Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru

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Although participatory mechanisms remain formally in place within democratic systems, there is a growing need for propositional approaches that strengthen conventional political participation. The study aimed to propose a framework of conventional participation associated with the mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The research adopted a quantitative approach with a non-experimental, descriptive-propositional design. Data were collected through a structured Questionnaire to a non-probabilistic intentional sample of 506. The results show predominant levels of political disaffection, characterized by distrust in political and judicial institutions, perceptions of corruption, low electoral participation, and a marked gap between political interest and civic engagement. The findings indicate that conventional participatory practices are associated with variations in citizens’ political perceptions, highlighting the need for institutional strategies that promote trust and active involvement." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302", "name": "Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political..." } } ] } Home Browse Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Ventura Seclén GA, Villanueva Calderón JA, Pacheco Gonzales IB et al. Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.3 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Revised Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] Gustavo Adolfo Ventura Seclén https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6153-1321 1 , Juan Amilcar Villanueva Calderón https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0815-6443 1 , Ida Blanca Pacheco Gonzales https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9118-149X 1 , [...] Rocio Desiret Yarlaque Muñoz 1 , Germán Auris Evangelista 2 , Segundo Roberto Vásquez Bravo 2 , Pilar Mercedes Cayllahua Dioses 2 , José Santos Ventura Sandoval 2 , Renato de Jesús Granados Rodríguez https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2006-4442 3 Gustavo Adolfo Ventura Seclén https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6153-1321 1 , Juan Amilcar Villanueva Calderón https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0815-6443 1 , [...] Ida Blanca Pacheco Gonzales https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9118-149X 1 , Rocio Desiret Yarlaque Muñoz 1 , Germán Auris Evangelista 2 , Segundo Roberto Vásquez Bravo 2 , Pilar Mercedes Cayllahua Dioses 2 , José Santos Ventura Sandoval 2 , Renato de Jesús Granados Rodríguez https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2006-4442 3 PUBLISHED 20 Mar 2026 Author details Author details 1 Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru 2 Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodriguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Chachapoyas, Amazonas, Peru 3 Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Lambayeque, Lambayeque, Peru Gustavo Adolfo Ventura Seclén Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Software Juan Amilcar Villanueva Calderón Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Software, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Ida Blanca Pacheco Gonzales Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology Rocio Desiret Yarlaque Muñoz Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing – Review & Editing Germán Auris Evangelista Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation Segundo Roberto Vásquez Bravo Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Pilar Mercedes Cayllahua Dioses Roles: Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Investigation José Santos Ventura Sandoval Roles: Data Curation, Funding Acquisition, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Renato de Jesús Granados Rodríguez Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS This article is included in the Political Communications gateway. Abstract In a district of the Lambayeque province, significant levels of political disaffection are evident, expressed through institutional distrust and political-social distancing between citizens and government institutions. Although participatory mechanisms remain formally in place within democratic systems, there is a growing need for propositional approaches that strengthen conventional political participation. The study aimed to propose a framework of conventional participation associated with the mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The research adopted a quantitative approach with a non-experimental, descriptive-propositional design. Data were collected through a structured Questionnaire to a non-probabilistic intentional sample of 506. The results show predominant levels of political disaffection, characterized by distrust in political and judicial institutions, perceptions of corruption, low electoral participation, and a marked gap between political interest and civic engagement. The findings indicate that conventional participatory practices are associated with variations in citizens’ political perceptions, highlighting the need for institutional strategies that promote trust and active involvement. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords conventional participation, political disaffection, trust, perception actitud Corresponding Author(s) Ida Blanca Pacheco Gonzales ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Ida Blanca Pacheco Gonzales Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2026 Ventura Seclén GA et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Ventura Seclén GA, Villanueva Calderón JA, Pacheco Gonzales IB et al. Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.3 ) First published: 17 Mar 2025, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.1 ) Latest published: 20 Mar 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.3 ) Revised Amendments from Version 2 First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. See the authors' detailed response to the review by Victor Hugo Puican Rodríguez See the authors' detailed response to the review by Teresa Gil López READ REVIEWER RESPONSES Introduction Traditional forms of participation, such as popular consultations, public hearings, and municipal councils, have proven to be unviable for actively involving citizens in both local and national politics ( Berlanga et al., 2023 ). In the district of Lambayeque, Province of Lambayeque, Peru, these limitations are particulary evidente due to geographical, socioeconomic, and technological barriers that restrict citizens’ access to these spaces for meaningful participation ( Díaz, 2022 ). These barriers contribute to political disaffection, whereby citizens negatively evaluate their authorities and distance themselves from political affairs ( Duárez, 2022 ). In this regard, it is necessary to create a renewed model that leverages new forms of participation and high-technology tools to increase society’s interaction with authorities ( Jara et al., 2021 ). Global studies indicate that inclusive and adaptable participation mechanisms are essential for engaging marginalized groups and fostering sustained involvement in decision-making processes ( Affre et al., 2024 ). Likewise, analyses of political disaffection in Latin America show that interest in politics and institutional trust are central dimensions for understanding citizen disengagement, and that these dimensions must be carefully operationalized when proposing participatory frameworks ( Cazorla-Martín et al., 2022 ). At the same time, inequalities between urban and rural areas continue to generate a profound gap in access to political participation processes. Rural communities, with strong ties to land and agricultural livelihoods, often remain disconnected from political decision-making spaces, fostering a sense of anti-political alienation ( Canaza, 2024 ). This phenomenon not only limits effective representation but also hinders the formulation of public policies that adequately respond to local needs; therefore, any redesign of conventional participation models must prioritize social integration through more open and equitable systems ( Martínez et al., 2022 ). In the Peruvian context, the literature reveals a persistent struggle to rebuild public trust and strengthen legitimate citizen participation. For example, recent research in Peru highlights that participatory mechanisms are positively valued when they generate verifiable outcomes, feedback, and continuity, whereas symbolic or bureaucratic processes reinforce perceptions of exclusion and institutional distrust ( Rodríguez, 2024 ). This suggests that citizen participation models need to be redesigned to respond to citizens’ expectations and sociocultural realities. A fundamental element in reshaping participatory frameworks is the integration of digital technologies, which offer unique opportunities to overcome the physical and social barriers inherent in conventional participation; however, significant challenges remain, particularly in rural areas where internet access and digital literacy are limited ( Jara et al., 2021 ). To some extent, reinventing participation models involves not only technological but also the expansión of civic education approaches ( Rodríguez, 2024 ). Political disaffection is closely linked to limited knowledge of participatory mechanisms and the exercise of civic rights, making it essential to implement programs that strengthen political culture and civic responsibility ( Moyano & Solís, 2021 ). Such initiatives should equip citizens not only with awareness of the importance of participation but also with concrete tools for effective political and social engagement ( Megías & Moreno, 2022 ). Civic education should therefore be conceived as both a preliminary and continuous component of participatory processes, ensuring informed and committed involvement across all social sectors ( Freire, 2023 ). Despite these advances, a gap remains in the literature regarding propositional frameworks of conventional participation that are socioculturally adapted to subnational contexts in Peru, particularly in rural and peri-urban districts of the northern regions. Existing studies tend to offer qualitative interpretations of participation mechanisms or focus on specific sectors, without providing structured propositional models that directly link the operational dimensions of participation with measures of institutional distrust, political-social distancing, and civic engagement. This study addresses this gap by proposing a propositional framework to mitigate political disaffection in the study context. Methodologically, the research follows a quantitative, non-experimental design with a descriptive and propositional approach, which is appropriate for examining factors related to political disaffection and conventional participation without establishing causality. The specific objective of this research was to identify and describe the factors associated with political disengagement among citizens of Lambayeque, Peru. Given the descriptive nature of the study, the hypothesis is formulated as a propositional expectation: political disaffection in the district of Lambayeque is manifested primarily through institutional distrust and political-social distancing, which are associated with low levels of conventional citizen participation. By descriptively delineating how these factors relate within a specific subnational context, this study contributes to the development of grounded frameworks for strengthening citizen participation, offering empirical inputs for local democratic governance and participatory interventions ( González & Salvatierra, 2021 ). Marco Teórico Regarding international background, the study by Neves (2024) was cited, which analyzed the democratic discontent of youth and how this behavior can lead to democratic deconsolidation in various European contexts. The results revealed that the discontent of young people has become institutionalized non-democratic patterns, which has diminished their commitment to democracy. The study by Megías and Moreno (2022) aimed to verify the impact of social participation on reducing political disaffection in urban municipalities or districts in Germany, France, and Spain, with results indicating that as the level of social participation increases, a defined segment of politics can benefit. Similarly, Cárdenas (2022) identified the different characteristics or peculiarities of the political culture of voters regarding municipal candidates in a city like Bogotá, resulting in the finding that limited political knowledge allowed unsuitable political representatives to be elected, generating a proven disaffection characterized by distrust and distancing from institutions. On the other hand, Alaminos et al. (2024) in their study propose characterizing political disaffection in a Latin American context, with results indicating that there are alternatives under which it is possible to define a historical-social subject, creating new patterns in democracy. In the Peruvian context, Núñez Lira et al. (2020) examine the functioning of the structural problems facing politics in Peru, with a special emphasis on how citizens confront representative democracy. The results showed that the level of distrust in political institutions is increasingly higher, leading to a phenomenon of political disaffection over the past few years. Finally, Murakami and Pozsgai (2024) examined the factors that have contributed to the growing crisis of trust and political discouragement in various regions of Peru, concluding that fewer people participate in politics in general, as a consequence of unmet electoral promises. Regarding the study variables, we have: Conventional participation Political science has reached a broad consensus indicating that citizen participation through institutional channels is a fundamental component of representative democracy. Conventional political participation is understood as the actions citizens undertake, in an established manner, to influence public decision-making through mechanisms that are formalized and legally recognized within the political system ( Dahl, 1989 ; Norris, 2011 ). From the perspective of participatory democracy, Dahl (1989) emphasizes that the democratic quality of a system is proportional to the degree of engagement that the population demonstrates in deliberation and decision-making processes, which enhances the quality of public management and strengthens system legitimacy. Thus, conventional participation is expressed through channels such as voting, involvement in political parties, political organization or activism, attendance and engagement in community assemblies, and participation in public consultations or hearings ( Castellanos, 2020 ; Garrido & Sáenz, 2020 ). Classical models of conventional participation offer a deeper understanding of its role in contemporary democracy. The civic voluntarism model proposed by Verba et al. (1995) argues that conventional political participation is determined by key factors such as resources (time, money, civic skills), mobilization (invitations or stimuli from organizations and institutions), and motivations (political interest, sense of civic duty, political efficacy). Within this framework, voting, campaign contributions, party membership, and participation in grassroots organizations are characteristic forms of conventional political engagement. Complementarily, Norris (2011) distinguishes between institutional participation (voting, party activity, contacting authorities) and non-institutional or cause-oriented participation (protests, boycotts, digital activism), highlighting that citizens often combine repertoires depending on trust and value orientations. Conventional vs. Non-conventional participation Political participation is frequently interpreted along a continuum ranging from conventional to non-conventional actions. Research in comparative contexts has shown that conventional participation refers to institutionalized acts directly linked to the political system (e.g., voting, party involvement), whereas non-conventional forms encompass extra-institutional activism such as protests, demonstrations, and market-based political actions like boycotts ( Bee & Kaya, 2017 ). This distinction is crucial because non-conventional participation often arises as a response to institutional disengagement, offering alternative avenues for expressing political demands outside formal channels ( Bee & Kaya, 2017 ). Indeed, experiments indicate that perceptions of political efficacy and institutional trust influence whether individuals engage through conventional or non-conventional modes, particularly in digitally mediated environments ( Valdés, 2026 ). These comparative insights reinforce that conventional participation remains foundational for democratic input legitimacy, while non-conventional forms play an increasingly prominent role as citizens become disaffected with traditional institutions. Understanding these distinctions helps justify the analytical focus on conventional participation in contexts marked by political distrust and distancing. Reconfiguration of conventional participation in the digital era While core elements of conventional participation (voting, membership, meeting attendance, contacting representatives) have remained relatively stable, their meaning and exercise have evolved due to digitalization and institutional distrust. On the one hand, digital contexts facilitate access to information and dissemination of political messages, potentially enhancing conventional channels by increasing political interest and knowledge. On the other hand, information overload, polarization, and misinformation, combined with perceived elite detachment, may erode motivation to engage through institutional channels, pushing citizens toward alternative activism ( Torcal & Montero, 2006 ). Recent research on political disaffection and digital participation in Latin America finds that disaffected citizens exhibit distinct patterns of civic behaviour online and offline, indicating that digital participation does not simply replace conventional forms but interacts with them in complex ways shaped by trust and engagement patterns ( Cazorla-Martín et al., 2022 ). Thus, conventional participation exists in a constant state of tension: it remains the legitimate and formal avenue for influencing public decision-making but competes with alternative modes of participation that may seem more attractive to citizens disenchanted with institutions. This tension is particularly evident in contexts marked by political disaffection, where the relationship between citizens and institutions is increasingly weak. Political disaffection Political disaffection is conceptualized in this study as a multidimensional construct that reflects citizens’ progressive detachment from democratic institutions and conventional political processes. In line with contemporary political behavior research, disaffection does not operate as a single attitudinal state but is expressed through specific and measurable dimensions related to trust and engagement. In operational terms, political disaffection is not treated as an abstract variable but is measured through two internal dimensions: institutional distrust and political-social distancing, which together capture the cognitive and behavioral manifestations of disengagement. Institutional distrust as an internal dimension of political disaffection Institutional distrust refers to negative perceptions regarding the integrity, effectiveness, and legitimacy of public institutions. In this study, it is operationalized through citizens’ evaluations of three institutional spheres. Perception of corruption in democratic institutions Trust in the judicial system Trust in the political system (Congress and executive authorities) These indicators jointly reflect the degree to which individuals perceive institutions as unreliable or self-serving, constituting a core cognitive component of political disaffection. Political-social distancing Political-social distancing captures the affective and behavioral separation between citizens and conventional political life. It is operationalized through: Level of electoral participation Degree of political interest Perceived relevance of elections This dimension reflects the gap between political awareness and actual civic engagement, indicating withdrawal from institutional participation despite informational exposure. Methodology Type, design, and scope The study is framed within an applied research with a non-experimental, cross-sectional, quantitative, descriptive, and propositional design ( Hernández & Mendoza, 2018 ). Its purpose to describe and systematize empirical information on political disaffection and conventional political participation as they occur in the real context, without manipulating variables or establishing causal relationships. Under this approach, the research focuses on identifying patterns and levels of the observed dimensions of political disaffection, which serve as the empirical basis for the development of a propositional framework of conventional participation adapted to the Lambayeque context. Consequently, the study does not seek to test explanatory hypotheses, but rather to generate descriptive evidence that supports the formulation of participatory strategies grounded in the social dynamics observed. Population and sample The target population consisted of adult citizens registered in the electoral roll of the context under study. A non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling technique was employed to select the sample. The recruitment process relied on a panel of potential participants composed of citizens listed in the electoral register, who had previously expressed their willingness to participate in social research. From this panel, individuals who met the inclusion criteria were invited according to predefined quotas of sex and area of residence, in order to approximate the demographic structure of the electoral roll. • Being 18 years of age or older. • Being registered in the electoral roll of the corresponding area. • Providing informed consent to participate. • Exclusion of incomplete questionnaires or duplicate responses. Invitations were distributed via email and instant messaging, including a description of the study and a link to the online questionnaire. Data collection continued until 506 valid responses were obtained, respeting the established quotas. In order to characterize the composition of the sample, two key sociodemographic indicators were examined. Table 1 presents the distribution of participants by sex, whereas Table 2 details their distribution by area of residence. These variables were included to ensure that the sample structure reflects the demographic patterns of the electoral register of the district. Table 1. Characteristics of the sample by sex. Sex Process F % Male 327 65.4% Female 179 34.6% TOTAL 506 100% Table 2. Characteristics of the sample by residence area. Residence Process F % Rural 418 82.6% Urban 88 17.4% TOTAL 506 100% Procedure 1. Review of the literature and identification of core research problems 2. Definition of variables and design or adaptation of measurement instruments 3. Selection of the sampling strategy and establishment of participant recruitment procedures 4. Distribution of invitations and collection of informed consent 5. Administration of the questionnaire via an online platform 6. Data cleaning and coding 7. Statistical analysis and interpretation of results Techniques and instruments for data collection The technique employed was a survey, administered collectively through a structured questionnaire addressed to the 506 citizens who comprised the sample. The instrument aimed to measure political disaffection through its conceptual components, operationalized into specific modules and dimensions. The questionnaire consisted of a total of 18 items, distributed across two dimensions. Validity and reliability The instrument was subjected to validation through expert judgment, involving professionals with experience in social research and political analysis, who assessed the relevance, clarity, and coherence of the items in relation to the theoretical dimensions of political disaffection. Based on their observations, wording adjustments and improvements in conceptual precision were made prior to its final application. The reliability of the questionnaire was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. In an initial overall assessment, the instrument reached a value of α = 0.720, which is considered acceptable for social science research. However, given that the questionnaire was structured into distinct modules and dimensions, reliability was primarily interpreted at the subscale level, which is methodologically more appropriate for multidimensional instruments. This procedure allowed for the verification of the internal consistency of each component of the construct, avoiding the assumption of a unidimensional structure of the phenomenon under study. Data analysis The data analysis was carried out using IBM SPSS Statistics 26, which facilitated the acquisition of precise and detailed descriptive results for each variable. This approach allowed for the systematic examination of the levels and distributions of political disaffection, distrust in institutions, and political–social distancing, ensuring the clarity and reliability of the reported findings. Ethical component During the research process, 506 selected individuals participated, all of whom had provided their authorization and informed consent, which allowed us to have the necessary data for the development of the study. This consent was obtained in accordance with the principles of intellectual honesty, transparency, respect for intellectual property, and responsibility, according to the Code of Ethics in Research of UCV, version 02, approved by the Resolution of the University Council RCPU N.° 0659-2024-UCV. The research received approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the César Vallejo University (UCV). Indeed, in line with this same resolution, which governs all research conducted within the institution, it establishes the fundamental principles to protect participants as well as to ensure the scientific integrity of each process. Results Descriptive analysis Based on the data obtained from the survey applied to the sample, a set of descriptive indicators was generated to characterize the main variables of the study. Table 3 summarizes the levels of political disaffection, Table 4 presents the distribution of institutional distrust, and Table 5 reports the levels of political–social distancing among participants. Table 3. Frequencies and percentages for the variable political disaffection. Levels Political disaffection F % Low Level 185 36.6% Medium Level 177 35.0% High Level 144 28.5% Total 506 100.0% Table 4. Level of distrust in institutions. Levels Distrust in institutions F % Perception of Corruption 174 34.4% Trust in the Judicial System 177 35.0% Trust in the Political System 155 30.6% Total 506 100.0 Table 5. Level of Political-Social Distancing. Levels Political-social distancing F % Electoral Participation 178 35.2% Political Interest 223 44.1% Electoral Relevance 105 20.8% Total 506 100.0% The data show that 36.6% of participants exhibit a low level of political disaffection, 35% show a medium level, and 28.5% report a high level. This indicates that most citizens are moderately disengaged from local political life. These percentages describe the sample’s distribution without implying causal relationships. Distrust in institutions is a key dimension of political disaffection. In this sample, 35% of respondents expressed trust in the judicial system, 30.6% in the political system, and 34.4% reported distrust based on the perception of corruption. These results describe how institutional distrust is distributed across participants, highlighting variation among institutional types. Political–social distancing is reflected in three indicators. While 44.1% of respondents show interest in political issues, only 35.2% actively participate in elections. Additionally, 20.8% perceive electoral outcomes as irrelevant. These figures illustrate a gap between political interest and active participation, a central element of political disaffection. The proposal presented in the article is an integrated model of conventional participation specifically designed to address political disaffection in Lambayeque. Its main objective is to reduce the medium to high levels of disaffection revealed by the study’s findings, leveraging the high political interest observed among these populations to promote their political engagement. The model pursues this objective through three components: normative and institutional reconfiguration, a broad conventional participation mechanism, and the strengthening of civic education and digital literacy, which work together to address different dimensions of political disaffection. First, Axes 1 and 2 focus on the institutional dimension, proposing the updating and effective implementation of participation regulations, active transparency, citizen observatories, and hybrid public hearings. This axis addresses institutional distrust and perceptions of corruption by introducing mechanisms that increase transparency and enhance the visibility of public actions. Second, Axis 3 proposes a multichannel device for conventional participation that integrates in-person channels (assemblies, participatory budgeting) and digital channels (online consultations, livestreamed sessions, virtual forms), with differentiated inclusion and accessibility criteria for urban and rural areas. In doing so, the model responds to the political–social disengagement identified in the study by overcoming the geographic, technological, and socioeconomic barriers that currently hinder participation. Finally, Axis 4 centers on citizen culture-building, civic education, digital literacy, leadership training, and advocacy campaigns that emphasize the importance of voting and citizen oversight. This axis is grounded in empirical evidence showing that although there is genuine political interest, it does not translate into participation nor into the use of conventional mechanisms. Essentially, the proposal is not merely descriptive of participation and disengagement; it is anchored in prescriptive models from the literature, particularly participatory democracy in Dahl and civic voluntarism in Verba. In this way, the article moves from a general discussion to an operationalizable model that directly connects the empirical findings with a normative, institutional, and pedagogical design aimed at rebuilding the relationship between citizens and political institutions. Discussion - Conclusions - Recommendations The results of this study reflect moderate to high levels of political disaffection among the population of the Lambayeque district. According to Table 3 , 36.6% of respondents exhibit a low level of disaffection, 35% a medium level, and 28.5% a high level. These distributions indicate that a substantial portion of the population experiences some degree of disengagement from political life, with a smaller but significant group showing marked detachment. This pattern is consistent with previous research, such as Neves (2024) , who observed high levels of democratic discontent in Europe, particularly among youth, which may have parallels in provincial contexts in Peru. Analysis of the distrust in institutions, one of the main dimensions of political disaffection, shows that the perception of corruption is reported by 34.4% of participants, trust in the judicial system by 35%, and trust in the political system by 30.6% ( Table 4 ). These results indicate variability in institutional trust, with the political system being the most questioned. This finding aligns with Cárdenas (2022) , who highlighted that misinformation and skepticism toward political representatives contribute to citizens’ detachment. Similarly, Alaminos et al. (2024) note that low institutional credibility is central to the gap between citizens and political processes. Regarding political–social distancing, the results ( Table 5 ) show that although 44.1% of respondents express political interest, only 35.2% participate actively in electoral processes, and 20.8% perceive elections as irrelevant. These figures reflect a discrepancy between interest in politics and actual engagement, a phenomenon also documented by Murakami and Pozsgai (2024) in various Peruvian regions. The data suggest that citizens may be attentive to political issues without translating that attention into concrete participation, highlighting the importance of distinguishing political interest from effective participation Jiménez’s (2022) . Media influence and perceptions of institutional performance appear to shape these attitudes, as noted by Cazorla et al. (2022) in studies on Latin American contexts. In this study, distrust in institutions and moderate levels of political–social distancing are the main components that describe the observed disaffection, without implying direct causality. Overall, the findings indicate that citizens in Lambayeque display moderate political disaffection characterized by distrust in institutions and partial disengagement from formal political processes. While political awareness remains relatively high, this does not necessarily translate into active participation, suggesting a gap between information/interest and civic action. Ethics and consent In the research process, 506 individuals selected from the population participated. It all began with sending an email to each participant, requesting their informed consent, which we received in writing through the same channel. Additionally, each participant was provided with a detailed explanation of the study, its objectives, and the methodologies we would use. For data collection, we used various digital tools, such as live meetings via Zoom and surveys through Google Forms, ensuring the privacy of the responses at all times. The development of the article followed the guidelines established in the “Research Ethics Code” of César Vallejo University, approved by the University Council Resolution N° 659-2024-UCV on August 29, 2024. Data availability statement Zenodo. Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14900621 ( Villanueva et al., 2025 ). This article contains the following underlying data: Figure 1 . Political_Disaffection.png Figure 1. Illustration of technical proposals to mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque. Note. Prepared based on the questionnaire data. Note: Created based on questionnaire data, Page 8 of 15 • data_base_506.xlsx • Data_F1000 (1).sav • RCU No. 0659-2024-UCV CODE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH OF THE UCV V02 (2) (1).pdf This project includes the following expanded data: Political_Disaffection.png INFORMED CONSENT (1).pdf Research_Instrument_1000.pdf Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0). Reporting guidelines Zenodo. Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14900621 ( Villanueva et al., 2025 ). Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0). References Affre L, Guillaumie L, Dupéré S, et al. : Citizen participation practices in the governance of local food systems: A literature review. Sustainability. 2024; 16 (14):5990. Publisher Full Text Alaminos-Fernández AF, Francés García F, Santacreu-Fernández Ó: The influence of political efficacy and partisan identity on electoral participation in Spain: the links of citizens with the functioning of the political system. Spanish Journal of Sociological Research. 2024; 185 : 3–22. Reference Source Angarita D, Díaz S, Morales M: Sustainable and smart mobility evaluation from citizen participation in responsive cities. Transportation Research Procedia. 2021; 58 : 519–526. 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Publisher Full Text Villanueva Calderon JA, Pacheco Gonzales IB, Yarlaque Muñoz RD, et al. : Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. [Data set]. Zenodo. 2025. Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 3 VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 17 Mar 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru 2 Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodriguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Chachapoyas, Amazonas, Peru 3 Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Lambayeque, Lambayeque, Peru Gustavo Adolfo Ventura Seclén Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Software Juan Amilcar Villanueva Calderón Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Software, Validation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Ida Blanca Pacheco Gonzales Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology Rocio Desiret Yarlaque Muñoz Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing – Review & Editing Germán Auris Evangelista Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation Segundo Roberto Vásquez Bravo Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Pilar Mercedes Cayllahua Dioses Roles: Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Investigation José Santos Ventura Sandoval Roles: Data Curation, Funding Acquisition, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Renato de Jesús Granados Rodríguez Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (3) version 3 Revised Published: 20 Mar 2026, 14:302 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.3 version 2 Revised Published: 16 Jan 2026, 14:302 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.2 version 1 Published: 17 Mar 2025, 14:302 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.1 Copyright © 2026 Ventura Seclén GA et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Ventura Seclén GA, Villanueva Calderón JA, Pacheco Gonzales IB et al. Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.162192.3 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 3 VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 20 Mar 2026 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Puican Rodríguez VH. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.197127.r469268 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v3#referee-response-469268 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 02 Apr 2026 Victor Hugo Puican Rodríguez , Universidad Nacional Intercultural Fabiola Salazar Leguia de Bagua, Bagua, Peru Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.197127.r469268 1. METHODOLOGY • The clarity of the descriptive–propositional approach is appreciated; however, it is suggested that the coherence between the study’s objective (to propose a structured framework for participation) and the methodological scope be strengthened, given that the ... Continue reading READ ALL 1. METHODOLOGY • The clarity of the descriptive–propositional approach is appreciated; however, it is suggested that the coherence between the study’s objective (to propose a structured framework for participation) and the methodological scope be strengthened, given that the current design limits the explanatory power of the analysis. • In this regard, consideration could be given to incorporating a statistical modelling approach (SML) that would allow for the analysis of relationships between variables, moving beyond the strictly descriptive nature of the study. • In particular, it is recommended to evaluate the use of techniques such as PLS-SEM or multivariate regression, which would allow for the empirical validation of the conceptual structure proposed in the manuscript. • It is suggested that the data collection instrument be reorganized in terms of latent variables and observable indicators, which would facilitate its compatibility with structural models. • Furthermore, it would be appropriate to expand the description of the validation process, incorporating quantitative evidence (e.g., Aiken’s V), as well as reporting reliability by dimension, rather than a single overall value. 2. INCLUSION OF MEDIATING AND MODERATING VARIABLES (MAIN POINT) • Given that the study already has clearly defined main variables (political disaffection and conventional participation), it is suggested that the model be strengthened by including mediating and moderating variables, which would significantly enhance the analytical rigour of the study. �� Recommended mediating variables • It is suggested that the variable ‘perceived political efficacy’ be incorporated as a mediator between political disaffection and conventional participation. • This variable would help explain the underlying mechanism through which disaffection influences participatory behaviour, adding theoretical and empirical depth to the model. • The inclusion of this mediation would facilitate the analysis of indirect effects, which is highly valued in studies published in high-impact journals. �� Recommended moderating variables • It is recommended that contextual variables be taken into account that may alter the strength or direction of the relationships analysed. In particular: o Digital literacy / digital access, given that the study itself acknowledges the importance of technology in participatory processes. o Area of residence (rural/urban), taking into account the territorial divides highlighted in the contextual framework. • The inclusion of moderating variables would enable multi-group or interaction analyses, significantly enriching the interpretation of the results. 3. RESULTS • The results presented are based primarily on descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages), which constitutes a valid initial approach; however, it is limited in comparison with the analytical potential of the study. • It is strongly suggested that this section be reworked to incorporate results derived from statistical modelling (SML), such as: o coefficients of relationship between variables o direct and indirect effects o levels of explained variance (R²) o model fit indicators • The transition to this type of analysis would allow for the empirical substantiation of relationships that are currently only described implicitly. • Furthermore, a more in-depth analysis could be incorporated by comparing groups (for example, by area of residence), preferably within a multi-group analysis framework. • With regard to the model presented in the figure, it is suggested that it be transformed into an empirically validated model, avoiding its interpretation as a confirmed structure if it has not been subjected to statistical analysis. 4. DISCUSSION • It is recommended that the discussion be expanded to include an interpretation based on the analytical results, particularly with regard to the relationships between variables. • The discussion could be strengthened by addressing not only the description of the findings, but also the possible explanatory mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of political disaffection. • It is also suggested that the comparison with previous studies be reinforced through a more critical approach, highlighting similarities, differences and the specific contributions of the study. • It is important to maintain consistency with the methodological design, avoiding formulations that could be interpreted as causal if they have not been supported by inferential analysis. 5. CONCLUSIONS • It is suggested that the conclusions be strictly aligned with the level of empirical evidence presented, avoiding extrapolations that go beyond the results obtained. • If statistical modelling (SML) is incorporated, the conclusions could be significantly strengthened, allowing: o the identification of variables with greater explanatory power o establishing significant relationships between constructs o validating the proposed model • It is recommended to explicitly include a section on the study’s limitations, considering: o the type of sampling used o the descriptive nature of the current analysis o possible biases in data collection Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Political communication, citizen participation, and democratic governance. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Puican Rodríguez VH. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.197127.r469268 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v3#referee-response-469268 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 2 VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 16 Jan 2026 Revised Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Reyes Reyes CA. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455914 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v2#referee-response-455914 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 11 Feb 2026 Carla Angelica Reyes Reyes , Universidad Senor de Sipan, Chiclayo, Lambayeque, Peru Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455914 The article presents a clear, relevant, and coherent title that aligns with the developed content, adequately defining the phenomenon of conventional participation and political disaffection in Lambayeque. I. The introduction solidly contextualizes the problem, articulating recent background, ... Continue reading READ ALL The article presents a clear, relevant, and coherent title that aligns with the developed content, adequately defining the phenomenon of conventional participation and political disaffection in Lambayeque. I. The introduction solidly contextualizes the problem, articulating recent background, territorial gaps, and technological challenges, thus enabling an understanding of the study's social and academic relevance. Likewise, the objectives and hypothesis are well-formulated and aligned with the research's propositional approach, demonstrating a consistent internal logic between the identified problem and the proposed solution. II. The theoretical framework is adequately structured, with classic and contemporary authors who conceptually support the central variables, achieving a suitable integration of democratic theory, citizen participation, and political disaffection. III. Methodologically, the study maintains a clear design with its descriptive-propositional purpose and is supported by understandable procedures. The characterization of the population, the use of quota sampling, and the explanation of the data collection instrument demonstrate an acceptable level of quality, reinforced by expert validation and adequate questionnaire reliability. The statistical analysis, although primarily descriptive, is relevant to the stated objectives and reveals clear trends in levels of disaffection, institutional distrust, and socio-political distancing. The ethical component is well-developed, with institutional support and adherence to informed consent standards, which strengthens the study's credibility. IV. Regarding the results, discussion, and proposal, the article establishes a suitable connection between the empirical findings and the proposed conventional participation model, which is one of its main contributions. The interpretation is consistent with the cited literature and aims to generate practical implications for public management and local governance. While it could be strengthened with more in-depth comparative analysis, the level achieved is consistent with the adopted approach. Overall, the manuscript presents a solid structure, a relevant contribution to the study of citizen participation in Peruvian subnational contexts, and adequate theoretical and methodological support. Therefore, it is considered suitable for indexing, with a consistently high academic level and the potential to impact research on local democracy and citizen participation policies. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Ciencias Sociales. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Reyes Reyes CA. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455914 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v2#referee-response-455914 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Puican Rodríguez VH. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455915 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v2#referee-response-455915 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 10 Feb 2026 Victor Hugo Puican Rodríguez , Universidad Nacional Intercultural Fabiola Salazar Leguia de Bagua, Bagua, Peru Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455915 Title: The title is attractive and relevant; however, the use of “model” suggests robust empirical validation (e.g., multivariate analysis or statistical modeling). In the manuscript, the proposal is presented mainly as propositional/descriptive, so it would be advisable ... Continue reading READ ALL Title: The title is attractive and relevant; however, the use of “model” suggests robust empirical validation (e.g., multivariate analysis or statistical modeling). In the manuscript, the proposal is presented mainly as propositional/descriptive, so it would be advisable to adjust the title to avoid methodological expectations that are not subsequently fulfilled. Suggestion: replace “a model” with “a proposal” or “a propositional framework,” unless analytical validation of the model is incorporated. Abstract: A “random sample” is mentioned, while the methodology states that intentional non-probabilistic quota sampling was used. This inconsistency is critical because it affects the interpretation and generalization of the results. Action required: correct the abstract so that the type of sampling is consistent with the methodology section. The abstract states that participatory practice “has a positive impact.” With the analysis presented (descriptive), this wording is perceived as causal, when the reported evidence does not allow for attribution of effects. Style suggestion: use descriptive formulations (“is associated with,” “is observed,” “is reported”) or incorporate inferential analysis if you wish to maintain statements of impact. It is recommended to include, in one sentence, what specific dimensions of disaffection were measured (e.g., institutional distrust, political-social distancing) and how it was operationalized. Keywords They are relevant, but could be optimized for indexing: Include more “core” terms in Scopus such as political disengagement, institutional trust, political participation, civic education, depending on the final focus of the manuscript. “Perception attitude” is conceptually imprecise; it would be advisable to standardize it with a term that is more commonly used in the literature. Introduction The introduction provides a good contextualization of the problem, although three aspects could be strengthened: Spatial and conceptual delimitation: “Lambayeque” (province/district) is mentioned, but it should be made clear from the outset which territorial unit is being studied (specific district) and why that case is theoretically relevant. Literature gap: the need for innovative proposals is raised, but it is necessary to explain more precisely what specific gap the article fills (e.g., the absence of socioculturally adapted propositional models in rural/peri-urban districts of northern Peru). Objective-hypothesis consistency: a hypothesis is formulated in an explanatory tone (“will contribute to mitigating”), but the design and analysis are descriptive. It would be advisable to adjust the hypothesis or rethink it as a propositional assumption. 5. Theoretical framework 5.1. Background review The effort to include international and national background information is appreciated. However, the section is presented mainly as a list of studies. For a high-impact journal, it would be desirable to include: a comparative discussion (what coincides, what differs, and why), and a critical synthesis that leads directly to the model/proposal. It would be useful to include literature that clearly distinguishes between: conventional vs. unconventional participation, and between disaffection as distancing vs. as active criticism (critical citizens). This would help to better support the decision to focus the intervention on conventional participation. 5.2. Definition of constructs The definitions are reasonable, but the operationalization is not completely aligned: If disaffection is defined with components (distrust, cynicism/fatigue, emotional distancing), the instrument should show items or subscales corresponding to each component and demonstrate their internal consistency. It is suggested to clarify whether “institutional distrust” and “political-social distancing” are: internal dimensions of disaffection, or related variables (predictors/correlates). In this version, the conceptual structure is perceived as ambiguous. 6) Methodology 6.1. Type, design, and scope The label “descriptive-propositional” is used, which is valid; however: Care should be taken that the language of the manuscript (including discussion) does not adopt an explanatory/causal tone, because the design does not support it. If there is a hypothesis, some kind of contrast is expected; if the study is descriptive, it would be advisable to reformulate the hypothesis as an intervention premise or remove it. 6.2. Population and sample The text refers to non-probability quota sampling, but also mentions “random sampling” in other parts. Action required: standardize a single version throughout the manuscript. The recruitment procedure mentions a “panel of potential participants” who had previously expressed willingness to participate. This may introduce self-selection bias. Suggestion: include a brief discussion of potential biases and their implications. 6.3. Instrument Operational details are lacking: total number of items, distribution by modules/dimensions, examples of items per construct, criteria for categorizing levels (low/medium/high). “Expert validation” requires a minimum description: number of experts, profile, method, and criteria (ideally Aiken's V or another). 6.4. Reliability Reporting a single Cronbach's alpha (0.720) for the entire questionnaire is insufficient if there are dimensions. Action required: report reliability for each subscale or justify why it is treated as a unidimensional scale. 6.5. Data analysis It states “hypothesis testing,” but only descriptive results are presented. Action required: either incorporate consistent inferential analysis (e.g., chi-square, correlations, regressions), or adjust the text so that hypothesis testing is not claimed. It would be useful to report how the levels (cut-off points) were constructed and whether minimum assumptions were verified. 6.6. Ethics The ethics section is well on track, although somewhat redundant. It could be summarized without losing formality, maintaining: committee approval, informed consent, data protection. 7 ) Results 7.1. Tables The tables have truncated labels (“Politician...,” “Elected...”) that make them difficult to read. O Action required: Correct titles and headings, and ensure that the reader understands each category without ambiguity. The interpretation of percentages is inconsistent: o For example, it states “mostly low level of disaffection,” but then asserts “clear general political disaffection.” o It is suggested to separate more carefully: what the distribution shows and what interpretation is reasonable without exceeding the evidence. 7.2. Consistency with variables If “institutional distrust” is a component of disaffection, it should be integrated analytically as a dimension, not as a separate table without statistical articulation. It would be valuable to explore differences by rural/urban area or by gender, since quota sampling precisely preserves those proportions; this would provide interpretive depth. 8) Figure 1 and model proposal The figure is presented as an “integrated model,” but no empirical evidence is provided to support it as such (no multivariate analysis or validation). Action required: redefine it as a “proposed outline” or “intervention framework” based on descriptive findings. To strengthen the proposal, we suggest specifying which actors implement each axis (municipality, civil society, schools, etc.), what minimum resources are required, and what indicators would allow for evaluating its implementation (even if only conceptually). 9) Discussion The discussion is perceived as more narrative than analytical. For a high standard, it is recommended to: Discuss findings in terms of mechanisms (why the disconnect would occur). Differentiate between political interest and effective participation, with theoretical support. Avoid causal conclusions that are not supported. Some statements require numerical consistency: institutional mistrust mentions “23.3%” associated with corruption, but the table shows different percentages. It is advisable to review this correspondence to avoid internal contradictions. 10) Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions must be strictly aligned with the analysis: if the study is descriptive, the conclusions must be descriptive. It would be important to include an explicit section on limitations: non-probabilistic sampling, self-selection bias, instrument and construct validity, impossibility of causality. 11) Data availability (Zenodo ) This is a positive aspect and in line with open science. However, it is suggested that a brief description be provided of how the database is structured and what variables it contains. Ensure that file names are consistent and understandable (some appear with duplicates or “(1)”). 12) References In general, they are adequate, but there are some entries with irregular formatting. Action required: standardize APA style and verify metadata (year, volume, pages, publisher). For a high-impact journal, it would be helpful to incorporate some more core sources on political participation and disaffection in contemporary democracies (provided they are integrated critically, not as a list). Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Political communication, citizen participation, and democratic governance. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Puican Rodríguez VH. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455915 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v2#referee-response-455915 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 20 Mar 2026 IDA BLANCA PACHECO GONZALES , Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, Peru 20 Mar 2026 Author Response First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract ... Continue reading First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 20 Mar 2026 IDA BLANCA PACHECO GONZALES , Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, Peru 20 Mar 2026 Author Response First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract ... Continue reading First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 17 Mar 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: López TG. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178345.r391007 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v1#referee-response-391007 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 24 Jul 2025 Teresa Gil López , Department of Communication, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Getafe, Community of Madrid, Spain Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178345.r391007 Thank you for allowing me to review the article "Reinventing conventional participation: A model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The study represents loable efforts to improve citizen participation in times of generalized disaffection and distrust of the institutions. ... Continue reading READ ALL Thank you for allowing me to review the article "Reinventing conventional participation: A model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The study represents loable efforts to improve citizen participation in times of generalized disaffection and distrust of the institutions. The study aimed to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The specific objective was to determine the factors that lead to political disengagement in Lambayeque, Peru. Some important contributions arise from this study, however, there are important shortcomings that prevent me from accepting the manuscript from indexing in its current form. I hope that the suggestions that follow can be helpful towards a revised version. In general, I think the writing could be improved. For instance, the theoretical framework should start with an introductory sentence or clause before any study is cited, so that the reader know what they are about to delve into, what part of the literature, dealing with wich concepts, etc. The structure of the theoretical framework could also be generally improved. The current text reads very schematic, as if each study was reviewed one by one. They are not integrated into a coherent argument. There are also some expressions left in Spanish which should be translated into English in accordance with the rest of the text. Central study constructs should be more explicitly defined. The authors do a good job in defining political disaffection but other concepts are not so clearly explained. Concrete participation models should also be identified in the literature so that the new factors proposed by the current study can be given the necessary emphasis and their novel contributions can be highlighted above and beyond what traditional models of participation offer. There is in principle nothing new with adding variables related to digital technologies to traditional models of conventional participation. Generally, there are expressions in the text which require better contextualization: “ Regarding the theoretical foundations of the conventional participation program, it aligns with the contribution…” what is “it”? And which theoretical foundations of which conventional participation model are the authors referring to, concretely? This goes back to explicitly referring to a set of models and clearly specify the concepts that are central to the main theoretical arguments of this study. The sampling procedure should be clearly explained. In the introduction, the authors mention that the study used a “randomly selected sample,” but the characteristics of the sample do not resemble those that would have been obtained via randomized selection. Regardless, how the sample was obtained/accessed to and contacted is a necessary piece of information to assess the study’s method. Some of this is explained in the section about consent but information on how those 506 participants where first chosen from a population/participant pool or panel is unclear. Also the instruments for data collection, primarily the scales used to measure participation and political disaffection: are those scales newly created or are they pre-existing scales? What items are they composed of? Finally, the technical proposal presented by the study seems disconnected to the study results, and just generally, it is absent from the article until the point it gets introduced. I would recommend the authors to give this proposal greater centrality from the beginning of the article, and even focus the literature review on propositional models rather than solely on a general discussion on conventional participation and disaffection. In all, the study’s objective was to determine the factors that lead to political disengagement in Lambayeque, Peru. However, the study fails to reflect what those factors are and the connections that they have to disengagement are not tested either. I would therefore recommend to reconsider the study’s objectives and propose ones that are more realistic given the study’s empirical design and limited scope. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? No Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Communication and media effects, political participation, digital media, communication processes and mechanisms. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT López TG. Reviewer Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178345.r391007 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v1#referee-response-391007 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Author Response 16 Jan 2026 IDA BLANCA PACHECO GONZALES , Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, Peru 16 Jan 2026 Author Response Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed ... Continue reading Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed all the observations made regarding the manuscript “Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru” and have fully addressed each of them. In the revised version, the writing has been strengthened, the theoretical framework has been reorganized into a more coherent and integrated structure, and the central concepts of the study have been defined with greater clarity. Additionally, the explanation of the sampling procedure has been corrected, specifying how access to the participant panel was obtained and detailing the composition and origin of the instruments used. Greater prominence has also been given to the technical proposal from the beginning of the article, clearly emphasizing that the main objective of the study was to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection, integrating its theoretical and empirical foundations in alignment with propositional models from the literature. Thank you for your valuable comments, which have significantly contributed to improving the quality of the manuscript. I remain at your disposal for any further observations. Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed all the observations made regarding the manuscript “Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru” and have fully addressed each of them. In the revised version, the writing has been strengthened, the theoretical framework has been reorganized into a more coherent and integrated structure, and the central concepts of the study have been defined with greater clarity. Additionally, the explanation of the sampling procedure has been corrected, specifying how access to the participant panel was obtained and detailing the composition and origin of the instruments used. Greater prominence has also been given to the technical proposal from the beginning of the article, clearly emphasizing that the main objective of the study was to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection, integrating its theoretical and empirical foundations in alignment with propositional models from the literature. Thank you for your valuable comments, which have significantly contributed to improving the quality of the manuscript. I remain at your disposal for any further observations. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT Author Response 16 Jan 2026 IDA BLANCA PACHECO GONZALES , Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, Peru 16 Jan 2026 Author Response Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed ... Continue reading Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed all the observations made regarding the manuscript “Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru” and have fully addressed each of them. In the revised version, the writing has been strengthened, the theoretical framework has been reorganized into a more coherent and integrated structure, and the central concepts of the study have been defined with greater clarity. Additionally, the explanation of the sampling procedure has been corrected, specifying how access to the participant panel was obtained and detailing the composition and origin of the instruments used. Greater prominence has also been given to the technical proposal from the beginning of the article, clearly emphasizing that the main objective of the study was to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection, integrating its theoretical and empirical foundations in alignment with propositional models from the literature. Thank you for your valuable comments, which have significantly contributed to improving the quality of the manuscript. I remain at your disposal for any further observations. Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed all the observations made regarding the manuscript “Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru” and have fully addressed each of them. In the revised version, the writing has been strengthened, the theoretical framework has been reorganized into a more coherent and integrated structure, and the central concepts of the study have been defined with greater clarity. Additionally, the explanation of the sampling procedure has been corrected, specifying how access to the participant panel was obtained and detailing the composition and origin of the instruments used. Greater prominence has also been given to the technical proposal from the beginning of the article, clearly emphasizing that the main objective of the study was to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection, integrating its theoretical and empirical foundations in alignment with propositional models from the literature. Thank you for your valuable comments, which have significantly contributed to improving the quality of the manuscript. I remain at your disposal for any further observations. Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Close Report a concern COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 3 VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 17 Mar 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 3 Version 3 (revision) 20 Mar 26 read Version 2 (revision) 16 Jan 26 read read Version 1 17 Mar 25 read Teresa Gil López , Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Getafe, Spain Victor Hugo Puican Rodríguez , Universidad Nacional Intercultural Fabiola Salazar Leguia de Bagua, Bagua, Peru Carla Angelica Reyes Reyes , Universidad Senor de Sipan, Chiclayo, Peru Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Puican Rodríguez V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 02 Apr 2026 | for Version 3 Victor Hugo Puican Rodríguez , Universidad Nacional Intercultural Fabiola Salazar Leguia de Bagua, Bagua, Peru 0 Views copyright © 2026 Puican Rodríguez V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions 1. METHODOLOGY • The clarity of the descriptive–propositional approach is appreciated; however, it is suggested that the coherence between the study’s objective (to propose a structured framework for participation) and the methodological scope be strengthened, given that the current design limits the explanatory power of the analysis. • In this regard, consideration could be given to incorporating a statistical modelling approach (SML) that would allow for the analysis of relationships between variables, moving beyond the strictly descriptive nature of the study. • In particular, it is recommended to evaluate the use of techniques such as PLS-SEM or multivariate regression, which would allow for the empirical validation of the conceptual structure proposed in the manuscript. • It is suggested that the data collection instrument be reorganized in terms of latent variables and observable indicators, which would facilitate its compatibility with structural models. • Furthermore, it would be appropriate to expand the description of the validation process, incorporating quantitative evidence (e.g., Aiken’s V), as well as reporting reliability by dimension, rather than a single overall value. 2. INCLUSION OF MEDIATING AND MODERATING VARIABLES (MAIN POINT) • Given that the study already has clearly defined main variables (political disaffection and conventional participation), it is suggested that the model be strengthened by including mediating and moderating variables, which would significantly enhance the analytical rigour of the study. �� Recommended mediating variables • It is suggested that the variable ‘perceived political efficacy’ be incorporated as a mediator between political disaffection and conventional participation. • This variable would help explain the underlying mechanism through which disaffection influences participatory behaviour, adding theoretical and empirical depth to the model. • The inclusion of this mediation would facilitate the analysis of indirect effects, which is highly valued in studies published in high-impact journals. �� Recommended moderating variables • It is recommended that contextual variables be taken into account that may alter the strength or direction of the relationships analysed. In particular: o Digital literacy / digital access, given that the study itself acknowledges the importance of technology in participatory processes. o Area of residence (rural/urban), taking into account the territorial divides highlighted in the contextual framework. • The inclusion of moderating variables would enable multi-group or interaction analyses, significantly enriching the interpretation of the results. 3. RESULTS • The results presented are based primarily on descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages), which constitutes a valid initial approach; however, it is limited in comparison with the analytical potential of the study. • It is strongly suggested that this section be reworked to incorporate results derived from statistical modelling (SML), such as: o coefficients of relationship between variables o direct and indirect effects o levels of explained variance (R²) o model fit indicators • The transition to this type of analysis would allow for the empirical substantiation of relationships that are currently only described implicitly. • Furthermore, a more in-depth analysis could be incorporated by comparing groups (for example, by area of residence), preferably within a multi-group analysis framework. • With regard to the model presented in the figure, it is suggested that it be transformed into an empirically validated model, avoiding its interpretation as a confirmed structure if it has not been subjected to statistical analysis. 4. DISCUSSION • It is recommended that the discussion be expanded to include an interpretation based on the analytical results, particularly with regard to the relationships between variables. • The discussion could be strengthened by addressing not only the description of the findings, but also the possible explanatory mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of political disaffection. • It is also suggested that the comparison with previous studies be reinforced through a more critical approach, highlighting similarities, differences and the specific contributions of the study. • It is important to maintain consistency with the methodological design, avoiding formulations that could be interpreted as causal if they have not been supported by inferential analysis. 5. CONCLUSIONS • It is suggested that the conclusions be strictly aligned with the level of empirical evidence presented, avoiding extrapolations that go beyond the results obtained. • If statistical modelling (SML) is incorporated, the conclusions could be significantly strengthened, allowing: o the identification of variables with greater explanatory power o establishing significant relationships between constructs o validating the proposed model • It is recommended to explicitly include a section on the study’s limitations, considering: o the type of sampling used o the descriptive nature of the current analysis o possible biases in data collection Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Political communication, citizen participation, and democratic governance. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Puican Rodríguez VH. Peer Review Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.197127.r469268) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v3#referee-response-469268 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Reyes Reyes C. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 11 Feb 2026 | for Version 2 Carla Angelica Reyes Reyes , Universidad Senor de Sipan, Chiclayo, Lambayeque, Peru 0 Views copyright © 2026 Reyes Reyes C. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The article presents a clear, relevant, and coherent title that aligns with the developed content, adequately defining the phenomenon of conventional participation and political disaffection in Lambayeque. I. The introduction solidly contextualizes the problem, articulating recent background, territorial gaps, and technological challenges, thus enabling an understanding of the study's social and academic relevance. Likewise, the objectives and hypothesis are well-formulated and aligned with the research's propositional approach, demonstrating a consistent internal logic between the identified problem and the proposed solution. II. The theoretical framework is adequately structured, with classic and contemporary authors who conceptually support the central variables, achieving a suitable integration of democratic theory, citizen participation, and political disaffection. III. Methodologically, the study maintains a clear design with its descriptive-propositional purpose and is supported by understandable procedures. The characterization of the population, the use of quota sampling, and the explanation of the data collection instrument demonstrate an acceptable level of quality, reinforced by expert validation and adequate questionnaire reliability. The statistical analysis, although primarily descriptive, is relevant to the stated objectives and reveals clear trends in levels of disaffection, institutional distrust, and socio-political distancing. The ethical component is well-developed, with institutional support and adherence to informed consent standards, which strengthens the study's credibility. IV. Regarding the results, discussion, and proposal, the article establishes a suitable connection between the empirical findings and the proposed conventional participation model, which is one of its main contributions. The interpretation is consistent with the cited literature and aims to generate practical implications for public management and local governance. While it could be strengthened with more in-depth comparative analysis, the level achieved is consistent with the adopted approach. Overall, the manuscript presents a solid structure, a relevant contribution to the study of citizen participation in Peruvian subnational contexts, and adequate theoretical and methodological support. Therefore, it is considered suitable for indexing, with a consistently high academic level and the potential to impact research on local democracy and citizen participation policies. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Ciencias Sociales. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Reyes Reyes CA. Peer Review Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455914) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v2#referee-response-455914 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Puican Rodríguez V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 10 Feb 2026 | for Version 2 Victor Hugo Puican Rodríguez , Universidad Nacional Intercultural Fabiola Salazar Leguia de Bagua, Bagua, Peru 0 Views copyright © 2026 Puican Rodríguez V. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Title: The title is attractive and relevant; however, the use of “model” suggests robust empirical validation (e.g., multivariate analysis or statistical modeling). In the manuscript, the proposal is presented mainly as propositional/descriptive, so it would be advisable to adjust the title to avoid methodological expectations that are not subsequently fulfilled. Suggestion: replace “a model” with “a proposal” or “a propositional framework,” unless analytical validation of the model is incorporated. Abstract: A “random sample” is mentioned, while the methodology states that intentional non-probabilistic quota sampling was used. This inconsistency is critical because it affects the interpretation and generalization of the results. Action required: correct the abstract so that the type of sampling is consistent with the methodology section. The abstract states that participatory practice “has a positive impact.” With the analysis presented (descriptive), this wording is perceived as causal, when the reported evidence does not allow for attribution of effects. Style suggestion: use descriptive formulations (“is associated with,” “is observed,” “is reported”) or incorporate inferential analysis if you wish to maintain statements of impact. It is recommended to include, in one sentence, what specific dimensions of disaffection were measured (e.g., institutional distrust, political-social distancing) and how it was operationalized. Keywords They are relevant, but could be optimized for indexing: Include more “core” terms in Scopus such as political disengagement, institutional trust, political participation, civic education, depending on the final focus of the manuscript. “Perception attitude” is conceptually imprecise; it would be advisable to standardize it with a term that is more commonly used in the literature. Introduction The introduction provides a good contextualization of the problem, although three aspects could be strengthened: Spatial and conceptual delimitation: “Lambayeque” (province/district) is mentioned, but it should be made clear from the outset which territorial unit is being studied (specific district) and why that case is theoretically relevant. Literature gap: the need for innovative proposals is raised, but it is necessary to explain more precisely what specific gap the article fills (e.g., the absence of socioculturally adapted propositional models in rural/peri-urban districts of northern Peru). Objective-hypothesis consistency: a hypothesis is formulated in an explanatory tone (“will contribute to mitigating”), but the design and analysis are descriptive. It would be advisable to adjust the hypothesis or rethink it as a propositional assumption. 5. Theoretical framework 5.1. Background review The effort to include international and national background information is appreciated. However, the section is presented mainly as a list of studies. For a high-impact journal, it would be desirable to include: a comparative discussion (what coincides, what differs, and why), and a critical synthesis that leads directly to the model/proposal. It would be useful to include literature that clearly distinguishes between: conventional vs. unconventional participation, and between disaffection as distancing vs. as active criticism (critical citizens). This would help to better support the decision to focus the intervention on conventional participation. 5.2. Definition of constructs The definitions are reasonable, but the operationalization is not completely aligned: If disaffection is defined with components (distrust, cynicism/fatigue, emotional distancing), the instrument should show items or subscales corresponding to each component and demonstrate their internal consistency. It is suggested to clarify whether “institutional distrust” and “political-social distancing” are: internal dimensions of disaffection, or related variables (predictors/correlates). In this version, the conceptual structure is perceived as ambiguous. 6) Methodology 6.1. Type, design, and scope The label “descriptive-propositional” is used, which is valid; however: Care should be taken that the language of the manuscript (including discussion) does not adopt an explanatory/causal tone, because the design does not support it. If there is a hypothesis, some kind of contrast is expected; if the study is descriptive, it would be advisable to reformulate the hypothesis as an intervention premise or remove it. 6.2. Population and sample The text refers to non-probability quota sampling, but also mentions “random sampling” in other parts. Action required: standardize a single version throughout the manuscript. The recruitment procedure mentions a “panel of potential participants” who had previously expressed willingness to participate. This may introduce self-selection bias. Suggestion: include a brief discussion of potential biases and their implications. 6.3. Instrument Operational details are lacking: total number of items, distribution by modules/dimensions, examples of items per construct, criteria for categorizing levels (low/medium/high). “Expert validation” requires a minimum description: number of experts, profile, method, and criteria (ideally Aiken's V or another). 6.4. Reliability Reporting a single Cronbach's alpha (0.720) for the entire questionnaire is insufficient if there are dimensions. Action required: report reliability for each subscale or justify why it is treated as a unidimensional scale. 6.5. Data analysis It states “hypothesis testing,” but only descriptive results are presented. Action required: either incorporate consistent inferential analysis (e.g., chi-square, correlations, regressions), or adjust the text so that hypothesis testing is not claimed. It would be useful to report how the levels (cut-off points) were constructed and whether minimum assumptions were verified. 6.6. Ethics The ethics section is well on track, although somewhat redundant. It could be summarized without losing formality, maintaining: committee approval, informed consent, data protection. 7 ) Results 7.1. Tables The tables have truncated labels (“Politician...,” “Elected...”) that make them difficult to read. O Action required: Correct titles and headings, and ensure that the reader understands each category without ambiguity. The interpretation of percentages is inconsistent: o For example, it states “mostly low level of disaffection,” but then asserts “clear general political disaffection.” o It is suggested to separate more carefully: what the distribution shows and what interpretation is reasonable without exceeding the evidence. 7.2. Consistency with variables If “institutional distrust” is a component of disaffection, it should be integrated analytically as a dimension, not as a separate table without statistical articulation. It would be valuable to explore differences by rural/urban area or by gender, since quota sampling precisely preserves those proportions; this would provide interpretive depth. 8) Figure 1 and model proposal The figure is presented as an “integrated model,” but no empirical evidence is provided to support it as such (no multivariate analysis or validation). Action required: redefine it as a “proposed outline” or “intervention framework” based on descriptive findings. To strengthen the proposal, we suggest specifying which actors implement each axis (municipality, civil society, schools, etc.), what minimum resources are required, and what indicators would allow for evaluating its implementation (even if only conceptually). 9) Discussion The discussion is perceived as more narrative than analytical. For a high standard, it is recommended to: Discuss findings in terms of mechanisms (why the disconnect would occur). Differentiate between political interest and effective participation, with theoretical support. Avoid causal conclusions that are not supported. Some statements require numerical consistency: institutional mistrust mentions “23.3%” associated with corruption, but the table shows different percentages. It is advisable to review this correspondence to avoid internal contradictions. 10) Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions must be strictly aligned with the analysis: if the study is descriptive, the conclusions must be descriptive. It would be important to include an explicit section on limitations: non-probabilistic sampling, self-selection bias, instrument and construct validity, impossibility of causality. 11) Data availability (Zenodo ) This is a positive aspect and in line with open science. However, it is suggested that a brief description be provided of how the database is structured and what variables it contains. Ensure that file names are consistent and understandable (some appear with duplicates or “(1)”). 12) References In general, they are adequate, but there are some entries with irregular formatting. Action required: standardize APA style and verify metadata (year, volume, pages, publisher). For a high-impact journal, it would be helpful to incorporate some more core sources on political participation and disaffection in contemporary democracies (provided they are integrated critically, not as a list). Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Partly Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Political communication, citizen participation, and democratic governance. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 20 Mar 2026 IDA BLANCA PACHECO GONZALES, Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, Peru First, the title was revised by replacing the term “model” with “A Propositional Framework” to avoid expectations of empirical validation inconsistent with the descriptive–propositional nature of the study. The abstract was also corrected to resolve the sampling inconsistency, specifying the use of a non-probabilistic intentional quota sampling rather than a random sample. In addition, the language was reformulated to avoid causal interpretations, replacing terms such as “impact” with descriptive and associative expressions. The dimensions of political disaffection, institutional distrust and political–social distancing, were clearly specified, along with their operationalization. Keywords were optimized by incorporating standardized terms to improve academic indexing and conceptual precision. Substantive revisions were also made to the introduction, theoretical framework, and methodology. The spatial scope was clearly defined as the district of Lambayeque, province of Lambayeque, Peru, and the literature gap was explicitly identified, emphasizing the lack of socioculturally contextualized propositional frameworks in northern Peru. The relationship between objective, hypothesis, and design was harmonized by reformulating the hypothesis as a propositional expectation and clarifying that no causal inference was intended. The theoretical framework was strengthened by distinguishing conventional and non-conventional participation and defining political disaffection as a multidimensional construct. Methodologically, the sampling approach was standardized, potential biases were acknowledged, and the instrument description was expanded, including items, modules, scale, and classification criteria. Finally, revisions addressed validity, reliability, analysis, and results presentation. The expert judgment validation process was clarified, and reliability was interpreted according to the instrument’s multidimensional structure. References to hypothesis testing were removed, the analysis was explicitly defined as descriptive, the figure was reframed as a conceptual proposal, and conclusions were aligned with the study’s scope, limitations, data availability, and APA reference standards. View more View less Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. reply Respond Report a concern Puican Rodríguez VH. Peer Review Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192758.r455915) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v2#referee-response-455915 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 López T. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 24 Jul 2025 | for Version 1 Teresa Gil López , Department of Communication, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Getafe, Community of Madrid, Spain 0 Views copyright © 2025 López T. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (1) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Thank you for allowing me to review the article "Reinventing conventional participation: A model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The study represents loable efforts to improve citizen participation in times of generalized disaffection and distrust of the institutions. The study aimed to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru. The specific objective was to determine the factors that lead to political disengagement in Lambayeque, Peru. Some important contributions arise from this study, however, there are important shortcomings that prevent me from accepting the manuscript from indexing in its current form. I hope that the suggestions that follow can be helpful towards a revised version. In general, I think the writing could be improved. For instance, the theoretical framework should start with an introductory sentence or clause before any study is cited, so that the reader know what they are about to delve into, what part of the literature, dealing with wich concepts, etc. The structure of the theoretical framework could also be generally improved. The current text reads very schematic, as if each study was reviewed one by one. They are not integrated into a coherent argument. There are also some expressions left in Spanish which should be translated into English in accordance with the rest of the text. Central study constructs should be more explicitly defined. The authors do a good job in defining political disaffection but other concepts are not so clearly explained. Concrete participation models should also be identified in the literature so that the new factors proposed by the current study can be given the necessary emphasis and their novel contributions can be highlighted above and beyond what traditional models of participation offer. There is in principle nothing new with adding variables related to digital technologies to traditional models of conventional participation. Generally, there are expressions in the text which require better contextualization: “ Regarding the theoretical foundations of the conventional participation program, it aligns with the contribution…” what is “it”? And which theoretical foundations of which conventional participation model are the authors referring to, concretely? This goes back to explicitly referring to a set of models and clearly specify the concepts that are central to the main theoretical arguments of this study. The sampling procedure should be clearly explained. In the introduction, the authors mention that the study used a “randomly selected sample,” but the characteristics of the sample do not resemble those that would have been obtained via randomized selection. Regardless, how the sample was obtained/accessed to and contacted is a necessary piece of information to assess the study’s method. Some of this is explained in the section about consent but information on how those 506 participants where first chosen from a population/participant pool or panel is unclear. Also the instruments for data collection, primarily the scales used to measure participation and political disaffection: are those scales newly created or are they pre-existing scales? What items are they composed of? Finally, the technical proposal presented by the study seems disconnected to the study results, and just generally, it is absent from the article until the point it gets introduced. I would recommend the authors to give this proposal greater centrality from the beginning of the article, and even focus the literature review on propositional models rather than solely on a general discussion on conventional participation and disaffection. In all, the study’s objective was to determine the factors that lead to political disengagement in Lambayeque, Peru. However, the study fails to reflect what those factors are and the connections that they have to disengagement are not tested either. I would therefore recommend to reconsider the study’s objectives and propose ones that are more realistic given the study’s empirical design and limited scope. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? No Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Communication and media effects, political participation, digital media, communication processes and mechanisms. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (1) Author Response 16 Jan 2026 IDA BLANCA PACHECO GONZALES, Trujillo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo, Peru Subject: Submission of Revised Manuscript and Response to Reviewer Comments Dear Review I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to inform you that I have thoroughly reviewed all the observations made regarding the manuscript “Reinventing Conventional Participation: A Model to Mitigate Political Disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru” and have fully addressed each of them. In the revised version, the writing has been strengthened, the theoretical framework has been reorganized into a more coherent and integrated structure, and the central concepts of the study have been defined with greater clarity. Additionally, the explanation of the sampling procedure has been corrected, specifying how access to the participant panel was obtained and detailing the composition and origin of the instruments used. Greater prominence has also been given to the technical proposal from the beginning of the article, clearly emphasizing that the main objective of the study was to propose a model of conventional participation to mitigate political disaffection, integrating its theoretical and empirical foundations in alignment with propositional models from the literature. Thank you for your valuable comments, which have significantly contributed to improving the quality of the manuscript. I remain at your disposal for any further observations. View more View less Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. reply Respond Report a concern López TG. Peer Review Report For: Reinventing conventional participation: A Model to mitigate political disaffection in Lambayeque, Peru [version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 14 :302 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.178345.r391007) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-302/v1#referee-response-391007 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. 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