium Levels on the Prevalence of Myocardial Infarction in US Adults: The National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey, 2005–2016. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2021; 63 : 1087–1092. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Idialu PO: Eradication of Toxic Wastes and Pollutants in Ogoni Land: An Igwebuike Approach. African Ecological Spirituality: Perspectives in Anthroposophy and Environmentalism a Hybrid of Approaches. 2021. Ijomone OM, Olung NF, Akingbade GT, et al. : Environmental Influence on Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Potential Association of Heavy Metal Exposure and Autism. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2020; 62 : 126–638. Iqbal HH, Siddique A, Qadir A, et al. : Human health and ecology at risk: a case study of metal pollution in Lahore, Pakistan. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2024; 36 :9. Publisher Full Text Isinkaye MO, OlaOlorun OA, Chandrasekaran A, et al. : Quantification Of Radiological Hazards Associated with Natural Radionuclides in Soil, Granite and Charnockite Rocks at Selected Fields in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Heliyon. 2023; 9 : 11. Jaafarzadeh N, Poormohammadi A, Almasi H, et al. : Arsenic in Drinking Water and Kidney Cancer: A Systematic Review. Rev. Environ. Health. 2023; 38 : 255–263. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Jamilu S: Investigation Of Soil And Groundwater Contamination Using Integrated Geophysical And Geochemical Methods At Kataeregi Mining Site, Niger State, Nigeria.2023. (Doctoral Dissertation). Jeyasanta KI, Patterson J: Dietary intake of heavy metals from seafood and human health risk implications in Tuticorin, Southeast coast of India. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2025; 211 : 117497. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Jomova K, Makova M, Alomar SY, et al. : Essential Metals in Health and Disease. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2022; 367 : 110173. Publisher Full Text Jonidi Jafari A, Esrafili A, Moradi Y, et al. : Mercury level in biological samples of dentists in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 2020; 18 : 1655–1669. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Kabir MH, Kormoker T, Shammi RS, et al. : A Comprehensive Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Road Dusts along a Hectic National Highway of Bangladesh: Spatial Distribution, Sources of Contamination, Ecological and Human Health Risks. Toxin Rev. 2022; 41 : 860–879. Publisher Full Text Kaji M: Itai-itai disease: Lessons for the way to environmental regeneration. Lessons from Fukushima: Japanese Case Studies on Science, Technology and Society. 2015; pp. 141–165. Publisher Full Text Kampouri M, Zander E, Gustin K, et al. : Associations of Gestational and Childhood Exposure To Lead, Cadmium, And Fluoride With Cognitive Abilities, Behavior, and Social Communication At 4 Years of Age: NICE Birth Cohort Study. Environ. Res. 2024; 263 : 120–123. Kaneko M, Kazatani T, Shikata H: Occupational Lead Poisoning In a Patient with Acute Abdomen and Normocytic Anemia. Intern. Med. 2020; 59 : 1565–1570. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Kapoor D, Singh S, Ramamurthy PC, et al. : Molecular Consequences of Cadmium Toxicity and Its Regulatory Networks in Plants. Plant Gene. 2021; 28 : 100–342. Kar S: Geochemical Characteristics of Mineral Elements: Arsenic, Fluorine, Lead, Nitrogen, and Carbon. In Structure and functions of Pedosphere Singapore. Nature. 2022; 209–254. Kara T, Amal CT, Biswas S, et al. : Nanobiochar: A Nanostimulant for Enhancing Soil Quality and Sustainability. Nanobiostimulants: Emerging Strategies for Agricultural Sustainability. 2024; pp. 227–244. Publisher Full Text Karatela S, Coomarasamy C, Paterson J, et al. : Household Smoking Status and Heavy Metal Concentrations in Toenails of Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2019; 16 : 38–71. Karatela S, Coomarasamy C, Paterson J, et al. : Exposure to Toenail Heavy Metals and Child Behavior Problems in Nine-Year-Old Children: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2020; 17 : 4120. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Kasongo J, Alleman LY, Kanda JM, et al. : Metal-Bearing Airborne Particles from Mining Activities: A Review on Their Characteristics, Impacts and Research Perspectives. Sci. Total Environ. 2024; 951 : 175426. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Kasprzak KS: Oxidative DNA damage in metal-induced carcinogenesis. Toxicol. Metals. 2023; 1 : 299–320. Kasten-Jolly J, Lawrence DA: Sex-Specific Effects of Developmental Lead Exposure on the Immune-Neuroendocrine Network. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2017; 334 : 142–157. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Kasuya M: Recent Epidemiological Studies on Itai-Itai Disease as a Chronic Cadmium Poisoning In Japan. Water Sci. Technol. 2000; 42 : 147–154. Publisher Full Text Kaur M, Sharma A: A Review on Heavy Metal Accumulation and Toxicity in Biotic and Abiotic Components. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021; 889 : 12–62. Khalaf EM, Taherian M, Almalki SG, et al. : Relationship between Exposure to Heavy Metals on the Increased Health Risk and Carcinogenicity of Urinary Tract (Kidney and Bladder). Rev. Environ. Health. 2024; 39 : 539–549. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Khanniri E, Esmaeili S, Akbari ME, et al. : Determination of Heavy Metals in Municipal Water Network of Tehran, Iran: A Health Risk Assessment with a Focus on Carcinogenicity. Int. J. Cancer Manag. 2023; In Press. Publisher Full Text Khatun J, Intekhab A, Dhak D: Effect Of Uncontrolled Fertilization and Heavy Metal Toxicity Associated with Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd), and Possible Remediation. Toxicology. 2022; 477 : 153274. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Khoshakhlagh AH, Ghobakhloo S, Peijnenburg WJ, et al. : To Breathe or Not To Breathe: Inhalational Exposure to Heavy Metals and Related Health Risk. Sci. Total Environ. 2024; 17 : 25–56. Knoell DL, Wyatt TA: The Adverse Impact of Cadmium on Immune Function and Lung Host Defense. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. Academic Press; 2021; 115 . : 70–76. Kontoghiorghes GJ: New Iron Metabolic Pathways and Chelation Targeting Strategies Affecting the Treatment of All Types and Stages of Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 23 : 13990. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Kontoghiorghes GJ, Kolnagou A, Kontoghiorghe CN, et al. : Trying To Solve the Puzzle of the Interaction of Ascorbic Acid and Iron: Redox, Chelation and Therapeutic Implications. Medicines. 2020; 7 : 45. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Kothapalli CR: Differential Impact of Heavy Metals on Neurotoxicity during Development and in Aging Central Nervous System. Curr. Opin. Toxicol. 2021; 26 : 33–38. Publisher Full Text Kowalczyk P, Sulejczak D, Kleczkowska P, et al. : Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress—A Causative Factor and Therapeutic Target in Many Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021; 24 : 13384. Król D, Motyl P, Poskrobko S: Waste Incineration and Heavy Metal Emission—Laboratory Tests. Energies. 2022; 15 : 8130. Publisher Full Text Kryshtopa S, Melnyk V, Dolishnii B, et al. : Improvement of the Model of Forecasting Heavy Metals of Exhaust Gases of Motor Vehicles in the Soil. Восточно-Европейский журнал передовых технологий. 2019; 4 : 44–51. Kuhangana TC, Cheyns K, Musambo TM, et al. : Cottage Industry as a Source of High Exposure to Lead: A Biomonitoring Study among People Involved In Manufacturing Cookware from Scrap Metal. Environ. Res. 2024; 250 : 118–493. Kumar A, Ghosh AK: Arsenic and Cancer. Environmental Exposures and Human Health Challenges. IGI Global; 2019; pp. 106–132. Kumar A, Raj V, Srivastava A, et al. : Autophagy in Arsenic Exposed Population and Cancer Patients. Autophagy and Metabolism. Academic Press; 2022; pp. 141–161. Kumar V, Umesh M, Shanmugam MK, et al. : A Retrospection on Mercury Contamination, Bioaccumulation, and Toxicity in Diverse Environments: Current Insights and Future Prospects. Sustainability. 2023; 15 (13): 292. Kurt OK, Basaran N: Occupational Exposure to Metals and Solvents: Allergy and Airway Diseases. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 2020; 20 : 1–8. Kurita H, Ohuchi K, Inden M: Effects of Environmental Non-Essential Toxic Heavy Metals on Epigenetics during Development. Toxics. 2025; 13 :167. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Latosińska J, Kowalik R, Gawdzik J: Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination with Heavy Metals from Municipal Sewage Sludge. Appl. Sci. 2021; 11 : 548. Publisher Full Text Lee HJ, Lee HY: Characterization of Lung Function Impairment and Pathological Changes Induced By Chronic Lead and Cadmium Inhalation: Insights from a Mouse Model Study. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2024; 283 : 116776. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Levin R, Vieira CLZ, Rosenbaum MH, et al. : The Urban Lead (Pb) Burden in Humans, Animals and the Natural Environment. Environ. Res. 2021; 193 : 110–377. Li M, Li X, Xu J, et al. : Unchanged Pulmonary Function and Increased Prevalence of Subjective Respiratory Symptoms in Non-Smoking Workers with Low Cadmium Body Burden. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2020; 194 : 84–88. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Li P, Li ZH: Environmental Co-Exposure To TBT And Cd Caused Neurotoxicity and Thyroid Endocrine Disruption In Zebrafish, A Three-Generation Study in a Simulated Environment. Environ. Pollut. 2020; 259 : 113–868. Libby P: Inflammation during the Life Cycle of the Atherosclerotic Plaque. Cardiovasc. Res. 2021; 117 : 2525–2536. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Liu S, Shi J, Wang J, et al. : Interactions between Microplastics and Heavy Metals in Aquatic Environments: A Review. Front. Microbiol. 2021; 12 : 652520. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text López-Botella A, Velasco I, Acién M, et al. : Impact of Heavy Metals on Human Male Fertility—An Overview. Antioxidants. 2021; 10 : 14–73. Luo H, Cheng Q, Pan X: Photochemical Behaviors of Mercury (Hg) Species in Aquatic Systems: A Systematic Review on Reaction Process, Mechanism, and Influencing Factor. Sci. Total Environ. 2020; 720 : 137–540. Luparello C: Cadmium Associated Molecular Signatures in Cancer Cell Models. Cancers. 2021; 13 : 2823. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Ma Y, Su Q, Yue C, et al. : The Effect of Oxidative Stress-Induced Autophagy by Cadmium Exposure in Kidney, Liver, and Bone Damage, and Neurotoxicity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 23 : 34–91. Machado-Neves M: Effect of Heavy Metals on Epididymis Morphology and Function: An Integrative Review. Chemosphere. 2022; 291 : 133020. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mahdi AA, Ansari JA, Chaurasia P, et al. : A Study of Maternal and Umbilical Cord Blood Lead Levels in Pregnant Women. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 2023; 38 : 94–101. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Mansoor S, Ali A, Kour N, et al. : Heavy Metal Induced Oxidative Stress Mitigation And ROS Scavenging In Plants. Plants. 2023; 12 : 30–33. Mansor MI, Fatehah MO, Aziz HA, et al. : Occurrence, Behaviour and Transport of Heavy Metals from Industries in River Catchments. Industrial Waste Engineering. 2024; pp. 205–277. Marchi SV: Investigation and Characterization of Cr (III)-DNA Binary and Ternary Complexes. The University of Alabama; 2023. Marriage G, Gjerde M: Metals: Issues with Everyday Use and Toxicity within Standard Construction Metals. Sustainability and Toxicity of Building Materials. Woodhead Publishing; 2024; pp. 221–246. Martemucci G, Costagliola C, Mariano M, et al. : Free Radical Properties, Source and Targets, Antioxidant Consumption and Health. Oxygen. 2022; 2 : 48–78. Publisher Full Text Massányi P, Massányi M, Madeddu R, et al. : Effects Of Cadmium, Lead, And Mercury on The Structure and Function of Reproductive Organs. Toxics. 2020; 8 : 94. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Mayer JE, Goldman RH: Arsenic and Skin Cancer in the USA: The Current Evidence Regarding Arsenic-Contaminated Drinking Water. Int. J. Dermatol. 2016; 55 : 585–591. Mazinder Baruah P, Singh G: Assessment Of Potability Of Minewater Pumped Out From Jharia Coalfield, India: An Integrated Approach Using Integrated Water Quality Index, Heavy Metal Pollution Index, and Multivariate Statistics. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022; 29 : 27366–27381. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Medda N, Patra R, Ghosh TK, et al. : Neurotoxic Mechanism of Arsenic: Synergistic Effect of Mitochondrial Instability, Oxidative Stress, and Hormonal-Neurotransmitter Impairment. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2020; 198 : 8–15. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Meharg AA, Meharg C: The Pedosphere as a Sink Source, and Record of Anthropogenic and Natural Arsenic Atmospheric Deposition. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021; 55 : 7757–7769. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mishra S, Bharagava RN, More N, et al. : Heavy Metal Contamination: An Alarming Threat to Environment and Human Health. Environmental Biotechnology: For Sustainable Future. 2019; pp. 103–125. Mitra S, Chakraborty AJ, Tareq AM, et al. : Impact of Heavy Metals on the Environment and Human Health: Novel Therapeutic Insights to Counter the Toxicity. J. King Saud Univ. Sci. 2022; 34 : 101–865. Mohamed HRH: Alleviation of Cadmium Chloride–Induced Acute Genotoxicity, Mitochondrial DNA Disruption, and ROS Generation by Chocolate Coadministration in Mice Liver and Kidney Tissues. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2022; 200 : 3750–3761. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mondal S: Heavy Metal Stress–Induced Activation of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signalling Cascade in Plants. Plant Mol. Biol. Report. 2023; 41 : 15–26. Monteiro De Oliveira EC, Caixeta ES, Santos VSV, et al. : Arsenic Exposure from Groundwater: Environmental Contamination, Human Health Effects, and Sustainable Solutions. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 2021; 24 : 119–135. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mosaad AF, El-Nakhla SM, Abd El-Rasoul FH, et al. : Effect of Ambient Lead on Progesterone and Pregnancy-Associated Glycoprotein 1 and Their Relationship with Abortion in Zaraibi Goats: A Field Study. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2024; 56 : 40. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Mousavi SM, Brodie G, Payghamzadeh K, et al. : Lead Bioavailability in the Environment: It’s Exposure and and Effects. J. Adv. Environ. Health Res. 2022; 10 : 1–14. Publisher Full Text Mukisa A, Kasozi D, Aguttu C, et al. : Relationship between Blood Lead Status and Anemia in Ugandan Children with Malaria Infection. BMC Pediatr. 2020; 20 : 1–7. Munir N, Jahangeer M, Bouyahya A, et al. : Heavy Metal Contamination of Natural Foods is a Serious Health Issue: A Review. Sustainability. 2021; 14 : 161. Publisher Full Text Muzaffar S, Khan J, Srivastava R, et al. : Mechanistic Understanding of the Toxic Effects of Arsenic and Warfare Arsenicals on Human Health and Environment. Cell Biol. Toxicol. 2023; 39 : 85–110. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Muzamil A, Sultan K, Hashem A, et al. : Integrating Passive Biomonitoring and Active Monitoring: Spider Web Silk and Portable Instruments for Air Quality in Urban Areas. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2024; 235 : 466. Publisher Full Text Nasiadek M, Danilewicz M, Klimczak M, et al. : Subchronic Exposure to Cadmium Causes Persistent Changes in The Reproductive System in Female Wistar Rats. Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev. 2019; 64 : 90820. Natasha, Dumat C, Shahid M, et al. : Lead Pollution and Human Exposure: Forewarned is Forearmed, and The Question Now Becomes How to respond to the Threat!. Lead in Plants and the Environment. 2020; pp. 33–65. Publisher Full Text Nazarian M, Mohammadparast-Tabas P, Harifi-Mood MS, et al. : The Association between Cadmium Exposure and Thyroid Function in Animals: A Systematic Review. Curr. Mol. Med. 2024; 24 . PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nehzomi ZS, Shirani K: Investigating the Role of Food Pollutants in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Comprehensive Analysis of Heavy Metals, Pesticides, and Mycotoxins. Naunyn Schmiedeberg’s Arch. Pharmacol. 2024; 1–23. Publisher Full Text Niede R, Benbi DK: Integrated Review of the Nexus Between Toxic Elements in the Environment and Human Health. AIMS Public Health. 2022; 9 : 758–789. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Nielsen T: Atmospheric Occurrence of Organolead Compounds. Biological Effects of Organolead Compounds. CRC Press; 2020; pp. 43–62. Nkwunonwo UC, Odika PO, Onyia NI: A Review of the Health Implications of Heavy Metals in Food Chain in Nigeria. Sci. World J. 2020; 659 : 4109. Nna VU, Usman UZ, Ofutet EO, et al. : Quercetin Exerts Preventive, Ameliorative and Prophylactic Effects on Cadmium Chloride-Induced Oxidative Stress in the Uterus and Ovaries of Female Wistar Rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2017; 102 : 143–155. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nneoyi-Egbe AF: Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Shrimp and Water from the Great Kwa River: Implications for Human Health and Aquatic Ecosystems. Int. J. Biochem. Res. Rev. 2024; 33 : 27–35. Publisher Full Text Nowicka B: Heavy Metal–Induced Stress In Eukaryotic Algae—Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity and Tolerance with Particular Emphasis on Oxidative Stress in Exposed Cells and the Role of Antioxidant Response. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022; 29 : 16860–16911. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Nwoma IF, Anyika VO: Restoration of the ecosystem: Ogoni Cleanup and the Mitigation of Social Tensions, 2018-2023. Hum. Ecol. Rev. 2024; 28 : 25–40. Publisher Full Text Nyiramigisha P: Harmful Impacts of Heavy Metal Contamination in the Soil and Crops Grown Around Dumpsites. Rev. Agric. Sci. 2021; 9 : 271–282. Publisher Full Text Obaid AA, Almasmoum H, Almaimani RA, et al. : Vitamin D And Calcium Co-Therapy Mitigates Pre-Established Cadmium Nephropathy by Regulating Renal Calcium Homeostatic Molecules and Improving Anti-Oxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Activities In Rat. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2023; 79 : 127–221. Obasi CN, Frazzoli C, Orisakwe OE: Heavy Metals and Metalloids Exposure and in vitro Fertilization: Critical Concerns in Human Reproductive Medicine. Front. Reprod. Health. 2022; 4 : 1037379. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Obasi PN, Akudinobi BB: Potential Health Risk and Levels of Heavy Metals in Water Resources of Lead–Zinc Mining Communities of Abakaliki, Southeast Nigeria. Appl. Water Sci. 2020; 10 : 1–23. Obeng-Gyasi E: Sources of Lead Exposure in Various Countries. Rev. Environ. Health. 2019; 34 : 25–34. Publisher Full Text Ojoghoro JO, Scrimshaw MD, Sumpter JP: Steroid Hormones in the Aquatic Environment. Sci. Total Environ. 2021; 792 : 148–306. Okpebenyo W, Onoh C, Cornell C, et al. : Revisiting the resource curse in Nigeria: the case of Niger Delta. KIU Interdiscip. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 2023; 4 : 259–276. Olufemi AC, Mji A, Mukhola MS: Potential Health Risks of Lead Exposure from Early Life through Later Life: Implications for Public Health Education. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2022; 19 : 1606. Orimisan AE, Olarewaju AJ, Babaniyi BR, et al. : Heavy Metal Content in Dumpsite Soils and Vegetables: A Case Study of Ondo Town, Nigeria. GSC Adv. Res. Rev. 2024; 19 : 097–104. Publisher Full Text Owonikoko MW, Salami AT, Odukanmi AO, et al. : Cement Dust Inhalation Induces Hepato-Renal Dysfunction via Tissue Heavy Metal Bioaccumulation, Histopathological and Biochemical Mechanisms. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 2023; 32 : 1019–1033. Publisher Full Text Paithankar JG, Saini S, Dwivedi S, et al. : Heavy Metal Associated Health Hazards: An Interplay of Oxidative Stress and Signal Transduction. Chemosphere. 2021; 262 : 128–350. Parida L, Patel TN: Systemic Impact of Heavy Metals and their Role in Cancer Development: A Review. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2023; 195 : 766. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Parithathvi A, Choudhari N, Dsouza HS: Prenatal and early life lead exposure induced neurotoxicity. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2024; 43 . PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Parui R, Nongthombam GS, Hossain M, et al. : Impact of Heavy Metals on Human Health. Remediation of Heavy Metals: Sustainable Technologies and Recent Advances. 2024; 47–81. Publisher Full Text Passeron T, Krutmann J, Andersen ML, et al. : Clinical and Biological Impact of the Exposure on the Skin. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2020; 34 : 4–25. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Patel UN, Patel UD, Khadayata AV, et al. : Assessment of Neurotoxicity Following Single and Co-Exposure of Cadmium and Mercury in Adult Zebrafish: Behavior Alterations, Oxidative Stress, Gene Expression, and Histological Impairment in Brain. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2021; 232 : 340. Publisher Full Text Peana M, Pelucelli A, Chasapis CT, et al. : Biological Effects of Human Exposure to Environmental Cadmium. Biomolecules. 2022; 13 : 36. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Peana M, Pelucelli A, Medici S, et al. : Metal Toxicity and Speciation: A Review. Curr. Med. Chem. 2021; 28 : 7190–7208. Publisher Full Text Pillai AS, Chandler SA, Liu Y, et al. : Origin of complexity in haemoglobin evolution. Nature. 2020; 581 : 480–485. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Proto A, et al. : Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds: An Overview on Their Occurrence in the Aquatic Environment and Human Exposure. Water. 2021; 13 : 13–47. Pisoschi AM, Pop A, Iordache F, et al. : Oxidative Stress Mitigation by Antioxidants-An Overview on Their Chemistry and Influences on Health Status. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2021; 209 : 112–891. Polaka S, Nalla LV, Kalpeshkumar RD, et al. : Drug-Induced Nephrotoxicity and its Biomarkers. Essentials of Pharmatoxicology in Drug Research. Academic Press; 2023; pp. 289–316. Porretti M, Arrigo F, Di Bella G, et al. : Impact of Pharmaceutical Products on Zebrafish: An Effective Tool to Assess Aquatic Pollution. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2022; 261 : 109–439. Pyatha S, Kim H, Lee D, et al. : Co-Exposure to Lead, Mercury, and Cadmium Induces Neurobehavioral Impairments in Mice by Interfering with Dopaminergic and Serotonergic Neurotransmission in The Striatum. Front. Public Health. 2023; 11 : 1265864. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Qu F, Zheng W: Cadmium exposure: mechanisms and pathways of toxicity and implications for human health. Toxics. 2024; 12 :388. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Qureshi Y: Impact of Heavy Metals Consumption on Human Health: A Literature Review. J. Pharm. Res. Int. 2021; 33 : 412–421. Rahaman MS, Rahman MM, Mise N, et al. : Environmental Arsenic Exposure and Its Contribution to Human Diseases, Toxicity Mechanism and Management. Environ. Pollut. 2021; 289 : 117940. Rahman Z, Singh VP: Bioremediation of Toxic Heavy Metals (Thms) Contaminated Sites: Concepts, Applications and Challenges. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020; 27 : 27563–27581. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Rai PK, Lee SS, Zhang M, et al. : Heavy Metals in Food Crops: Health Risks, Fate, Mechanisms, and Management. Environ. Int. 2019; 125 : 365–385. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Raj K, Das AP: Lead Pollution: Impact on Environment and Human Health and Approach for a Sustainable Solution. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol. 2023; 5 : 79–85. Publisher Full Text Rajiv SV, George M, Nandakumar G: Dermatological manifestations of arsenic exposure. J. Skin Sex. Transmitted Dis. 2023; 5 : 14–21. Publisher Full Text Rajpoot A, Aggarwal T, Sharma V: Unraveling the Enigma of Cardiac Damage Caused by Lead: Understanding the Intricate Relationship between Oxidative Stress and Other Multifactorial Mechanisms. Toxicology. 2024; 15 : 39–84. Raju NJ: Arsenic in the Geo-Environment: A Review of Sources, Geochemical Processes, Toxicity and Removal Technologies. Environ. Res. 2022; 203 : 111–782. Rana KK, Pachu AV, Jeeva V, et al. : Enhancing Sustainability: Reclamation and Rehabilitation Strategies for Restoring Mined-Out Lands in India to Mitigate Climate Change Impacts. In Forests and Climate Change: Biological Perspectives on Impact. Adaptation, and Mitigation Strategies Singapore. 2024; pp. 573–603. Publisher Full Text Rastgar S, Alijani Ardeshir R, Segner H, et al. : Immunotoxic Effects of Metal-Based Nanoparticles in Fish and Bivalves. Nanotoxicology. 2022; 16 : 88–113. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Ravalli F, Vela Parada X, Ujueta F, et al. : Chelation Therapy in Patients with Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2022; 11 : 24648. Rehberg R, Rehberg J: Cram Session in General Medical Conditions: A Handbook for Students and Clinicians. Taylor and Francis; 2024. Rehman UU, Khan S, Muhammad S: Ingestion of Arsenic-Contaminated Drinking Water Leads to Health Risk and Traces in Human Biomarkers (Hair, Nails, Blood, and Urine), Pakistan. Expo. Health. 2020; 12 : 243–254. Publisher Full Text Ren Q, Guo X, Yang D, et al. : A Wide Survey of Heavy Metals-Induced In-Vitro DNA Replication Stress Characterized by Rate-Limited Replication. Curr. Res. Toxicol. 2024; 6 : 100–152. Renu K, Chakraborty R, Myakala H, et al. : Molecular Mechanism of Heavy Metals (Lead, Chromium, Arsenic, Mercury, Nickel and Cadmium)-Induced Hepatotoxicity–A Review. Chemosphere. 2021; 271 : 129–735. Rico F, Mazabel A, Egurrola G, et al. : Meta-Analysis and Analytical Methods in Cosmetics Formulation: A Review. Cosmetics. 2023; 11 : 1. Publisher Full Text Rihan R, Al-Wakaa B, Tanoli N: A Novel Approach for Investigating the Effect of Flowing Fluid on the Susceptibility of Alloys to Environmental Stress Cracking. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2020; 192 : 107–212. Riziotis IG, Thornton JM: Capturing the Geometry, Function, and Evolution of Enzymes with 3D Templates. Protein Sci. 2022; 31 : E4363. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Rosa D, Kalvig P, Stendal H, et al. : Review of the Critical Raw Material Resource Potential in Greenland. Copenhagen: Center For Minerals and Materials: Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland; 2023. Roy A, Jha AK, Kumar A, et al. : Heavy Metal Pollution in Indoor Dust of Residential, Commercial, and Industrial Areas: A Review of Evolutionary Trends. Air Qual. Atmos. Health. 2024; 17 : 891–918. Publisher Full Text Roy S, Edwards MA: Are There Excess Fetal Deaths Attributable to Waterborne Lead Exposure During The Flint Water Crisis? Evidence from Bio-Kinetic Model Predictions and Vital Records. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2022; 32 : 17–26. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Ruczaj A, Brzóska MM: Environmental Exposure of the General Population to Cadmium as a Risk Factor of the Damage to the Nervous System: A Critical Review of Current Data. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2023; 43 : 66–88. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Ruslee SS, Zaid SSM, Bakrin IH, et al. : Protective Effect of Tualang Honey against Cadmium-Induced Morphological Abnormalities and Oxidative Stress in the Ovary of Rats. BMC Complement. Med. Ther. 2020; 20 : 1–11. Sable H, Singh V, Kumar V, et al. : Toxicological and Bioremediation Profiling of Nonessential Heavy Metals (Mercury, Chromium, Cadmium, Aluminium) and their Impact on Human Health: A Review. Toxicol. Anal. Clin. 2024; 36 : 205–234. Publisher Full Text Saidon NB, Szabó R, Budai P, et al. : Trophic Transfer and Biomagnification Potential of Environmental Contaminants (Heavy Metals) In Aquatic Ecosystems. Environ. Pollut. 2024; 340 : 122–815. Sakurai M, Suwazono Y, Nogawa K, et al. : Cadmium Body Burden and Health Effects after Restoration of Cadmium-Polluted Soils in Cadmium-Polluted Areas in the Jinzu River Basin. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2023; 28 : 49–49. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Sam K, Zabbey N, Onyena AP: Implementing Contaminated Land Remediation In Nigeria: Insights from the Ogoni Remediation Project. Land Use Policy. 2022; 115 : 106051. Publisher Full Text Samma S, Khan MSI, Chowdhury MTI, et al. : Evaluating Soil-Vegetable Contamination with Heavy Metals in Bogura, Bangladesh: A Risk Assessment Approach. Environ. Health Insights. 2024; 18 :117. Sánchez-Alarcón J, Milić M, Bustamante-Montes LP, et al. : Genotoxicity of Mercury and its Derivatives Demonstrated In vitro And in vivo in Human Populations Studies. Systematic Review. Toxics. 2021; 9 : 36. Saravanan A, Kumar PS, Hemavathy RV, et al. : A comprehensive review on sources, analysis and toxicity of environmental pollutants and its removal methods from water environment. Sci. Total Environ. 2022; 812 : 152–456. Sarkar CG: Tetraethyllead (TEL) In Gasoline as a Case of Contentious Science and Delayed Regulation: A Short Review. Orient. J. Chem. 2020; 36 : 86–92. Publisher Full Text Sasaki T, Horiguchi H, Matsukawa T, et al. : A Suspected Case of “Itai-Itai Disease” In a Cadmium-Polluted Area in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2024; 29 : 40–40. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Satarug S: Long-Term Exposure to Cadmium in Food and Cigarette Smoke, Liver Effects and Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Curr. Drug Metab. 2012; 13 : 257–271. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Satarug S, Gobe GC, Vesey DA, et al. : Cadmium and lead exposure, nephrotoxicity, and mortality. Toxics. 2020; 8 : 86. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Satir S: The Relationship between Oral Cancer and Cadmium: A Review. Mol. Biol. Rep. 2022; 49 : 2413–2419. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Sekovanić A, Jurasović J, Piasek M: Gene Polymorphisms In Relation To Diseases and Trace Element Levels in Humans. Arch. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 2020; 71 : 27–47. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Semwal R, Semwal RB, Lehmann J, et al. : Recent Advances in Immunotoxicity and Its Impact on Human Health: Causative Agents, Effects and Existing Treatments. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2022; 108 : 108–859. Sevak P, Pushkar B: Arsenic Pollution Cycle, Toxicity and Sustainable Remediation Technologies: A Comprehensive Review and Bibliometric Analysis. J. Environ. Manag. 2024; 349 : 119–504. Shah S, Kumar A: Bioavailability, Bioconcentration, and Biomagnification of Pollutants. Environmental Toxicology and Ecosystem. CRC Press; 2022; pp. 179–214. Sheikhzadeh H, Hamidian AH: Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Fish Species of Iran: A Review. Environ. Geochem. Health. 2021; 43 : 3749–3869. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Shi H, Hudson LG, Liu KJ: Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in Metal Ion-Induced Carcinogenesis. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2004; 37 : 582–593. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Shvachiy L, Geraldes V, Amaro-Leal Â, et al. : Persistent Effects on Cardiorespiratory and Nervous Systems Induced by Long-Term Lead Exposure: Results from a Longitudinal Study. Neurotox. Res. 2020; 37 : 857–870. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Singh A, Sharma K, Venkateswaran V, et al. : Pregnancy in Thalassemia, Anesthetic Implication and Perioperative Management-A Narrative Review. J. Obstet. Anaesth. Crit. Care. 2021; 11 : 81–89. Publisher Full Text Singh G, Sharma S: Heavy Metal Contamination in Fish: Sources, Mechanisms and Consequences. Aquat. Sci. 2024; 86 : 1–21. Publisher Full Text Singh N, Sharma B: On The Mechanisms of Heavy Metal-Induced Neurotoxicity: Amelioration by Plant Products. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India Sect. B Biol. Sci. 2021; 91 : 743–751. Publisher Full Text Singh S, Paswan SK, Kumar P, et al. : Heavy Metal Water Pollution: An Overview about Remediation, Removal and Recovery of Metals from Contaminated Water. Metals in Water. 2023; pp. 263–284. Publisher Full Text Slobodian MR, Petahtegoose JD, Wallis AL, et al. : The Effects of Essential and Non-Essential Metal Toxicity in the Drosophila Melanogaster Insect Model: A Review. Toxics. 2021; 9 : 269. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Słota M, Wąsik M, Stołtny T, et al. : Effects of Environmental and Occupational Lead Toxicity and Its Association with Iron Metabolism. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2022; 434 : 115794. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Söderholm M, Borné Y, Hedblad B, et al. : Blood Cadmium Concentration and Risk of Subarachnoid Haemorrhage. Environ. Res. 2020; 180 : 108–826. Sonone SS, Jadhav S, Sankhla MS, et al. : Water Contamination by Heavy Metals and Their Toxic Effect on Aquaculture and Human Health through Food Chain. Letters of Applies Nanotechnology and Biological Sciences. 2020; 10 : 2148–2166. Sonwani S, Madaan S, Arora J, et al. : Inhalation Exposure to Atmospheric Nanoparticles and its Associated Impacts on Human Health: A Review. Front. Sustain. Cities. 2021; 3 : 690444. Publisher Full Text Stanek LW, Xue J, Lay CR, et al. : Modeled Impacts of Drinking Water Pb Reduction Scenarios on Children’s Exposures and Blood Lead Levels. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020; 54 : 9474–9482. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Sterckeman T, Thomine S: Mechanisms of Cadmium Accumulation in Plants. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2020; 39 : 322–359. Publisher Full Text Stoccoro A, Coppedè F: Exposure to Metals, Pesticides, and Air Pollutants: Focus on Resulting DNA Methylation Changes in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biomolecules. 2024; 14 : 13–66. Street ME, Shulhai AM, Petraroli M, et al. : The Impact of Environmental Factors and Contaminants on Thyroid Function and Disease from Fetal to Adult Life: Current Evidence and Future Directions. Front. Endocrinol. 2024; 15 : 1429884. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Su W, Li Z, Gong T, et al. : An Alternative Zno with Large Specific Surface Area: Preparation, Physicochemical Characterization and Effects on Growth Performance, Diarrhea, Zinc Metabolism and Gut Barrier Function of Weaning Piglets. Sci. Total Environ. 2023; 882 : 163558. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Subasinghe CS, Ratnayake AS, Roser B, et al. : Global Distribution, Genesis, Exploitation, Applications, Production, and Demand of Industrial Heavy Minerals. Arab. J. Geosci. 2022; 15 : 1616. Publisher Full Text Suhani I, Sahab S, Srivastava V, et al. : Impact of Cadmium Pollution on Food Safety and Human Health. Curr. Opin. Toxicol. 2021; 27 : 1–7. Publisher Full Text Suleiman M, Andiyawa UI, Obadaki YY: Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentration in Drinking Water (A Case Study of Gashua Town, Bade Local Government Area Yobe State, Nigeria): Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentration in Drinking Water (A Case Study of Gashua Town, Bade Local Government Area Yobe State, Nigeria). Gombe Journal of Geography and Environmental Studies. 2021; 2 : 1. Sun DD, Sun JW, Huang LY, et al. : Effects of Cadmium Stress on DNA Methylation in Soybean. Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip. 2021; 35 : 1696–1705. Publisher Full Text Sun T, Wu H, Wang X, et al. : Evaluation on the Biomagnification or Biodilution of Trace Metals in Global Marine Food Webs by Meta-Analysis. Environ. Pollut. 2020; 264 : 113–856. Syurin S, Vinnikov D: Occupational Disease Predictors in the Nickel Pyrometallurgical Production: A Prospective Cohort Observation. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology. 2022; 17 : 21. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Tabassum H, Alrashed M, Malik A, et al. : A Unique Investigation of Thallium, Tellurium, Osmium, and Other Heavy Metals in Recurrent Pregnancy Loss: A Novel Approach. Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet. 2023; 160 : 790–796. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Teschke R: Copper, Iron, Cadmium, and Arsenic, All Generated in the Universe: Elucidating Their Environmental Impact Risk on Human Health Including Clinical Liver Injury. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024; 25 : 6662. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Thangavel P, Park D, Lee YC: Recent Insights into Particulate Matter (PM2. 5)-Mediated Toxicity in Humans: An Overview. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2022; 19 : 7511. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Thankachan MB, Kamath GS, Sasikumar G, et al. : Exploring the Interplay between Arsenic and Cutaneous Physiology, Pathology, and Regeneration. Arsenic in the Environment-Sources, Impacts and Remedies. IntechOpen; 2023. Tian T, Wang Z, Liu F, et al. : Exposure to Heavy Metallic and Trace Essential Elements and Risk of Diminished Ovarian Reserve in Reproductive Age Women: A Case-Control Study. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024; 470 : 134–206. Tizabi Y, Bennani S, El Kouhen N, et al. : Heavy Metal Interactions with Neuroglia and Gut Microbiota: Implications for Huntington’s Disease. Cells. 2024; 13 : 13. Toledano M: Toxin-induced neuropathies. Neurol. Clin. 2020; 38 : 749–763. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Tsai KF, Hsu PC, Kung CT, et al. : The Risk Factors of Blood Cadmium Elevation in Chronic Kidney Disease. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2021; 18 : 123–137. Ugoeze KC, Amogu EO, Oluigbo KE, et al. : Environmental and Public Health Impacts of Plastic Wastes Due to Healthcare and Food Products Packages: A Review. J. Environ. Sci. Public Health. 2021; 5 : 1–31. Umaña JAF, Parra RBDR, Martínez RUM, et al. : DNA Fragmentation of Lymphocytes and Sperm Cells Induced by Nickel Released from Orthodontic Archwires: A Preliminary Study. Dent. Mater. J. 2024; 43 : 539–545. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Valskys V, Hassan HR, Wołkowicz S, et al. : A Review on Detection Techniques, Health Hazards and Human Health Risk Assessment of Arsenic Pollution in Soil and Groundwater. Minerals. 2022; 12 : 1326. Publisher Full Text Vellingiri B, Suriyanarayanan A, Abraham KS, et al. : Influence of Heavy Metals in Parkinson’s disease: An Overview. J. Neurol. 2022; 269 : 5798–5811. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Vergara E, Pancetti F, Zúñiga L, et al. : Risk Map of Human Intake of Mercury through Fish Consumption in Latin America and the Caribbean. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2024; 8 : 147–683. Verma RK, Sankhla MS, Jadhav EB, et al. : Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals Extracted From Soil and Aquatic Environments: Current Advances as Well as Emerging Trends. Biointerface Res. Appl. Chem. 2021; 54 : 86. Vetrimurugan E, Brindha K, Elango L, et al. : Human Exposure Risk to Heavy Metals through Groundwater used For Drinking in an Intensively Irrigated River Delta. Appl. Water Sci. 2017; 7 : 3267–3280. Publisher Full Text Vielee ST, Wise JP Jr: Among Gerontogens, Heavy Metals are a Class of Their Own: A Review of the Evidence for Cellular Senescence. Brain Sci. 2023; 13 : 3. Wan Z, Wu M, Liu Q, et al. : Association of Metal Exposure with Arterial Stiffness in Chinese Adults. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2023; 257 : 114–921. Wang H, Huang P, Zhang R, et al. : Effect of Lead Exposure from Electronic Waste on Haemoglobin Synthesis in Children. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 2021; 94 : 911–918. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Wang Y, Wang D, Hao H, et al. : The Association between Cadmium Exposure and the Risk of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024; 13 : 3828. Wang Z, Luo P, Zha X, et al. : Overview Assessment of Risk Evaluation and Treatment Technologies for Heavy Metal Pollution of Water and Soil. J. Clean. Prod. 2022a; 379 : 134043. Publisher Full Text Wang Z, Zhao H, Xu Y, et al. : Early-Life Lead Exposure Induces Long-Term Toxicity in the Central Nervous System: From Zebrafish Larvae to Juveniles and Adults. Sci. Total Environ. 2022b; 804 : 150185–150185. Publisher Full Text Wei W, Wu X, Bai Y, et al. : Lead Exposure and Its Interactions with Oxidative Stress Polymorphisms on Lung Function Impairment: Results from a Longitudinal Population-Based Study. Environ. Res. 2020; 187 (109): 645. Wei X, Huang Z, Jiang L, et al. : Charting the Landscape of the Environmental Exposome. iMeta. 2022; 4 : 50. Wicke D, Matzinger A, Sonnenberg H, et al. : Micropollutants in Urban Stormwater Runoff of Different Land Uses. Water. 2021; 13 : 1312. Publisher Full Text Wilde H, Tomlinson C, Mateen BA, et al. : Trends in Pediatric Hospital Admissions Caused or Contributed by SARS-CoV-2 Infection in England. J. Pediatr. 2024; 11 : 43–70. Wood E, Hall KH, Tate W: Role Of Mitochondria, Oxidative Stress and The Response to Antioxidants in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Possible Approach to SARS-Cov-2 ‘Long-Haulers’? Chronic Diseases and Translational Medicine. 2021; 7 (01): 14–26. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text World Health Organization: Arsenic Factsheets.2022. Reference Source World Health Organization: Exposure to Lead: A Major Public Health Concern. Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments.2023. Wu Y, Li X, Yu L, et al. : Review of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution in China: Spatial Distribution, Primary Sources, and Remediation Alternatives. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022; 181 : 106–261. Wu W, Qu S, Nel W, et al. : The Influence of Natural Weathering on the Behavior of Heavy Metals in Small Basaltic Watersheds: A Comparative Study from Different Regions in China. Chemosphere. 2021; 262 : 127–897. Wu X, Zhang W, Chen H, et al. : Multifaceted paternal exposures before conception and their epigenetic impact on offspring. J. Assist. Reprod. Genet. 2024; 41 : 2931–2951. Publisher Full Text Xia F, Li Q, Luo X, et al. : Identification for Heavy Metals Exposure on Osteoarthritis among aging People and Machine Learning for Prediction: A Study Based on NHANES 2011-2020. Front. Public Health. 2022; 10 : 906774. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Xu DM, Fu RB, Liu HQ, et al. : Current Knowledge from Heavy Metal Pollution in Chinese Smelter Contaminated Soils, Health Risk Implications and Associated Remediation Progress in Recent Decades: A Critical Review. J. Clean. Prod. 2021; 286 : 124989. Publisher Full Text Yaashikaa PR, Kumar PS, Jeevanantham S, et al. : A Review on Bioremediation Approach for Heavy Metal Detoxification and Accumulation in Plants. Environ. Pollut. 2022; 301 : 119–135. Yadav KK, Cabral-Pinto MM, Gacem A, et al. : Recent advances in the application of nanoparticle-based strategies for water remediation as a novel clean technology–A comprehensive review. Mater. Today Chem. 2024; 40 :102–226. Yan Y, Guo F, Liu K, et al. : The Effect of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals on Placental Development. Front. Endocrinol. 2023; 14 : 1059854. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Yang JL, Chen S, Xi JF, et al. : Sex-Dependent Effects of Rice Cadmium Exposure on Body Weight, Gut Microflora, and Kidney Metabolomics Based on a Mouse Model. Sci. Total Environ. 2024; 908 : 168–498. Yasmeen R, Hafeez F: Occupational Exposure of the Emissions on the Respiratory System of the Workers Belonging To Different Industries. Arch. Respir. Res. 2023; 2 : 1. Yazdanfar N, Vakili Saatloo N, Sadighara P: Contamination of Potentially Toxic Metals in Children’s Toys Marketed in Iran. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022; 29 : 68441–68446. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Yu G, Wu L, Su Q, et al. : Neurotoxic effects of heavy metal pollutants in the environment: Focusing on epigenetic mechanisms. Environ. Pollut. 2024; 345 :123–563. Yüksel B, Ustaoğlu F, Yazman MM, et al. : Exposure to Potentially Toxic Elements through Ingestion of Canned Non-Alcoholic Drinks Sold in Istanbul, Türkiye: A Health Risk Assessment Study. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2023; 121 : 105–361. Zahra N, Kalim I, Mahmood M, et al. : Perilous Effects of Heavy Metals Contamination on Human Health. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. 2017; 18 : 1–17. Publisher Full Text Zhang Z, Li J, Zhang Z, et al. : Tumor-Induced Osteomalacia: A Case Report and Etiological Analysis with Literature Review. Orthop. Surg. 2023; 15 : 3342–3352. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Zhao D, Wang P, Zhao FJ: Dietary Cadmium Exposure, Risks to Human Health and Mitigation Strategies. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023; 53 : 939–963. Publisher Full Text Zhao X, Zheng Y, Quan F, et al. : Road Runoff as a Significant Nonpoint Source of Parabens and their Metabolites in Urban Rivers. Chemosphere. 2022; 301 : 134–632. Zheng K, Zeng Z, Tian Q, et al. : Epidemiological Evidence for the Effect of Environmental Heavy Metal Exposure on the Immune System in Children. Sci. Total Environ. 2023; 868 : 161–691. Zhou R, Zhao J, Li D, et al. : Combined Exposure of Lead and Cadmium Leads to the Aggravated Neurotoxicity through Regulating the Expression of Histone Deacetylase 2. Chemosphere. 2020; 252 : 126–589. Zhu Y, Costa M: Metals and molecular carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 2020; 41 : 1161–1172. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 4 VERSION 4 PUBLISHED 27 Jan 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria Babafemi Laoye Roles: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Peter Olagbemide Roles: Resources, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Tolulope A. Ogunnusi Roles: Resources, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Oghenerobor B. Akpor Roles: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (4) version 4 Revised Published: 11 Jul 2025, 14:134 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.4 version 3 Revised Published: 24 Apr 2025, 14:134 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.3 version 2 Revised Published: 18 Feb 2025, 14:134 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.2 version 1 Published: 27 Jan 2025, 14:134 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.1 Copyright © 2025 Laoye B et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Laoye B, Olagbemide P, Ogunnusi TA and Akpor OB. Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.4 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 4 VERSION 4 PUBLISHED 11 Jul 2025 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Kumar R. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.184191.r398249 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4#referee-response-398249 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 14 Aug 2025 Rupesh Kumar , O P Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.184191.r398249 Accepting this paper ... Continue reading READ ALL Accepting this paper in current form. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: NA I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Kumar R. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.184191.r398249 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4#referee-response-398249 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 3 VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 24 Apr 2025 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Orosun MM. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.181015.r383061 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v3#referee-response-383061 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 16 Jun 2025 Muyiwa Michael Orosun , University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.181015.r383061 The introduction provides a comprehensive overview of heavy metal contamination, its sources, and health impacts, effectively setting the stage for the review. However, the abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and ... Continue reading READ ALL The introduction provides a comprehensive overview of heavy metal contamination, its sources, and health impacts, effectively setting the stage for the review. However, the abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. The authors should clarify their literature search strategy, including databases used, keywords, and inclusion/exclusion criteria. A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). The results and discussion are detailed, particularly in describing health impacts and Nigerian case studies. However, the global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions. The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring). The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Overall, the manuscript is well-researched but would benefit from a tighter structure, clearer novelty, and methodological transparency to elevate its impact. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Yes Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Yes Is the review written in accessible language? Yes Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Environmental Health I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Orosun MM. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.181015.r383061 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v3#referee-response-383061 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 11 Sep 2025 Babafemi Laoye , Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria 11 Sep 2025 Author Response Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and ... Continue reading Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and amended, the format adopted is the format instructed by the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Authors’ response This has been harmonized at the conclusion section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. Authors’ response This has already been attended to in the recommendation and future direction section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Authors’ response Thank you for this. But this is a review article and does not possess data as in a research article that could be used for the Monte Carlo technique. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. The consistent use of et al., at the reference list was adjusted by the editor of the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized in version 2. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and amended, the format adopted is the format instructed by the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Authors’ response This has been harmonized at the conclusion section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. Authors’ response This has already been attended to in the recommendation and future direction section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Authors’ response Thank you for this. But this is a review article and does not possess data as in a research article that could be used for the Monte Carlo technique. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. The consistent use of et al., at the reference list was adjusted by the editor of the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized in version 2. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Competing Interests: There is no competing interest Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 11 Sep 2025 Babafemi Laoye , Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria 11 Sep 2025 Author Response Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and ... Continue reading Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and amended, the format adopted is the format instructed by the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Authors’ response This has been harmonized at the conclusion section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. Authors’ response This has already been attended to in the recommendation and future direction section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Authors’ response Thank you for this. But this is a review article and does not possess data as in a research article that could be used for the Monte Carlo technique. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. The consistent use of et al., at the reference list was adjusted by the editor of the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized in version 2. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and amended, the format adopted is the format instructed by the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Authors’ response This has been harmonized at the conclusion section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. Authors’ response This has already been attended to in the recommendation and future direction section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Authors’ response Thank you for this. But this is a review article and does not possess data as in a research article that could be used for the Monte Carlo technique. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. The consistent use of et al., at the reference list was adjusted by the editor of the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized in version 2. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Competing Interests: There is no competing interest Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 18 Feb 2025 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Ullah Q. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178309.r372442 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v2#referee-response-372442 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 12 Apr 2025 Qudrat Ullah , Agriculture and Food Science, Walailak University (Ringgold ID: 65133), Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178309.r372442 Summary of the Article The review article by Laoye et al. explores the critical issue of heavy metal contamination, focusing on its sources, health impacts, and sustainable mitigation strategies, with a particular emphasis on case studies from Nigeria. The ... Continue reading READ ALL Summary of the Article The review article by Laoye et al. explores the critical issue of heavy metal contamination, focusing on its sources, health impacts, and sustainable mitigation strategies, with a particular emphasis on case studies from Nigeria. The authors discuss heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic, detailing their natural and anthropogenic origins, including geological processes and human activities like industrial emissions, mining, and agriculture. The article highlights how these metals enter environmental systems (soil, water, and food chains), leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, which pose significant health risks, including cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and cancers. Nigerian case studies, such as lead poisoning in Zamfara State and contamination in the Great Kwa River, provide region-specific insights into the socio-economic and environmental impacts of heavy metal pollution. The review evaluates mitigation strategies like chelation therapy and phytoremediation, advocating for integrative approaches involving policy, community engagement, and technological innovation. The authors conclude that understanding heavy metal toxicity and implementing sustainable solutions are vital for environmental management and public health. Detailed Assessment and Recommendations Comprehensiveness in the Context of Current Literature (Partly) The article provides a broad overview of heavy metal contamination, covering sources, health impacts, exposure routes, toxicity mechanisms, and mitigation strategies. It effectively integrates Nigerian case studies, which add contextual relevance and highlight challenges in developing nations. The inclusion of recent references (up to 2024) demonstrates engagement with current literature, and the discussion of specific heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic) is detailed and well-supported. However, the review could be more comprehensive in several areas: Global Context : While the Nigerian case studies are valuable, the article could strengthen its global perspective by comparing these cases with similar incidents in other regions (e.g., Minamata Bay for mercury or arsenic contamination in Bangladesh). This would enhance the universality of the findings and situate the Nigerian experience within a broader framework. Emerging Research Areas : The review briefly mentions oxidative stress and DNA damage as toxicity mechanisms but does not explore newer research areas, such as epigenetic effects or the role of the microbiome in heavy metal toxicity. Including these could make the review more forward-looking. Mitigation Technologies : The discussion of phytoremediation and chelation therapy is adequate but lacks depth on emerging technologies like nanotechnology or bioremediation using genetically modified organisms. Expanding this section would align the article with cutting-edge developments. Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Accuracy and Support of Factual Statements (Yes) The factual statements in the article appear correct and are well-supported by citations from reputable sources. The authors draw on a wide range of studies (e.g., WHO, 2023; Genchi et al., 2020; Mitra et al., 2022) to substantiate claims about heavy metal sources, health impacts, and mitigation strategies. The Nigerian case studies are grounded in specific incidents (e.g., Zamfara lead poisoning), and the cited references align with the claims made. Observation : While the citations are robust, some sections (e.g., mechanisms of toxicity) rely heavily on older references (e.g., Shi et al., 2004). Incorporating more recent studies would strengthen the article’s currency. Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms. Accessibility of Language (Yes) The review is written in clear, accessible language suitable for a broad scientific audience, including researchers, policymakers, and environmental scientists. Technical terms like “bioaccumulation,” “phytoremediation,” and “oxidative stress” are used appropriately and explained implicitly through context, making the article approachable without oversimplification. The structure, with clear headings (e.g., “Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination,” “Health Impacts”), aids readability. Observation : Minor typographical errors and awkward phrasing (e.g., “sip into soil” instead of “seep into soil” on Page 1) slightly detract from the polished presentation. Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Appropriateness of Conclusions (Partly) The conclusions emphasize the need for integrative approaches to combat heavy metal contamination, highlighting policy, community engagement, and technological innovation. These are appropriate given the evidence presented and align with the literature’s call for multidisciplinary solutions. The focus on Nigerian case studies supports the conclusion’s emphasis on region-specific vulnerabilities. However, the conclusions could be strengthened in the following ways: Specificity : The conclusion is somewhat general, stating the importance of “sustainable environmental management practices” without detailing actionable steps or prioritizing strategies based on the Nigerian context. For example, it could specify whether phytoremediation or policy enforcement is more feasible in resource-constrained settings like Nigeria. Comparison with Other Studies : The conclusion does not explicitly compare the findings with other reviews, missing an opportunity to highlight what this study uniquely contributes (e.g., the Nigerian case studies). Limitations : While Version 2 mentions limitations, the conclusion does not fully address how these (e.g., lack of discussion on certain technologies) impact the proposed strategies. Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies : The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure : The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review : The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Approval Status Approved with Reservations The article is a valuable contribution to the literature on heavy metal contamination, particularly for its focus on Nigerian case studies and integration of health and mitigation perspectives. However, addressing the above recommendations will improve its comprehensiveness, specificity, and alignment with current research, making it more robust and impactful. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Partly Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Yes Is the review written in accessible language? Yes Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Partly References 1. Zhang P, Yang M, Lan J, Huang Y, et al.: Water Quality Degradation Due to Heavy Metal Contamination: Health Impacts and Eco-Friendly Approaches for Heavy Metal Remediation. Toxics . 2023; 11 (10). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text 2. Cui Y, Bai L, Li C, He Z, et al.: Assessment of heavy metal contamination levels and health risks in environmental media in the northeast region. Sustainable Cities and Society . 2022; 80 . Publisher Full Text Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: As Qudrat, I specialize in environmental toxicology and public health, with a focus on the impacts of environmental contaminants, such as heavy metals, on human health and ecosystems. My expertise includes assessing sources and pathways of contamination, evaluating toxicological mechanisms (e.g., oxidative stress, bioaccumulation), and reviewing mitigation strategies like phytoremediation and policy interventions. I am well-equipped to evaluate the scientific validity of the article’s discussion on heavy metal sources, health effects, and mitigation approaches, as well as its use of Nigerian case studies to highlight regional vulnerabilities. However, I may have limited capacity to assess highly specialized aspects outside my scope, such as advanced biochemical modeling or cutting-edge nanotechnology applications, though these are not central to the article’s current content. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Ullah Q. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178309.r372442 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v2#referee-response-372442 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 24 Apr 2025 Babafemi Laoye , Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria 24 Apr 2025 Author Response Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., ... Continue reading Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Authors’ response This has been harmonized and well attend to in the manuscript. Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms Authors’ response This has been harmonized, citations from 2023-2024 has been added Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Authors’ response The correction has been made and well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies: The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure: The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review: The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Authors’ response This has been addressed and harmonized in the revised manuscript. A brief mention of Ai data driven approaches has been duly mention and harmonized in the conclusion of the revised manuscript Reviewers’ comments Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Authors’ response All the corrections emphasized has been made and incorporated in the revised manuscript. Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Authors’ response This has been harmonized and well attend to in the manuscript. Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms Authors’ response This has been harmonized, citations from 2023-2024 has been added Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Authors’ response The correction has been made and well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies: The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure: The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review: The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Authors’ response This has been addressed and harmonized in the revised manuscript. A brief mention of Ai data driven approaches has been duly mention and harmonized in the conclusion of the revised manuscript Reviewers’ comments Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Authors’ response All the corrections emphasized has been made and incorporated in the revised manuscript. Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interest(s) Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 24 Apr 2025 Babafemi Laoye , Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria 24 Apr 2025 Author Response Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., ... Continue reading Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Authors’ response This has been harmonized and well attend to in the manuscript. Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms Authors’ response This has been harmonized, citations from 2023-2024 has been added Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Authors’ response The correction has been made and well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies: The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure: The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review: The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Authors’ response This has been addressed and harmonized in the revised manuscript. A brief mention of Ai data driven approaches has been duly mention and harmonized in the conclusion of the revised manuscript Reviewers’ comments Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Authors’ response All the corrections emphasized has been made and incorporated in the revised manuscript. Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Authors’ response This has been harmonized and well attend to in the manuscript. Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms Authors’ response This has been harmonized, citations from 2023-2024 has been added Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Authors’ response The correction has been made and well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies: The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure: The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review: The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Authors’ response This has been addressed and harmonized in the revised manuscript. A brief mention of Ai data driven approaches has been duly mention and harmonized in the conclusion of the revised manuscript Reviewers’ comments Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Authors’ response All the corrections emphasized has been made and incorporated in the revised manuscript. Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interest(s) Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 27 Jan 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Kumar R. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.175987.r363027 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v1#referee-response-363027 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 08 Feb 2025 Rupesh Kumar , O P Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.175987.r363027 Few important observations needs to be addressed for improving the quality of work: 1) What is the novelty of study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in Introduction part. 2) ... Continue reading READ ALL Few important observations needs to be addressed for improving the quality of work: 1) What is the novelty of study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in Introduction part. 2) Author should also mention some other existing technologies may be considered or used instead of AI predictive. 3) I unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include latest references which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. Few important papers needs to be added: i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) 4) Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figure and tables. If it is self then author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. 5) Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). 6) Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. 7) Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of conclusion also in the last para. 8) Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. 9) Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Yes Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Yes Is the review written in accessible language? Yes Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Yes References 1. Kumar R, Agrawal R, Sharma V: Barriers to E-Application in Agrifood Supply Chain. 2014. 227-240 Publisher Full Text 2. Rajani R, Heggde G, Kumar R, Chauhan P: Demand management strategies role in sustainability of service industry and impacts performance of company: Using SEM approach. Journal of Cleaner Production . 2022; 369 . Publisher Full Text 3. Kumar R: Multi-criteria decision and multivariate statistical approaches improve olive supply chains: a review. International Journal of Value Chain Management . 2017; 8 (3). Publisher Full Text Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Same area I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Kumar R. Reviewer Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.175987.r363027 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v1#referee-response-363027 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 19 Feb 2025 Babafemi Laoye , Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria 19 Feb 2025 Author Response The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s ... Continue reading The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s query: What is the novelty of the study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in the introduction part. Authors’ response: Although there are a plethora of research studies that have reported the debilitating effects of heavy metals on the health due to contamination from various sources, the focus of this review was that, apart from discussing the health impacts of heavy metal contamination, case studies in the Nigerian environmental context were discussed, which was a departure from existing literature. This is clearly embedded in the introduction. Reviewer’s query : Author should also mention some other existing technologies that may be considered or used instead of AI predictive Authors’ response: The focus of the review did not include discussion on existing technologies. This could be a limitation of the review Reviewer’s query : I am unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include the latest references, which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. A few important papers need to be added. i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) Authors’ response : Thank you for your kind observation; the research gap has been included, although the authors agree that there are a plethora of recent references included in this manuscript and the case studies in this manuscript reflect different sectors. In as much as the authors were willing to cite the aforementioned papers, perusing them revealed their focus did not align with the scope of this manuscript. Reviewer’s query: Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figures and tables. If it is self, then the author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. Authors’ response : All citations have been checked. However, the manuscript contained neither tables nor figures. Reviewer’s query: Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). Authors’ response; Attended to and well noted. Reviewer’s query: Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. Authors’ response: The conclusion has been re-written. Reviewer’s query: Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of the conclusion also in the last paragraph. Authors’ response: That has been attended to. Reviewer’s query : Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. Authors’ response: The suggested structure would have been appropriate if it were a research article. There is no way that structure can be followed for a review manuscript as in this case. A review paper (except it is a systematic review) cannot follow the conventional format. Reviewer’s query : Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Authors’ response : That has been attended to and well noted. The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s query: What is the novelty of the study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in the introduction part. Authors’ response: Although there are a plethora of research studies that have reported the debilitating effects of heavy metals on the health due to contamination from various sources, the focus of this review was that, apart from discussing the health impacts of heavy metal contamination, case studies in the Nigerian environmental context were discussed, which was a departure from existing literature. This is clearly embedded in the introduction. Reviewer’s query : Author should also mention some other existing technologies that may be considered or used instead of AI predictive Authors’ response: The focus of the review did not include discussion on existing technologies. This could be a limitation of the review Reviewer’s query : I am unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include the latest references, which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. A few important papers need to be added. i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) Authors’ response : Thank you for your kind observation; the research gap has been included, although the authors agree that there are a plethora of recent references included in this manuscript and the case studies in this manuscript reflect different sectors. In as much as the authors were willing to cite the aforementioned papers, perusing them revealed their focus did not align with the scope of this manuscript. Reviewer’s query: Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figures and tables. If it is self, then the author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. Authors’ response : All citations have been checked. However, the manuscript contained neither tables nor figures. Reviewer’s query: Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). Authors’ response; Attended to and well noted. Reviewer’s query: Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. Authors’ response: The conclusion has been re-written. Reviewer’s query: Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of the conclusion also in the last paragraph. Authors’ response: That has been attended to. Reviewer’s query : Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. Authors’ response: The suggested structure would have been appropriate if it were a research article. There is no way that structure can be followed for a review manuscript as in this case. A review paper (except it is a systematic review) cannot follow the conventional format. Reviewer’s query : Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Authors’ response : That has been attended to and well noted. Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interest(s) Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 19 Feb 2025 Babafemi Laoye , Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria 19 Feb 2025 Author Response The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s ... Continue reading The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s query: What is the novelty of the study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in the introduction part. Authors’ response: Although there are a plethora of research studies that have reported the debilitating effects of heavy metals on the health due to contamination from various sources, the focus of this review was that, apart from discussing the health impacts of heavy metal contamination, case studies in the Nigerian environmental context were discussed, which was a departure from existing literature. This is clearly embedded in the introduction. Reviewer’s query : Author should also mention some other existing technologies that may be considered or used instead of AI predictive Authors’ response: The focus of the review did not include discussion on existing technologies. This could be a limitation of the review Reviewer’s query : I am unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include the latest references, which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. A few important papers need to be added. i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) Authors’ response : Thank you for your kind observation; the research gap has been included, although the authors agree that there are a plethora of recent references included in this manuscript and the case studies in this manuscript reflect different sectors. In as much as the authors were willing to cite the aforementioned papers, perusing them revealed their focus did not align with the scope of this manuscript. Reviewer’s query: Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figures and tables. If it is self, then the author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. Authors’ response : All citations have been checked. However, the manuscript contained neither tables nor figures. Reviewer’s query: Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). Authors’ response; Attended to and well noted. Reviewer’s query: Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. Authors’ response: The conclusion has been re-written. Reviewer’s query: Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of the conclusion also in the last paragraph. Authors’ response: That has been attended to. Reviewer’s query : Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. Authors’ response: The suggested structure would have been appropriate if it were a research article. There is no way that structure can be followed for a review manuscript as in this case. A review paper (except it is a systematic review) cannot follow the conventional format. Reviewer’s query : Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Authors’ response : That has been attended to and well noted. The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s query: What is the novelty of the study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in the introduction part. Authors’ response: Although there are a plethora of research studies that have reported the debilitating effects of heavy metals on the health due to contamination from various sources, the focus of this review was that, apart from discussing the health impacts of heavy metal contamination, case studies in the Nigerian environmental context were discussed, which was a departure from existing literature. This is clearly embedded in the introduction. Reviewer’s query : Author should also mention some other existing technologies that may be considered or used instead of AI predictive Authors’ response: The focus of the review did not include discussion on existing technologies. This could be a limitation of the review Reviewer’s query : I am unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include the latest references, which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. A few important papers need to be added. i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) Authors’ response : Thank you for your kind observation; the research gap has been included, although the authors agree that there are a plethora of recent references included in this manuscript and the case studies in this manuscript reflect different sectors. In as much as the authors were willing to cite the aforementioned papers, perusing them revealed their focus did not align with the scope of this manuscript. Reviewer’s query: Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figures and tables. If it is self, then the author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. Authors’ response : All citations have been checked. However, the manuscript contained neither tables nor figures. Reviewer’s query: Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). Authors’ response; Attended to and well noted. Reviewer’s query: Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. Authors’ response: The conclusion has been re-written. Reviewer’s query: Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of the conclusion also in the last paragraph. Authors’ response: That has been attended to. Reviewer’s query : Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. Authors’ response: The suggested structure would have been appropriate if it were a research article. There is no way that structure can be followed for a review manuscript as in this case. A review paper (except it is a systematic review) cannot follow the conventional format. Reviewer’s query : Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Authors’ response : That has been attended to and well noted. Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interest(s) Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 4 VERSION 4 PUBLISHED 27 Jan 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 3 Version 4 (revision) 11 Jul 25 read Version 3 (revision) 24 Apr 25 read Version 2 (revision) 18 Feb 25 read Version 1 27 Jan 25 read Rupesh Kumar , O P Jindal Global University, Sonipat, India Qudrat Ullah , Walailak University (Ringgold ID: 65133), Thai Buri, Thailand Muyiwa Michael Orosun , University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Kumar R. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 14 Aug 2025 | for Version 4 Rupesh Kumar , O P Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India 0 Views copyright © 2025 Kumar R. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Accepting this paper in current form. Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise NA I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Kumar R. Peer Review Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.184191.r398249) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4#referee-response-398249 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Orosun M. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 16 Jun 2025 | for Version 3 Muyiwa Michael Orosun , University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria 0 Views copyright © 2025 Orosun M. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The introduction provides a comprehensive overview of heavy metal contamination, its sources, and health impacts, effectively setting the stage for the review. However, the abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. The authors should clarify their literature search strategy, including databases used, keywords, and inclusion/exclusion criteria. A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). The results and discussion are detailed, particularly in describing health impacts and Nigerian case studies. However, the global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions. The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring). The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Overall, the manuscript is well-researched but would benefit from a tighter structure, clearer novelty, and methodological transparency to elevate its impact. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Yes Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Yes Is the review written in accessible language? Yes Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Environmental Health I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 11 Sep 2025 Babafemi Laoye, Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The abstract could be more concise and structured to clearly highlight the study's objectives, key findings, and implications. Authors’ response The abstract has been harmonized and amended, the format adopted is the format instructed by the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : The authors should explicitly state the novelty of their work, such as integrating Nigerian case studies with global comparisons, to emphasize its contribution to the field. Authors’ response This has been harmonized at the conclusion section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendation : Additionally, the introduction would benefit from a clearer articulation of research gaps, such as the lack of longitudinal studies on heavy metal exposure in Nigeria or the need for advanced predictive modeling. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all references cited in the text are listed in the reference section and vice versa, as discrepancies undermine credibility. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The methodology section is implicit rather than explicit, which is common in narrative reviews but could be strengthened. Authors’ response This has already been attended to in the recommendation and future direction section. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A systematic approach would enhance reproducibility. For future work, the authors could consider employing Monte Carlo techniques to model the probabilistic health risks associated with heavy metal exposure, particularly in Nigerian case studies. Check the works of Orosun et al and Isinkaye et al for a good grasp. This would add a quantitative dimension to their qualitative analysis. Authors’ response Thank you for this. But this is a review article and does not possess data as in a research article that could be used for the Monte Carlo technique. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Additionally, the reference formatting should be standardized (e.g., ensuring journal names are italicized and consistent with the target journal’s style). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The global comparison section (e.g., Pakistan, India) feels underdeveloped. The authors should expand this to highlight parallels and unique challenges in Nigeria. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The discussion on mitigation strategies (e.g., phytoremediation, chelation) is thorough but could be enriched with cost-benefit analyses or success rates from other regions Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The authors should also ensure that all in-text citations match the reference list and that each reference is formatted correctly (e.g., consistent use of "et al." and proper abbreviation of journal names). Authors’ response This has been harmonized. The consistent use of et al., at the reference list was adjusted by the editor of the journal. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : A table summarizing case studies and their outcomes would improve readability. Authors’ response This has been harmonized Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The conclusion effectively summarizes key points but could be more forward-looking. The authors should explicitly recommend policy actions (e.g., stricter mining regulations) and research priorities (e.g., epigenetic studies or AI-driven monitoring. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized in version 2. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : The reference section is extensive but requires meticulous verification. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. Reviewer’s comment Recommendations : Encouraging the use of Monte Carlo simulations for risk assessment in future studies would strengthen the manuscript’s methodological rigor. Minor grammatical errors (e.g., "sip into soil" corrected to "seep") should also be addressed in a final proofread. Authors’ response This has been harmonized. View more View less Competing Interests There is no competing interest reply Respond Report a concern Orosun MM. Peer Review Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.181015.r383061) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v3#referee-response-383061 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Ullah Q. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 12 Apr 2025 | for Version 2 Qudrat Ullah , Agriculture and Food Science, Walailak University (Ringgold ID: 65133), Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand 0 Views copyright © 2025 Ullah Q. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Summary of the Article The review article by Laoye et al. explores the critical issue of heavy metal contamination, focusing on its sources, health impacts, and sustainable mitigation strategies, with a particular emphasis on case studies from Nigeria. The authors discuss heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic, detailing their natural and anthropogenic origins, including geological processes and human activities like industrial emissions, mining, and agriculture. The article highlights how these metals enter environmental systems (soil, water, and food chains), leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, which pose significant health risks, including cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and cancers. Nigerian case studies, such as lead poisoning in Zamfara State and contamination in the Great Kwa River, provide region-specific insights into the socio-economic and environmental impacts of heavy metal pollution. The review evaluates mitigation strategies like chelation therapy and phytoremediation, advocating for integrative approaches involving policy, community engagement, and technological innovation. The authors conclude that understanding heavy metal toxicity and implementing sustainable solutions are vital for environmental management and public health. Detailed Assessment and Recommendations Comprehensiveness in the Context of Current Literature (Partly) The article provides a broad overview of heavy metal contamination, covering sources, health impacts, exposure routes, toxicity mechanisms, and mitigation strategies. It effectively integrates Nigerian case studies, which add contextual relevance and highlight challenges in developing nations. The inclusion of recent references (up to 2024) demonstrates engagement with current literature, and the discussion of specific heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic) is detailed and well-supported. However, the review could be more comprehensive in several areas: Global Context : While the Nigerian case studies are valuable, the article could strengthen its global perspective by comparing these cases with similar incidents in other regions (e.g., Minamata Bay for mercury or arsenic contamination in Bangladesh). This would enhance the universality of the findings and situate the Nigerian experience within a broader framework. Emerging Research Areas : The review briefly mentions oxidative stress and DNA damage as toxicity mechanisms but does not explore newer research areas, such as epigenetic effects or the role of the microbiome in heavy metal toxicity. Including these could make the review more forward-looking. Mitigation Technologies : The discussion of phytoremediation and chelation therapy is adequate but lacks depth on emerging technologies like nanotechnology or bioremediation using genetically modified organisms. Expanding this section would align the article with cutting-edge developments. Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Accuracy and Support of Factual Statements (Yes) The factual statements in the article appear correct and are well-supported by citations from reputable sources. The authors draw on a wide range of studies (e.g., WHO, 2023; Genchi et al., 2020; Mitra et al., 2022) to substantiate claims about heavy metal sources, health impacts, and mitigation strategies. The Nigerian case studies are grounded in specific incidents (e.g., Zamfara lead poisoning), and the cited references align with the claims made. Observation : While the citations are robust, some sections (e.g., mechanisms of toxicity) rely heavily on older references (e.g., Shi et al., 2004). Incorporating more recent studies would strengthen the article’s currency. Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms. Accessibility of Language (Yes) The review is written in clear, accessible language suitable for a broad scientific audience, including researchers, policymakers, and environmental scientists. Technical terms like “bioaccumulation,” “phytoremediation,” and “oxidative stress” are used appropriately and explained implicitly through context, making the article approachable without oversimplification. The structure, with clear headings (e.g., “Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination,” “Health Impacts”), aids readability. Observation : Minor typographical errors and awkward phrasing (e.g., “sip into soil” instead of “seep into soil” on Page 1) slightly detract from the polished presentation. Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Appropriateness of Conclusions (Partly) The conclusions emphasize the need for integrative approaches to combat heavy metal contamination, highlighting policy, community engagement, and technological innovation. These are appropriate given the evidence presented and align with the literature’s call for multidisciplinary solutions. The focus on Nigerian case studies supports the conclusion’s emphasis on region-specific vulnerabilities. However, the conclusions could be strengthened in the following ways: Specificity : The conclusion is somewhat general, stating the importance of “sustainable environmental management practices” without detailing actionable steps or prioritizing strategies based on the Nigerian context. For example, it could specify whether phytoremediation or policy enforcement is more feasible in resource-constrained settings like Nigeria. Comparison with Other Studies : The conclusion does not explicitly compare the findings with other reviews, missing an opportunity to highlight what this study uniquely contributes (e.g., the Nigerian case studies). Limitations : While Version 2 mentions limitations, the conclusion does not fully address how these (e.g., lack of discussion on certain technologies) impact the proposed strategies. Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies : The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure : The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review : The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Approval Status Approved with Reservations The article is a valuable contribution to the literature on heavy metal contamination, particularly for its focus on Nigerian case studies and integration of health and mitigation perspectives. However, addressing the above recommendations will improve its comprehensiveness, specificity, and alignment with current research, making it more robust and impactful. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Partly Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Yes Is the review written in accessible language? Yes Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Partly References 1. Zhang P, Yang M, Lan J, Huang Y, et al.: Water Quality Degradation Due to Heavy Metal Contamination: Health Impacts and Eco-Friendly Approaches for Heavy Metal Remediation. Toxics . 2023; 11 (10). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text 2. Cui Y, Bai L, Li C, He Z, et al.: Assessment of heavy metal contamination levels and health risks in environmental media in the northeast region. Sustainable Cities and Society . 2022; 80 . Publisher Full Text Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise As Qudrat, I specialize in environmental toxicology and public health, with a focus on the impacts of environmental contaminants, such as heavy metals, on human health and ecosystems. My expertise includes assessing sources and pathways of contamination, evaluating toxicological mechanisms (e.g., oxidative stress, bioaccumulation), and reviewing mitigation strategies like phytoremediation and policy interventions. I am well-equipped to evaluate the scientific validity of the article’s discussion on heavy metal sources, health effects, and mitigation approaches, as well as its use of Nigerian case studies to highlight regional vulnerabilities. However, I may have limited capacity to assess highly specialized aspects outside my scope, such as advanced biochemical modeling or cutting-edge nanotechnology applications, though these are not central to the article’s current content. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 24 Apr 2025 Babafemi Laoye, Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria Reviewer’s comments Recommendations : Add a subsection comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples to provide a more comprehensive context. Include recent studies on emerging toxicity mechanisms (e.g., epigenetic changes) and cite relevant literature (e.g., studies from 2023–2024 on heavy metal epigenetics). Expand the mitigation section to cover novel technologies, such as nanomaterial-based remediation, with appropriate citations. Authors’ response This has been harmonized and well attend to in the manuscript. Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Review sections like “Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Toxicity” and update with citations from 2023–2024 to reflect the latest understanding of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or other mechanisms Authors’ response This has been harmonized, citations from 2023-2024 has been added Reviewers’ comments Recommendation : Conduct a thorough proofreading to correct minor errors and improve sentence flow (e.g., revise “sip into soil” to “seep into soil” and “very much important significant” to “highly significant” on Page 1). Authors’ response The correction has been made and well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Recommendations : Revise the conclusion to include specific, prioritized recommendations for Nigeria, such as strengthening regulatory frameworks for mining or scaling up phytoremediation pilot projects. Compare the review’s findings with other studies to clarify its unique contributions (e.g., how the Nigerian focus adds to global heavy metal research). Explicitly address limitations in the conclusion, such as the scope of mitigation strategies discussed, and suggest how future research could fill these gaps. Authors’ response This has been well harmonized Reviewers’ comments Additional Comments Nigerian Case Studies: The inclusion of Zamfara and Great Kwa River case studies is a strength, but more detail on their outcomes (e.g., current status, long-term health impacts, or remediation efforts) would enhance their impact. For instance, what lessons from Zamfara have informed national policy? Structure: The article is well-organized, but a dedicated section on research gaps and future directions (beyond the brief mention in the conclusion) would add value. This could outline unanswered questions, such as the long-term efficacy of phytoremediation in tropical climates. Response to Previous Review: The authors’ response to Reviewer 1 (Rupesh Kumar) shows they addressed concerns like revising the conclusion and noting limitations. However, their dismissal of alternative technologies (e.g., AI predictive models) as outside the scope seems limiting. While not central, a brief mention of data-driven approaches for monitoring contamination could broaden the mitigation discussion. Authors’ response This has been addressed and harmonized in the revised manuscript. A brief mention of Ai data driven approaches has been duly mention and harmonized in the conclusion of the revised manuscript Reviewers’ comments Points to Address for Scientific Soundness To ensure the article is scientifically sound, the authors must: Enhance comprehensiveness by comparing Nigerian case studies with global examples and including emerging research areas (e.g., epigenetics, novel remediation technologies). Update citations in the toxicity mechanisms section with recent studies to maintain currency. Revise the conclusion to provide specific, actionable recommendations and explicitly address limitations, ensuring alignment with the evidence presented. Proofread the manuscript to eliminate minor errors and improve clarity. Authors’ response All the corrections emphasized has been made and incorporated in the revised manuscript. View more View less Competing Interests The authors have no competing interest(s) reply Respond Report a concern Ullah Q. Peer Review Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178309.r372442) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v2#referee-response-372442 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Kumar R. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 08 Feb 2025 | for Version 1 Rupesh Kumar , O P Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India 0 Views copyright © 2025 Kumar R. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Few important observations needs to be addressed for improving the quality of work: 1) What is the novelty of study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in Introduction part. 2) Author should also mention some other existing technologies may be considered or used instead of AI predictive. 3) I unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include latest references which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. Few important papers needs to be added: i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) 4) Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figure and tables. If it is self then author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. 5) Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). 6) Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. 7) Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of conclusion also in the last para. 8) Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. 9) Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Yes Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Yes Is the review written in accessible language? Yes Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Yes References 1. Kumar R, Agrawal R, Sharma V: Barriers to E-Application in Agrifood Supply Chain. 2014. 227-240 Publisher Full Text 2. Rajani R, Heggde G, Kumar R, Chauhan P: Demand management strategies role in sustainability of service industry and impacts performance of company: Using SEM approach. Journal of Cleaner Production . 2022; 369 . Publisher Full Text 3. Kumar R: Multi-criteria decision and multivariate statistical approaches improve olive supply chains: a review. International Journal of Value Chain Management . 2017; 8 (3). Publisher Full Text Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Same area I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 19 Feb 2025 Babafemi Laoye, Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria The authors are grateful for the feedback received from the reviewer. Where necessary, appropriate amendments have been made in the manuscript. Below are responses to the review queries: Reviewer’s query: What is the novelty of the study? Is there any existing work supporting or motivating to do this study? Please explain in the introduction part. Authors’ response: Although there are a plethora of research studies that have reported the debilitating effects of heavy metals on the health due to contamination from various sources, the focus of this review was that, apart from discussing the health impacts of heavy metal contamination, case studies in the Nigerian environmental context were discussed, which was a departure from existing literature. This is clearly embedded in the introduction. Reviewer’s query : Author should also mention some other existing technologies that may be considered or used instead of AI predictive Authors’ response: The focus of the review did not include discussion on existing technologies. This could be a limitation of the review Reviewer’s query : I am unable to see the research gaps and objectives. Please include the latest references, which will give you an idea of work in different sectors. A few important papers need to be added. i. Kumar R et al. (2014 [Ref-1]) ii. Rajani R et al. (2022 [Ref-2]) iii. Kumar R (2017 [Ref-3]) Authors’ response : Thank you for your kind observation; the research gap has been included, although the authors agree that there are a plethora of recent references included in this manuscript and the case studies in this manuscript reflect different sectors. In as much as the authors were willing to cite the aforementioned papers, perusing them revealed their focus did not align with the scope of this manuscript. Reviewer’s query: Methodology: Please check for proper citation of figures and tables in the text. In addition, there is no source given for figures and tables. If it is self, then the author should cite as “Source: Author Composition” or similar. Authors’ response : All citations have been checked. However, the manuscript contained neither tables nor figures. Reviewer’s query: Implications should be added in this (Political, Practical and Social if any). Authors’ response; Attended to and well noted. Reviewer’s query: Conclusion part is written in very short. Compare your study with other authors and write in conclusion and extend a bit more. Authors’ response: The conclusion has been re-written. Reviewer’s query: Limitations and future work should be included as a separate heading or may be a part of the conclusion also in the last paragraph. Authors’ response: That has been attended to. Reviewer’s query : Please make a proper structure of your manuscript like aligning with Introduction, LR, Gaps, Objectives, Methods and Materials, Analysis, Results and Discussion, Implications, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Scope and References. Authors’ response: The suggested structure would have been appropriate if it were a research article. There is no way that structure can be followed for a review manuscript as in this case. A review paper (except it is a systematic review) cannot follow the conventional format. Reviewer’s query : Authors may proof read before submitting the revision. Authors’ response : That has been attended to and well noted. View more View less Competing Interests The authors have no competing interest(s) reply Respond Report a concern Kumar R. Peer Review Report For: Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies with Insights from Nigerian Case Studies [version 4; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.175987.r363027) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v1#referee-response-363027 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Adjust parameters to alter display View on desktop for interactive features Includes Interactive Elements View on desktop for interactive features Competing Interests Policy Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. Consider the following examples, but note that this is not an exhaustive list: Examples of 'Non-Financial Competing Interests' Within the past 4 years, you have held joint grants, published or collaborated with any of the authors of the selected paper. You have a close personal relationship (e.g. parent, spouse, sibling, or domestic partner) with any of the authors. You are a close professional associate of any of the authors (e.g. scientific mentor, recent student). You work at the same institute as any of the authors. You hope/expect to benefit (e.g. favour or employment) as a result of your submission. You are an Editor for the journal in which the article is published. Examples of 'Financial Competing Interests' You expect to receive, or in the past 4 years have received, any of the following from any commercial organisation that may gain financially from your submission: a salary, fees, funding, reimbursements. You expect to receive, or in the past 4 years have received, shared grant support or other funding with any of the authors. You hold, or are currently applying for, any patents or significant stocks/shares relating to the subject matter of the paper you are commenting on. Stay Updated Sign up for content alerts and receive a weekly or monthly email with all newly published articles Register with F1000Research Already registered? Sign in Not now, thanks close PLEASE NOTE If you are an AUTHOR of this article, please check that you signed in with the account associated with this article otherwise we cannot automatically identify your role as an author and your comment will be labelled as a “User Comment”. If you are a REVIEWER of this article, please check that you have signed in with the account associated with this article and then go to your account to submit your report, please do not post your review here. If you do not have access to your original account, please contact us . All commenters must hold a formal affiliation as per our Policies . The information that you give us will be displayed next to your comment. User comments must be in English, comprehensible and relevant to the article under discussion. We reserve the right to remove any comments that we consider to be inappropriate, offensive or otherwise in breach of the User Comment Terms and Conditions . Commenters must not use a comment for personal attacks. When criticisms of the article are based on unpublished data, the data should be made available. I accept the User Comment Terms and Conditions Please confirm that you accept the User Comment Terms and Conditions. Affiliation ✕ refresh Please enter your institution. Note: To add your institution or organisation, start typing the name and then select the correct name from the list. Where applicable, the name will appear in both the original language and in English. Do not paste in the name. If the name does not appear in the drop-down list, we will display the information you have entered. ✕ refresh Country/Region * USA UK Canada China France Germany Afghanistan Aland Islands Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra Angola Anguilla Antarctica Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Aruba Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Bouvet Island Brazil British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Cayman Islands Central African Republic Chad Chile China Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Colombia Comoros Congo Cook Islands Costa Rica Cote d'Ivoire Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Democratic Republic of the Congo Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Ethiopia Falkland Islands Faroe Islands Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Finland France French Guiana French Polynesia French Southern Territories Gabon Georgia Germany Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guernsey Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Heard Island and Mcdonald Islands Holy See (Vatican City State) Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Kosovo (Serbia and Montenegro) Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lao People's Democratic Republic Latvia Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macao Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Minor Outlying Islands of the United States Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Montserrat Morocco Mozambique Myanmar Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Niue Norfolk Island North Korea North Macedonia Northern Mariana Islands Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Palestinian Territory Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Pitcairn Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Reunion Romania Russian Federation Rwanda Saint Helena Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Georgia and the South Sandwich Is South Korea South Sudan Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Svalbard and Jan Mayen Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand The Gambia The Netherlands Timor-Leste Togo Tokelau Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Turks and Caicos Islands Tuvalu UK USA Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Virgin Islands Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Wallis and Futuna West Bank and Gaza Strip Western Sahara Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe Please select your country/region. You must enter a comment. Competing Interests Please disclose any competing interests that might be construed to influence your judgment of the article's or peer review report's validity or importance. Competing Interests Policy Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. Consider the following examples, but note that this is not an exhaustive list: Examples of 'Non-Financial Competing Interests' Within the past 4 years, you have held joint grants, published or collaborated with any of the authors of the selected paper. You have a close personal relationship (e.g. parent, spouse, sibling, or domestic partner) with any of the authors. You are a close professional associate of any of the authors (e.g. scientific mentor, recent student). You work at the same institute as any of the authors. You hope/expect to benefit (e.g. favour or employment) as a result of your submission. You are an Editor for the journal in which the article is published. Examples of 'Financial Competing Interests' You expect to receive, or in the past 4 years have received, any of the following from any commercial organisation that may gain financially from your submission: a salary, fees, funding, reimbursements. You expect to receive, or in the past 4 years have received, shared grant support or other funding with any of the authors. You hold, or are currently applying for, any patents or significant stocks/shares relating to the subject matter of the paper you are commenting on. Please state your competing interests The comment has been saved. An error has occurred. Please try again. Cancel Post var lTitle = "Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health...".replace("'", ''); var linkedInUrl = "http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?url=https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4" + "&title=" + encodeURIComponent(lTitle) + "&summary=" + encodeURIComponent('Read the article by '); var deliciousUrl = "https://del.icio.us/post?url=https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4&title=" + encodeURIComponent(lTitle); var redditUrl = "http://reddit.com/submit?url=https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4" + "&title=" + encodeURIComponent(lTitle); linkedInUrl += encodeURIComponent('Laoye B et al.'); var offsetTop = /chrome/i.test( navigator.userAgent ) ? 4 : -10; var addthis_config = { ui_offset_top: offsetTop, services_compact : "facebook,twitter,www.linkedin.com,www.mendeley.com,reddit.com", services_expanded : "facebook,twitter,www.linkedin.com,www.mendeley.com,reddit.com", services_custom : [ { name: "LinkedIn", url: linkedInUrl, icon:"/img/icon/at_linkedin.svg" }, { name: "Mendeley", url: "http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4/mendeley", icon:"/img/icon/at_mendeley.svg" }, { name: "Reddit", url: redditUrl, icon:"/img/icon/at_reddit.svg" }, ] }; var addthis_share = { url: "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134", templates : { twitter : "Heavy Metal Contamination: Sources, Health Impacts, and Sustainable.... Laoye B et al., published by " + "@F1000Research" + ", https://f1000research.com/articles/14-134/v4" } }; if (typeof(addthis) != "undefined"){ addthis.addEventListener('addthis.ready', checkCount); addthis.addEventListener('addthis.menu.share', checkCount); } $(".f1r-shares-twitter").attr("href", "https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=" + addthis_share.templates.twitter); $(".f1r-shares-facebook").attr("href", "https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=" + addthis_share.url); $(".f1r-shares-linkedin").attr("href", addthis_config.services_custom[0].url); $(".f1r-shares-reddit").attr("href", addthis_config.services_custom[2].url); $(".f1r-shares-mendelay").attr("href", addthis_config.services_custom[1].url); function checkCount(){ setTimeout(function(){ $(".addthis_button_expanded").each(function(){ var count = $(this).text(); if (count !== "" && count != "0") $(this).removeClass("is-hidden"); else $(this).addClass("is-hidden"); }); }, 1000); } close How to cite this report {{reportCitation}} Cancel Copy Citation Details $(function(){R.ui.buttonDropdowns('.dropdown-for-downloads');}); $(function(){R.ui.toolbarDropdowns('.toolbar-dropdown-for-downloads');}); $.get("/articles/acj/160148/184191") new F1000.Clipboard(); new F1000.ThesaurusTermsDisplay("articles", "article", "184191"); $(document).ready(function() { $( "#frame1" ).on('load', function() { var mydiv = $(this).contents().find("div"); var h = mydiv.height(); console.log(h) }); var tooltipLivingFigure = jQuery(".interactive-living-figure-label .icon-more-info"), titleLivingFigure = tooltipLivingFigure.attr("title"); tooltipLivingFigure.simpletip({ fixed: true, position: ["-115", "30"], baseClass: 'small-tooltip', content:titleLivingFigure + " " }); tooltipLivingFigure.removeAttr("title"); $("body").on("click", ".cite-living-figure", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var ref = $(this).attr("data-ref"); $(this).closest(".living-figure-list-container").find("#" + ref).fadeIn(200); }); $("body").on("click", ".close-cite-living-figure", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).closest(".popup-window-wrapper").fadeOut(200); }); $(document).on("mouseup", function(e) { var metricsContainer = $(".article-metrics-popover-wrapper"); if (!metricsContainer.is(e.target) && metricsContainer.has(e.target).length === 0) { $(".article-metrics-close-button").click(); } }); var articleId = $('#articleId').val(); if($("#main-article-count-box").attachArticleMetrics) { $("#main-article-count-box").attachArticleMetrics(articleId, { articleMetricsView: true }); } }); var figshareWidget = $(".new_figshare_widget"); if (figshareWidget.length > 0) { window.figshare.load("f1000", function(Widget) { // Select a tag/tags defined in your page. In this tag we will place the widget. _.map(figshareWidget, function(el){ var widget = new Widget({ articleId: $(el).attr("figshare_articleId") //height:300 // this is the height of the viewer part. [Default: 550] }); widget.initialize(); // initialize the widget widget.mount(el); // mount it in a tag that's on your page // this will save the widget on the global scope for later use from // your JS scripts. This line is optional. //window.widget = widget; }); }); } close Error Close Add Reset F1000.MICROSERVICES.AFFILIATION = ''; $(document).ready(function () { $('.js-affiliations-form').each((index, form) => { new AffiliationForm({ formId: form.id, institutionErrorSelector: '.comment-enter-institution', departmentErrorSelector: '.comment-enter-department', placeSelector: '.js-add-comment-place', stateSelector: '.js-add-comment-state', zipCodeSelector: '.js-add-comment-zipcode', countrySelector: '.js-add-comment-country', countryErrorSelector: '.comment-enter-country', }); }); }); $(document).ready(function () { var reportIds = { "363023": 0, "363029": 0, "363028": 0, "363031": 0, "363030": 0, "363025": 0, "363024": 0, "363027": 32, "363026": 0, "363032": 0, "383061": 12, "383060": 0, "383062": 0, "383057": 0, "383059": 0, "383058": 0, "383065": 0, "383064": 0, "383067": 0, "383066": 0, "380789": 0, "380788": 0, "380791": 0, "380790": 0, "380785": 0, "380787": 0, "380786": 0, "364413": 0, "364412": 0, "375167": 0, "364415": 0, "375166": 0, "364414": 0, "380793": 0, "364409": 0, "380792": 0, "364408": 0, "364411": 0, "380794": 0, "364410": 0, "375173": 0, "375172": 0, "375175": 0, "375174": 0, "375169": 0, "364417": 0, "375168": 0, "364416": 0, "375171": 0, "375170": 0, "365975": 0, "377757": 0, "365981": 0, "377756": 0, "377759": 0, "377758": 0, "365982": 0, "377753": 0, "377752": 0, "365976": 0, "377755": 0, "365979": 0, "377754": 0, "365989": 0, "393383": 0, "365988": 0, "377761": 0, "377760": 0, "365984": 0, "365987": 0, "365986": 0, "393390": 0, "393391": 0, "393388": 0, "393389": 0, "393386": 0, "398250": 0, "393387": 0, "398251": 0, "393384": 0, "393385": 0, "398249": 7, "380599": 0, "393392": 0, "367295": 0, "380600": 0, "372437": 0, "372436": 0, "372439": 0, "372438": 0, "372433": 0, "372432": 0, "372435": 0, "372434": 0, "372441": 0, "372440": 0, "372442": 23, "400124": 0, }; $(".referee-response-container,.js-referee-report").each(function(index, el) { var reportId = $(el).attr("data-reportid"), reportCount = reportIds[reportId] || 0; $(el).find(".comments-count-container,.js-referee-report-views").html(reportCount); }); var uuidInput = $("#article_uuid"), oldUUId = uuidInput.val(), newUUId = "180dab3d-9a6c-4b8e-a7fe-d90db9c48dae"; uuidInput.val(newUUId); $("a[href*='article_uuid=']").each(function(index, el) { var newHref = $(el).attr("href").replace(oldUUId, newUUId); $(el).attr("href", newHref); }); }); An innovative open access publishing platform offering rapid publication and open peer review, whilst supporting data deposition and sharing. Browse Gateways Collections How it Works Contact For Developers Cookie Notice Privacy Notice RSS Submit Your Research Follow us © 2012-2026 F1000 Research Ltd. ISSN 2046-1402 | Legal | Partner of Research4Life • CrossRef • ORCID • FAIRSharing R.templateTests.simpleTemplate = R.template(' $text $text $text $text $text '); R.templateTests.runTests(); var F1000platform = new F1000.Platform({ name: "f1000research", displayName: "F1000Research", hostName: "f1000research.com", id: "1", editorialEmail: "[email protected]", infoEmail: "[email protected]", usePmcStats: true }); $(function(){R.ui.dropdowns('.dropdown-for-authors, .dropdown-for-about, .dropdown-for-myresearch');}); // $(function(){R.ui.dropdowns('.dropdown-for-referees');}); $(document).ready(function () { if ($(".cookie-warning").is(":visible")) { $(".sticky").css("margin-bottom", "35px"); $(".devices").addClass("devices-and-cookie-warning"); } $(".cookie-warning .close-button").click(function (e) { $(".devices").removeClass("devices-and-cookie-warning"); $(".sticky").css("margin-bottom", "0"); }); $("#tweeter-feed .tweet-message").each(function (i, message) { var self = $(message); self.html(linkify(self.html())); }); $(".partner").on("mouseenter mouseleave", function() { $(this).find(".gray-scale, .colour").toggleClass("is-hidden"); }); }); Sign In Remember me Forgotten your password? Sign In Cancel Email or password not correct. Please try again Please wait... $(function(){ // Note: All the setup needs to run against a name attribute and *not* the id due the clonish // nature of facebox... $("a[id=googleSignInButton]").click(function(event){ event.preventDefault(); $("input[id=oAuthSystem]").val("GOOGLE"); $("form[id=oAuthForm]").submit(); }); $("a[id=facebookSignInButton]").click(function(event){ event.preventDefault(); $("input[id=oAuthSystem]").val("FACEBOOK"); $("form[id=oAuthForm]").submit(); }); $("a[id=orcidSignInButton]").click(function(event){ event.preventDefault(); $("input[id=oAuthSystem]").val("ORCID"); $("form[id=oAuthForm]").submit(); }); }); If you've forgotten your password, please enter your email address below and we'll send you instructions on how to reset your password. The email address should be the one you originally registered with F1000. Email address not valid, please try again You registered with F1000 via Google, so we cannot reset your password. To sign in, please click here . If you still need help with your Google account password, please click here . You registered with F1000 via Facebook, so we cannot reset your password. To sign in, please click here . If you still need help with your Facebook account password, please click here . Code not correct, please try again Reset password Cancel Email us for further assistance. Server error, please try again. If your email address is registered with us, we will email you instructions to reset your password. If you think you should have received this email but it has not arrived, please check your spam filters and/or contact for further assistance. Please wait... Register $(document).ready(function () { signIn.createSignInAsRow($("#sign-in-form-gfb-popup")); $(".target-field").each(function () { var uris = $(this).val().split("/"); if (uris.pop() === "login") { $(this).val(uris.toString().replace(",","/")); } }); });