m-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform

m-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article m-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform Sutirtha Roy, Dr. Krishna Prasad Aryal, Moshfiq-Us-Saleheen Chowdhury, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7208298/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Non-woven polyester fabric is an inexpensive, flexible, breathable, and mechanically robust substrate ideally suited for wearable electronics. However, integrating electronic functionalities without compromising its intrinsic softness and comfort remains a significant challenge. Existing methods often reduce flexibility or require complex laboratory setups that limit scalability. In this work, we report the first demonstration of superhydrophilicity, with a static water contact angle near 0°, achieved via a scalable Kinetic Immersion Coating (KIC) technique operable outside conventional wet-lab environments. This transformation from hydrophobic (θ ~ 117.8°) to superhydrophilic (θ ~ 0°) surfaces occur without chemical post-treatments and results from residual oxygen-containing functional groups, the inherent fiber roughness, and the capillary properties of the non-woven architecture. The resulting superhydrophilic fabric enables uniform analyte dispersion and enhanced interactions with aqueous media, which are crucial for reliable sensing. Importantly, the rGO-coated fabric retains its original softness, breathability, and flexibility while achieving a surface conductivity of approximately 1.7 × 10⁴ Ω/sq, which is about 4 to 10 times lower than values reported for similar textile coatings, representing a significant improvement in electrical performance while preserving mechanical comfort. We demonstrate the versatility of this platform through multiple applications, including touch sensors achieving a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) exceeding 34, resistive deformation sensors with an SNR around 26, and textile-based electrochemical biosensors capable of detecting sweat glucose across the physiological range with a sensitivity of 0.119 µA·µM⁻¹ and a detection limit of approximately 0.471 µM. Additional functionalities include humidity-responsive conductance changes and contact-based user identification. Collectively, m-WeTex establishes an accessible, reproducible, and multifunctional approach for imparting electronic properties into everyday textiles. Biomedical Engineering Electrochemistry Materials Chemistry Electronic Materials and Devices Electrical Engineering Non-woven Polyester Fabric Electrochemical Sensing Touch Sensing Deformation Sensing Superhydrophilicity Wearables Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 INTRODUCTION Wearable and soft electronic devices have gained substantial momentum in recent years due to their unique ability to integrate seamlessly with the human body [ 1 , 4 ], enabling real-time physiological monitoring [ 2 , 4 ], human-machine interaction [ 5 – 7 ], and environmental sensing [ 8 – 10 ]. These technologies are central to emerging applications such as personalized healthcare [ 43 ], athletic performance monitoring [ 47 ], rehabilitation [ 44 ], and ubiquitous computing [ 45 , 46 ]. As these applications increasingly demand unobtrusive, skin-compatible, and continuously operable platforms, textile-based substrates, particularly nonwoven polyester fabrics, have emerged as compelling candidates due to their intrinsic softness, breathability, mechanical robustness, low cost, and mass-market availability [ 11 ]. Transformation of textiles into functional electronic interfaces presents fundamental challenges, particularly in achieving stable conductivity without significantly altering the fabric’s mechanical and tactile properties. Conventional fabrication techniques, including metallic coatings or chemical polymerization (e.g., PEDOT: PSS or carbon-based inks), often require high-temperature curing, toxic reagents, and complex infrastructure [ 12 – 14 ], which limits scalability and compatibility with wearable applications. Thus, there remains a critical need for simple, low-cost, and scalable strategies to utilize everyday textiles with multifunctional sensing capabilities. Nonwoven fabrics have garnered increasing attention in the field of wearable electronics due to their lightweight nature [ 27 ], high porosity [ 27 , 50 , 51 ], breathability [ 50 , 51 ], and mechanical adaptability [ 27 , 51 ]. Constructed by entangled, randomly oriented fibers, these fabrics exhibit a three-dimensional fibrous structure that not only allows excellent air and moisture permeability but also ensures skin-conformal softness, crucial for long-term wearability. From a materials standpoint, their rough microstructure and large surface area provide ideal conditions for functionalization with conductive coatings, making them a compelling substrate for physiological and environmental monitoring [ 52 ]. As a result, nonwoven textiles have been explored in diverse sensing applications, including hydration tracking [ 53 ], thermal effusivity mapping [ 54 ], skin impedance analysis [ 54 ], and electrochemical sweat sensing [ 55 ]. A notable study demonstrated a multimodal printed sensor on a woven polyester textile capable of both impedance and thermal sensing, highlighting the potential of integrating multiple sensing modalities onto a single wearable platform [ 54 ]. However, despite these advancements, several challenges remain in adapting nonwoven textiles for practical, multimodal sensing. One of the most significant hurdles lies in imparting reliable and durable electrical conductivity without compromising the material’s inherent softness, breathability, and tactile quality [ 56 ]. Conventional fabrication approaches, such as vacuum-deposited metals, screen-printed carbon inks, or conductive polymer coatings, typically require high-temperature curing, toxic solvents, or complex multi-step processing [ 57 ]. These conditions not only make the fabrication process infrastructure-dependent but also risk altering the physical characteristics of the textile, thereby reducing user comfort and sensor robustness due to wear and tear. To address these limitations, nanomaterial-based conductive coatings have gained momentum, with materials like reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and MXenes offering attractive alternatives due to their excellent conductivity, solution processability, and mechanical resilience. rGO can be dispersed in aqueous media and deposited onto textiles via simple methods such as dip coating or spray coating. While some recent efforts have used rGO to create strain sensors, capacitive touch sensors, or electrochemical sensors individually, most of these implementations rely on cleanroom facilities or require post-processing steps incompatible with scalable, low-cost manufacturing. Thus, despite promising early results, a gap remains in developing multifunctional, superhydrophilic textile sensors that combine durability, comfort, and accessibility using environmentally benign, out-of-lab fabrication techniques (Table S1). In this work, we present m-WeTex , a m ultifunctional We arable Tex tile platform developed by uniformly coating reduced graphene oxide (rGO) onto nonwoven polyester fabric using a scalable, and operationally facile technique termed Kinetic Immersion Coating (KIC). Our method leverages common tools such as magnetic stirrers and aqueous dispersions of rGO, allowing for easy and reproducible fabrication outside specialized laboratories. This approach eliminates the need for high-temperature processing, cleanroom environments, or toxic reagents, making it viable for low-resource settings. By combining simplicity of fabrication, preservation of substrate softness, and multifunctional sensing capabilities, m-WeTex offers a practical and accessible pathway for embedding electronic functionality into everyday soft wearable systems. Our approach holds significant promises for diverse applications, including continuous health monitoring, interactive garments, sports performance tracking, environmental sensing, and future e-textile platforms that merge comfort with capability. This work contributes to the growing interest in research on sustainable and scalable fabrication of wearable electronics using everyday materials and low-cost tools/fabrication methods. METHODS AND MATERIALS MATERIALS Nonwoven polyester fabric (Amazon) and kinesiology tape (CKeep Kinesiology Tape, Amazon) were purchased from Amazon. Graphene oxide (GO), L-ascorbic acid, potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) (K₄[Fe(CN)₆], ACS reagent, 98.5 − 102.0%), sodium chloride (NaCl, ACS reagent, ≥ 99.0%), phosphate buffer solution (PB, 1.0 M, pH 7.4), and glucose oxidase (GOx, from Aspergillus niger, ≥ 100,000 U/g) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. Artificial sweat was also procured from Sigma-Aldrich. The Thermoweb Heat’n Bond Ultrahold Iron-On Adhesive (5/8 inch × 10 yards) and regular clear nail polish were sourced from Amazon. A Cricut Maker 3 desktop xurography machine and digital multimeter were also purchased from Cricut and Amazon. Electrical components including resistors, MPR121 capacitive touch sensor, Arduino Uno R3, and connector cables were sourced from DigiKey Electronics. Deionized (DI) water was used as the solvent in all experiments. FABRICATION PREPARATION OF CONDUCTIVE rGO COATED NON-WOVEN FABRIC Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was synthesized by reducing GO with L-ascorbic acid. A solution of 50 mg GO (1 mg/mL) and 50 mg AA in 100 mL deionized (DI) water was heated at 95°C for 1 hour, followed by 1 hour of sonication. The resulting black precipitate was filtered, washed with DI water to remove excess AA, and dried overnight at room temperature. The rGO was then deposited onto 4 cm × 4 cm non-woven polyester fabric using a Kinetic Immersion Coating (KIC) method. Fabrics were immersed in rGO dispersions of varying concentrations (1:1, 1:2, and 1:4 mg/mL, labeled rGO-F1, F2, F3) and stirred for 12 hours, followed by 24 hours of static soaking (Figure S1). After rinsing and drying, conductive rGO-coated fabrics were obtained for sensor fabrication. ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSING To develop a wearable sweat glucose sensor, a three-electrode electrochemical patch was fabricated using rGO-coated non-woven fabric. The patch comprised a working electrode (WE), counter electrode (CE), and reference electrode (RE), all cut from the same rGO-coated textile. To ensure that the redox reaction is limited by the working electrode, the counter electrode was de-signed to be larger and more conductive, enabling greater charge transfer capacity and stable electrochemical performance [ 29 ]. Electrode strips with surface areas of 0.08 cm², 0.12 cm², and 0.14 cm² were cut using a desktop xurography machine (Cricut Maker 3), and their resistances were measured in a two-probe configuration using a digital multimeter. Measurements were repeated across three samples per dimension, and the optimal configuration, featuring a low-resistance CE and moderate-resistance WE, was selected for patch assembly (see Supporting Information). The electrodes were mounted onto a non-woven fabric substrate, and Ag/AgCl paste was applied to the reference electrode. For enzymatic glucose sensing, 0.1 µM GOx was drop-cast onto the WE. The electrochemically active area was defined, and the remaining surface insulated, using commercially available nail polish. DEFORMATION AND TOUCH SENSING To evaluate the m-WeTex platform for biomechanical and interactive applications, we implemented two sensing configurations: deformation-based joint movement monitoring and capacitive touch interface design. For deformation sensing, rGO-coated non-woven m-WeTex fabric was integrated into a wearable joint sensor by mounting it on kinesiology tape, which was first applied to the skin across target joints. This approach ensured stable skin attachment while allowing conformal deformation tracking. The fabric strips were cut using a Cricut Maker 3 and affixed to the tape at the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint of the finger, the cubital region of the elbow, and the patellar region of the knee. These positions were chosen to capture a range of joint flexion–extension dynamics. Resistance changes in the fabric were monitored using a voltage divider circuit interfaced with an Arduino Uno, enabling real-time motion tracking. Five consecutive trials were conducted for each joint motion task, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) [ 61 ] was calculated to assess repeatability and sensing fidelity. For touch sensing, discrete electrode zones were patterned from the same rGO-coated textile and bonded to a woven cotton backing using iron-on adhesive (Thermoweb Heat’n Bond). This configuration was assembled into a wearable wristband featuring multiple touch-sensitive regions. Each electrode was connected to an MPR121 capacitive touch sensor, with outputs interfaced to an Arduino board for gesture recognition and shortcut triggering. Sensor performance was quantified by recording ADC values across multiple trials and computing SNR to validate signal consistency. The system demonstrated the feasibility of low-cost, fabric-based capacitive touch interfaces for on-body interactive control. CHARACTERIZATION PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Phenom Pro X, Thermo Fisher Scientific) and Electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) are studied to observe the detailed morphology and elemental composition of the fabrics before and after the transformation, respectively. The chemical environment of the prepared films is confirmed with X-ray photoelectron microscopy (XPS, omicron Nanotechnology ESCA probe system). Raman spectroscopy is explicitly measured to verify the reduction of GO into rGO. Additionally, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA, in the temperature range of 10°C to 900°C in the presence of N 2 ) is performed to further confirm the successful coating of nonwoven fabric with conductive material. The surface absorptivity and hydrophilicity of all the fabrics are evaluated by dispensing 100 µl of distilled water onto the surface. Subsequently, the contact angle of the water droplet is recorded for 800 seconds using a contact angle analysis machine (OCA15EC Optical Contact Angle & Contour Analysis System, Data-physics). Tensile strength (UniVert, Cell Scale) measurement is performed to record breaking point of each fabric sample applying force in the range of 0–50 N. To analyze the electrical properties and also to confirm the loading of conductive material onto nonwoven fabric surface, sheet resistance of each modified fabric is measured. For this analysis, a 4-point probe measurement is conducted using a four-point probe (Four Point Probe, Ossila). The experimental setup involved a probe equipped with four uniformly positioned electrical contacts (needles or pins) establishing direct contact with the fabric material under examination. Further, to confirm the broader scope and versatility of the modified nonwoven fabric material, the intensity of the LED bulb is recorded using light-dependent resistor (LDR) under deformation of modified fabric such as straight, bending and twisted. The stability of coated conductive materials over the surface of the nonwoven fabric is confirmed with a water-deepening test for an extended period under continuous observation. To evaluate mechanical durability, cyclic stress tests were performed by subjecting each printed sample to 1000 cycles of repeated bending and compression over one week, following the protocol of Khan et al. [ 34 ]. For each material, three samples were tested, and resistance was measured three times per sample. The average resistance values and standard deviations were calculated to assess stability under mechanical strain. Washability tests were conducted to evaluate material durability after repeated exposure to water and mechanical agitation, simulating realistic laundering conditions. Each sample underwent seven washing cycles over one week. For each material, three samples were tested, and resistance measurements were averaged to determine changes in electrical performance. When developing interactive wearable devices using textile substrates, it is essential to ensure that the processes used to impart electrical functionality, such as coating with conductive inks or nanomaterials, do not significantly alter the inherent softness, flexibility, and comfort of the fabric. To evaluate whether the deposition of conductive coatings, particularly rGO, affects the mechanical softness of non-woven polyester textiles, we conducted a dedicated experimental study. In this experiment, samples of the rGO-coated non-woven polyester textile were prepared and subsequently coated with functional inks as part of the device fabrication process. To systematically quantify changes in material softness, we measured the Shore hardness of these textile samples using a Durometer Type O, an instrument designed to assess indentation resistance and provide a standardized measure of elasticity and flexibility. For the study, three independent trials were performed, and in each trial, three replicate textile samples were measured, resulting in a total of nine measurements for the rGO-coated textile. Baseline Shore hardness readings were also recorded for the uncoated rGO textile to serve as a reference for comparison. This investigation aims to verify whether integrating conductive inks and nanomaterial coatings into non-woven textiles results in significant stiffening or changes in the fabric’s tactile properties, which is crucial for maintaining user comfort and wearability in practical applications. ELECTROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION To evaluate the electrochemical performance of the rGO-based textile patch, Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) was first performed using a portable potentiostat (EmStat Pico, PalmSens). The CV was conducted over a voltage range of − 0.8 V to + 0.8 V at a scan rate of 100 mV/s, using the three-electrode textile patch immersed in a 2 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) (K₄[Fe (CN)₆]) solution. This initial test aimed to confirm the patch’s ability to support reversible redox reactions and establish baseline electrochemical behavior. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) was subsequently conducted under similar conditions to extract the charge transfer resistance (R_ct) and double-layer capacitance (C_dl), which provide insight into interfacial kinetics and surface behavior. To evaluate enzymatic glucose sensing, the working electrode was functionalized by GOx. After enzyme immobilization, 100 µL of 0.1 mM glucose solution was applied to the surface of the patch, and CV was repeated under the same scan parameters. Two control conditions were also tested: (i) a GOx-modified patch with no glucose (0 mM), and (ii) a patch without GOx exposed to 0.1 mM glucose. These controls were essential to isolate the contribution of the enzyme–substrate interaction to the observed current response. To assess sensitivity across a physiologically relevant range, Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) was performed from − 0.8 V to + 1.5 V at a scan rate of 100 mV/s. Glucose concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.015, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2 mM were prepared in artificial sweat (pH 4.5), and 100 µL of each was applied to the sensor. The resulting peak current values were recorded and averaged across three sensors for each concentration to construct a calibration curve. The sensitivity (S) of the patch was calculated from the slope of this linear fit. The limit of detection (LOD) was determined using the standard formula: LOD = (3.3 x σ)/S where σ is the standard deviation of the signal measured at 0 mM glucose concentration. To evaluate selectivity, additional DPV tests were conducted using solutions of 0.05 mM glucose, 25 mM lactic acid, 0.1 mM ascorbic acid, and 1 µM cortisol, each prepared in artificial sweat (pH 4.5). These analytes were selected based on their common presence in human sweat and potential to interfere with glucose sensing. The same DPV protocol was followed, and comparative analysis of current responses was used to assess molecular specificity and interference effects. MULTIMODAL INTERACTION All experiments in this section were conducted using rGO-coated non-woven fabric patches patterned using a Cricut Maker 3 and electrically interfaced with standard connector cables. Resistance measurements were performed under ambient laboratory conditions (24 ± 1°C) using a digital multimeter, and each test was repeated in triplicate to ensure reproducibility. To investigate the deformation-driven response, two separate modes were assessed. In the press/bend experiment, rGO patches were placed beneath 4 mm spacer foam and subjected to calibrated metal weights corresponding to pressures in the range of 981–2500 Pa. Resistance values were recorded after each loading step to characterize pressure-dependent piezoresistive behavior. In the stretch configuration, rGO strips were clamped within a custom tensile fixture and loaded incrementally with uniaxial force; resistance was simultaneously recorded to generate force–resistance curves quantifying the material’s strain sensitivity. For humidity response characterization, incremental volumes of deionized water (10–100 µL) were sprayed onto the rGO surface, and resistance was recorded after a 30-second interval following each application to evaluate moisture-induced conductivity changes. To demonstrate conductive path switching, two configurations were tested. In the push test, rGO pads were affixed to opposite sides of a spacer foam block; applying vertical pressure compressed the foam and brought the two pads into contact, thus closing the circuit and forming a textile-based binary switch. In the adhere test, two stationary rGO electrodes were patterned with a small gap between them. A third movable rGO strip was used as a bridging element; when its ends made contact with both fixed electrodes, the circuit was completed, and the closed-state resistance was measured. This test was repeated with bridge strips of equal length but varying widths to evaluate geometry-dependent resistance values. Each width produced a distinct resistance signature, enabling identification of discrete inputs based on passive physical dimensions. For capacitive sensing characterization, rGO pads were interfaced with an MPR121 capacitive touch controller connected to an Arduino Uno. In the proximity test, a grounded human finger was moved from a distance of 50 mm above the fabric to direct contact, while the Arduino serial monitor logged changes in ADC counts to quantify capacitive response versus distance. In the pressure test, the same rGO pad was subjected to calibrated normal loads while maintaining touch contact, and the corresponding shifts in ADC values were recorded to examine the correlation between applied pressure and capacitive signal. USER EVALUATION Participants: We recruited 3 participants (2 male and 1 female, mean age = 28.7, sd = 4.73) for an uncontrolled user study (REB23-0555_REN1) to evaluate the performance of the m-WeTex based electrochemical sweat glucose sensor under real-world conditions. Method: An uncontrolled user study was conducted to assess the performance of the rGO-textile-based sensor for detecting sweat glucose levels on-body under real-world conditions. Three participants wore the rGO-textile glucose sensing patch during moderate physical activity to induce sweat production. Sweat samples were collected and analyzed using a sweat glucose assay testing kit, and glucose concentrations were measured with a portable spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific NanoDrop 2000). Simultaneously, electrochemical current measurements were recorded from the rGO coated textile sensor for each participant by running DPV using PalmSens Sensit Smart. This study aimed to examine whether the sensor could reliably detect variations in sweat glucose levels and to establish the correlation between biochemical assay results and electrical sensor outputs. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION m-WeTex platform is developed by coating a rGO layer on the non-woven textile fabric using the KIC method. A notable and unprecedented outcome of this coating strategy is the transformation of fabric’s surface from strongly hydrophobic to superhydrophilic, a shift that is highly advantageous for fluid-interactive and biosensing applications (Fig. 1 A). Altogether, these features result in a fabric surface that promotes ultra-fast liquid spreading and absorption, making it ideally suited for applications requiring consistent analyte contact and conformal skin interfacing. Building on these unique material properties, the multifunctional capability of m-WeTex is illustrated through various sensing modalities (Fig. 1 B). These include capacitive touch sensing, enabled by fabric-integrated switches interfaced with an MPR121 capacitive sensor; resistive deformation sensing for accurate tracking of joint movements, such as elbow flexion; and electrochemical glucose sensing, facilitated by sensors functionalized with the glucose oxidase enzyme. PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION The surface morphology of the unmodified non-woven polyester fabric (Fig. 2 ) reveals a very compact and rigid surface with an intrinsic fibrous morphology (Fig. 2 a). On the other hand, a modified rGO-coated non-woven fabric (Fig. 2 b) showed a significantly altered morphology, showcasing successful loading of the conducting rGO onto the unmodified non-woven polyester fabric. The coated fabric’s surface shows a more expanded, porous, and crosslinked morphology. It has been demonstrated that porous and crosslinked surfaces provide better current flow and bioreceptor loading [ 30 – 31 ], leading to enhanced electrochemical surface performance. The successful binding between the unmodified fabric and rGO surface may be attributed to Van-der Waals force of attraction, π-π stacking interactions, covalent bonding and mechanical interlocking or interfusing under a dynamic coating environment [ 32 ]. Additional SEM images of rGO-F2 measured at different magnifications clearly display the altered morphology, presented in Figure S2 (a-d). In the meantime, the morphology of both modified fabrics, rGO-F1 and rGO-F3, was also studied and elaborated in supplementary information (SI), Figure S3 (a-f). In addition, the elemental composition of the modified fabric, rGO-F2, is also analyzed and compared with the unmodified fabric, using EDS measurement (Figure S4). This result further confirmed the successful coating of the non-woven fabric surface with the conductive surface of rGO. The fabrication of a rGO-modified nonwoven fabric surface is further confirmed by TGA analysis, as shown in Figure S5. The curve showed the % weight loss from the modified rGO-F2 surface over the applied temperature range of 10°C to 700°C. Detailed information is included in the SI file. Additionally, to study the details on the structure and chemical composition of rGO-F2 fabric, Raman and XPS measurements were conducted. Results and further detailed explanation is included in SI (Figure S6a and Figure S7, respectively). The mechanical strength of all the prepared fabrics, including the unmodified nonwoven fabric, is systematically evaluated with tensile strength measurement, as shown in Fig. 2 c and Figure S6b. Among all the fabrics tested, rGO-F2 possessed the highest mechanical performance, with a maximum breaking point of 6.4 N and corresponding displacement of almost 10 mm. In contrast, non-woven fabric displayed a lower breaking point of 5.5 N and a corresponding displacement of around 5 mm. The improved mechanical performance of rGO-F2 compared to the pristine nonwoven suggested the higher durability, flexibility and resistance to mechanical stress during real-time applications in wearables. Enhancement of these mechanical properties, both tensile strength and elongation, observed with rGO-F2 fabric, is are, is likely attributed to the crosslinked and loosely held morphology, as evidenced by SEM images. The sheet resistance of all the rGO-coated fabrics, rGO-F1, rGO-F2 and rGO-F3, is also examined systematically to assess the conductivities following the introduction of rGO onto nonwoven fabric and presented in Fig. 2 d and Figure S6c. The measurement revealed that rGO-F2 exhibited the lowest sheet resistance of 1.7×10 4 (± 30.39) Ω/sq., providing clear evidence of the formation of a conductive surface onto the nonwoven fabric. Generally, for practical applications in sensing and interactive devices, it demands sheet resistance in the range of 10 2 to 10 4 Ω/sq [ 58 ], ensuring the required conductivity while maintaining flexibility. Minimum sheet resistance is preferred for highly sensitive applications, as it reduces interference while transferring signal [ 33 ]. All prepared sensors are examined for 25 repeated measurement cycles to validate reproducibility and stability. A negligible deviation in sheet resistance is observed across the cycle, with a very low standard deviation of 0.65, a mean value of 1.69×10 4 Ω/sq, and coefficient of variation of 3.71 × 10⁻⁵, indicating the high reliability of the conductive surface. Nonwoven fabrics are inherently flexible. This makes them suitable for various applications, such as wearable and flexible electronic devices [ 34 – 35 ]. We performed the flexibility test of the integrated sensor to ensure that it will not impose any limitations when used in practical applications. Specifically, variations of LED bulbs connected to the fabric under straight, bending and twisting configurations are analyzed. Results showed consistent LED intensities of ~ 23 lux, 19.55 lux, and 18.57 lux, respectively, as measured with the light-dependent resistor (LDR), while the initial intensity was ~ 11 lux, as shown in Figure S6d. We used an LED-LDR setup as mentioned in the literature [ 45 ] for measuring the light intensity of the LEDs in each deformation state. We also recorded the intensities for each deformation scenarios for 40s at an interval of 5s to verify the stability of the luminance over the period, resulting in no significant difference in intensity during the observation period, as shown in Figure S6d. These findings indicated that the fabric’s electrical performance is unaffected by the range of deformations, confirming its suitability for broader applications in flexible electronics. Surface absorptivity is a significant parameter for characterizing the fabric surface, particularly in its interaction with moisture, including water and sweat molecules [ 36 – 38 ]. In sweat-sensing wearable devices, absorptivity plays a key role in consistent fluid transport, ensuring reliable biosensing and user comfort [ 39 – 40 ]. Contact angle measurement was carried out to observe the affinity of water towards the sensor surface, both unmodified and modified. The unmodified sensor showed a water contact angle of 117.8° (Fig. 2 e), confirming a completely hydrophobic or water-repellent surface area. Polyester non-woven fabric possesses absence of polar functional groups and low surface energy [ 59 ]. Additionally, randomly arranged fibers and air pockets reduce the interaction with moisture, enhancing hydrophobicity [ 59 ]. On the other hand, the surface of rGO-F2 exhibited surprisingly increased hydrophilicity, offering exceptionally strong affinity with water molecules with almost zero water contact angle, θ ~ 0° (Fig. 2 f). In the case of rGO-F3, the water contact angle slightly reduced to 89.9° tending to show some hydrophilic nature (Figure S8b) and for rGO-F1 it is 38.4° (Figure S8c). To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to demonstrate such a transformation to superhydrophilicity in nonwoven polyester fabric via rGO coating alone (SI Table S1), marking a significant advancement in textile functionalization. This exceptional wetting behaviour is attributed to the following contributions: Residual oxygen-containing functional groups on the rGO surface, retained through ascorbic acid-assisted reduction; The inherent surface roughness of the nonwoven fabric, which enhances wettability via Wenzel’s wetting model, and The porous, randomly oriented fiber network of the nonwoven structure, which supports capillary-driven fluid transport. The strong super-hydrophilic behaviour might also be corroborated by the results of altered morphology after introducing rGO onto the rigid and compact surfaces of nonwoven fabric. Additionally, the presence of hydrophilic functionalities (-OH, -COOH), confirmed by both TGA and XPS, plays a significant role in making the surface hydrophilic [ 41 – 42 ]. The stability of the m-WeTex to washing is assessed by immersing the sensor in water for an extended duration. Following this, water is closely observed to confirm if there is any detachment of sensing particles from the nonwoven fabric surface. After the observation at 24h and 48h of immersion period, the water remained clear and showed no visible particulate matter, as shown in Figure S9. The finding suggested that the rGO modification firmly adhered to the surface of non-woven fabric, exhibiting excellent stability under an aqueous solution. After performing all the morphological characterization, we found that rGO-F2 outperforms the other coated fabrics, i.e., rGO-F1 and rGO-F3. Hence, we decided to use rGO-F2 for creating various sensors and interactions in the following sections. We also conducted another set of durability tests where the rGO-F2 fabric was went through cyclic stress tests and washed under a sink. rGO-coated nonwoven polyester fabric, resistance increased from an initial mean of 115.58 ± 0.50 kΩ to 120.62 ± 1.94 kΩ after cyclic stress, representing a 4.37% increase (Figure S10a). Also, the coefficient of variation (cv) for this case is 1.61%. These results suggest that while the rGO textile remains functional under cyclic deformation. The rGO-coated textile showed a very small increase in resistance from 115.58 ± 0.50 kΩ to 118.75 ± 4.16 kΩ after washing, representing a 2.75% rise (Figure S10a). Also, the coefficient of variation (cv) for this case is 3.5%. Despite this change, the textile retained reliable electrical performance, supporting its suitability for wearable applications requiring repeated washing. The rGO textile showed slightly greater sensitivity to mechanical and washing stresses but remained well within operational limits for wearable electronics. The durometer measurements collected for both uncoated and rGO-coated non-woven polyester textiles suggest that coating the fabric with reduced graphene oxide has minimal effect on its elastic properties. The average shore hardness of the bare non-woven fabric was measured at 10.4 (SD = 0.89). In comparison, the rGO-coated fabric samples showed slightly higher average shore hardness values of 11.0 (SD = 0.35), 10.9 (SD = 0.55), and 10.8 (SD = 0.51) across three independent trials, yielding a combined average of 10.9. The observed increase of approximately 0.5 shore units remains small relative to the overall range of measurements, indicating that the rGO coating does not substantially stiffen or alter the softness of the textile (Figure S10b). These findings confirm that imparting electrical properties through rGO deposition preserves the inherent flexibility and comfort of the non-woven textile, ensuring its suitability for wearable applications requiring close skin contact. ELECTROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND SWEAT GLUCOSE SENSING The electrochemical behavior of the m-WeTex was first examined using Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) in a 2 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution. All three fabricated patches exhibited stable and reproducible current responses across the potential range of − 0.8 V to + 0.8 V. A distinct reduction peak was observed at approximately − 0.11 V, with a peak current of ~ 15 µA, indicating effective electron transfer at the electrode surface (Figure S11a). While clearly defined oxidation peaks were not observed, the gradual increase in current with applied voltage suggested effective interfacial charge transfer and capacitive behavior. This behavior is typical for fabric-based electrodes, where high surface area and porous morphology contribute to enhanced electrochemical activity [ 62 ]. The consistent current profiles across the samples also suggested reliable fabrication and intact conductive networks in the textile. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) supported these findings, revealing an average charge transfer resistance (Rct) of 756.5 ± 4.7 kΩ, an average solution resistance (Rs) of 838.4 ± 0.1 kΩ, and an average double-layer capacitance (Cdl) of 869.7 ± 19.2 nF across the three patches, consistent with expected behavior in porous textile electrodes (Figure S11b). Collectively, the CV and EIS data demonstrated that the fabricated m-WeTex electrodes are electrochemically active, stable, and suitable for further biosensing applications. To assess enzymatic sensing capability, CV was repeated using m-WeTex sensors functionalized with glucose oxidase (GOx) and exposed to 0.1 mM glucose. A clear cathodic peak appeared near − 0.45 V with a minor anodic peak near + 0.45 V, both of which were absent in control experiments lacking either GOx or glucose (Figure S11c). This confirms that the observed redox activity originated specifically from the enzymatic glucose oxidation, verifying the bio-functionalization and electrochemical activity of the patch. Quantitative evaluation using DPV revealed a linear increase in peak current with increasing glucose concentration, ranging from 0 to 0.2 mM in artificial sweat (Fig. 3 a). The sensor exhibited a sensitivity of ~ 0.12 µA/µM with a calculated limit of detection (LOD) of 470 nM, demonstrating its ability to detect glucose at nanomolar concentrations (Fig. 3 b). This low limit of detection (470 nM) is significant because physiologically relevant glucose concentrations in human sweat typically range from 0.06 to 1 mM, with basal levels around 0.06–0.2 mM in healthy individuals [ 60 ]. Detecting concentrations in the nanomolar range allows for early detection of glucose fluctuations and ensures accurate sensing even at the lower end of physiological levels, such as during fasting or hypoglycemic episodes. Compared to other textile-based sweat glucose sensors, which often report detection limits in the micromolar range (typically > 1 µM), our device demonstrates superior sensitivity [ 62 , 63 , 64 ]. This level of sensitivity supports its potential use in non-invasive sweat glucose monitoring applications. Specificity studies further validated the selectivity of the sensor. The response to 0.05 mM glucose was significantly higher than that of other physiologically relevant interferents, including 25 mM lactic acid, 0.1 mM ascorbic acid, and 1 µM cortisol (Fig. 3 c). Although cortisol produced a modest signal, the glucose response remained substantially higher, exceeding other analytes by more than an order of magnitude in most cases (Fig. 3 d). These results underscore the m-WeTex’s compatibility with enzyme functionalization, and selective bio-recognition capabilities, affirming its promise as a fabric-based glucose sensor for wearable, sweat-interfaced biochemical monitoring. MULTIMODAL INTERACTION VALIDATION To evaluate the responsiveness and versatility of the m-WeTex platform, we examined its electrical behavior under a diverse set of interaction scenarios, including compressive and tensile mechanical inputs, environmental moisture exposure, reconfigurable conductive pathways, and capacitive sensing via proximity and pressure. Under compressive loading using calibrated weights (981 to 2500 Pa), the fabric exhibited a pronounced decrease in resistance from ~ 133 kΩ to ~ 31 kΩ, with the most significant changes occurring at lower pressures before plateauing (Fig. 4 a), suggesting high sensitivity to gentle presses and a saturation point at higher loads. In tensile tests, the resistance increased from ~ 1.2 MΩ to ~ 1.45 MΩ up to 5 N, beyond which it remained stable (Fig. 4 b), indicating the fabric’s capability to detect moderate stretching, such as in joint or muscle movements. Proximity interaction was assessed by monitoring ADC values from an MPR121 sensor as a finger approached from ~ 50 mm to contact, showing a consistent decrease from ~ 170 to ~ 85, the most prominent drop was observed within ~ 10 mm of the surface (Fig. 4 c), confirming the fabric’s potential for touchless gesture recognition and shortcut-based user interfaces. Capacitive pressure sensing further demonstrated a decrease in ADC values from ~ 178 to ~ 163 when subjected to pressures between 0.9 and 2.4 kPa, revealing a repeatable and graded response attributable to dielectric compression effects (Fig. 4 d). For reconfigurable switching, bridging two rGO-coated textile strips with a third connector strip resulted in a resistance drop from open circuit to ~ 0.5 MΩ (Fig. 4 e), which reversed upon removal, validating a simple and reversible on/off interaction mechanism. Similarly, a push-to-connect configuration with spacer foam showed a transition from open circuit to ~ 1.5 MΩ upon compression (Fig. 4 f), demonstrating a soft tactile switch suitable for discrete digital input. Width-based identification experiments, using conductive strips of equal length but varied widths (5–20 mm), exhibited an inverse relationship between width and resistance, ranging from ~ 0.8 MΩ to ~ 0.2 MΩ (Fig. 4 g), confirming that passive geometric encoding can reliably distinguish between different user inputs. Finally, humidity sensitivity tests with water volumes from 100 to 1000 µL resulted in a resistance drop from ~ 0.4 MΩ to ~ 0.1 MΩ, with signal saturation beyond 600 µL (Fig. 4 h), indicating suitability for sweat detection, leak monitoring, or other wet-contact alert scenarios. Across all these modalities, m-WeTex demonstrated clear, consistent, and application-relevant electrical responses without the need for rigid hardware, supporting its use as a flexible and scalable multimodal sensing platform for wearable and ambient interfaces. APPLICATIONS Sweat Glucose Monitoring Headband with rGO Textile Electrodes The m-WeTex reliably detected variations in sweat glucose levels among participants. A wearable sweat glucose monitoring system by integrating the m-WeTex platform into a headband, enabling real-time, non-invasive glucose detection from sweat. The m-WeTex sensor was embedded in the headband and connected to a PalmSens Sensit Smart wearable potentiostat for on-body measurement (Fig. 5 a). Figure 5 b illustrates the schematic of the electrochemical interface between the textile sensor and the skin. Upon a mild physical activity, the sweat was induced in users and the sensor detected the glucose in the sweat at the interface of the skin. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed sweat glucose concentrations of 0.016 mM, 0.040 mM, and 0.074 mM for Participants 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The corresponding electrical current responses were 3.34 µA, 4.16 µA, and 5.23 µA. The measured currents followed the same trend as the glucose concentrations (as measured by the spectrophotometer), indicating that higher glucose levels produced higher electrical signals (Fig. 5 c and 5 d). These findings validate the capability of the sensor-WeTex to detect physiologically relevant sweat glucose levels on the body, even under uncontrolled conditions, highlighting its potential for non-invasive wearable glucose monitoring applications. Joint Movement Monitoring To demonstrate real-time biomechanical sensing using m-WeTex, we developed a wearable joint movement monitoring system using rGO-coated fabric as a deformation sensor. The fabric patch was affixed using kinesiology tape across various joints including the finger, elbow, and knee to capture flexion–extension motion. For the finger joint (Fig. 5 e), the sensor was mounted longitudinally across the dorsal side of the finger, spanning the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint. During repeated bending and straightening of the finger, the sensor recorded sharp resistance spikes corresponding to each flexion event. These peaks were discrete, consistent in amplitude, and reproducible across cycles, highlighting the sensor’s sensitivity to small-scale, high-frequency joint motion. In the elbow joint configuration (Fig. 5 f), the fabric was applied across the cubital region. As the forearm moved through flexion and extension, resistance signals showed smoother but well-defined waveforms, corresponding to slower, larger-range joint movements. For the knee joint (Fig. 5 g), the sensor was placed over the patellar region to monitor deep leg flexion. The resulting signal featured high-amplitude, gradual resistance changes during squatting and rapid recovery upon extension. Across all joints, the waveforms remained stable and consistent over five repeated trials, with a very good mean signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of ~ 26 [ 61 ] (Fig. 5 h). These results confirm that m-WeTex enables reliable, conformal, and real-time monitoring of joint kinematics, adaptable to both fine and gross motor movements. Interactive Wristband with Touch-Sensitive Shortcuts To explore the utility of m-WeTex as a capacitive interface for interactive computing, we developed a wrist-worn touch-sensing system designed for personalized, on-body control. The wristband consists of multiple discrete sensing zones placed circumferentially around the forearm, allowing users to trigger context-specific actions with simple touch inputs. Each zone acts as an individual capacitive electrode and is connected to an Arduino-based controller programmed to recognize touch events through ADC signal changes. When a finger makes contact with any zone, the system registers a significant drop in ADC value due to capacitive coupling between the user’s finger and the conductive surface. These transitions were highly repeatable, and the sensor response was stable across multiple repetitions, with minimal noise fluctuations. We configured the touch-sensitive zones to serve as shortcut buttons for opening frequently used websites (e.g., Google, YouTube) or launching specific applications (e.g., Zoom, Spotify), as illustrated in Fig. 5 i–k. This interaction mechanism enables low-effort, intuitive triggering of digital functions without needing screens or physical buttons. Performance characterization across five consecutive trials yielded an excellent SNR value ≈ 34 [ 61 ] (Fig. 5 l), confirming the robustness of the system in distinguishing intentional touches from background noise. CONCLUSION This work presents a superhydrophilic, conductive, and washable reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-coated non-woven polyester fabric patch, m-WeTex, as a multifunctional platform for wearable sensing. Developed via an accessible aqueous-phase reduction and immersion coating process, the rGO fabric maintains excellent electrical conductivity and surface wettability, critical for stable biofluid interfacing in on-skin applications. Its superhydrophilic nature enables efficient absorption and distribution of sweat, supporting consistent electrochemical measurements even under low-volume sample conditions. The patch was successfully configured into a three-electrode system for enzyme-assisted glucose detection in artificial sweat. Electrochemical characterization confirmed its activity and stability through CV and EIS. Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) demonstrated a linear and concentration-dependent current response to glucose, yielding a sensitivity of 0.119 µA/µM and a calculated limit of detection (LOD) of 470 nM. These results validate the platform’s efficacy in detecting physiologically relevant glucose levels in sweat. Beyond biochemical sensing, the rGO-coated textile supports a range of physical and interaction-driven functionalities. It was demonstrated as a deformation sensor for joint movement monitoring by integrating with kinesiology tape, responding to flexion-extension cycles across various joints. The fabric also enabled resistive and capacitive interaction modes, including pressure sensitivity, moisture response, and on–off switching through conductive bridging, along with capacitive touch input using MPR121. This was applied to create an interactive textile wristband capable of triggering shortcut actions such as launching websites on a computer. Together, these results highlight the versatility of the proposed m-WeTex patch as a multimodal interface. Its combination of conductivity, flexibility, superhydrophilicity, and washability makes it an attractive candidate for scalable, low-cost fabrication of wearable health and interaction devices, addressing the growing demand for sustainable and user-friendly electronic textiles. Declarations AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Authors Dr. Aditya Shekhar Nittala – Department of Computer Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected] Dr. Richa Pandey – Department of Biomedical Engineering and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected] Authors Sutirtha Roy – Department of Electrical and Software Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected] Dr. Krishna Prasad Aryal – Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected] Moshfiq-Us-Saleheen Chowdhury – Department of Electrical and Software Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected] Eliot Felix – Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected] Author Contributions S.R -Conceptualization, Experimentation, Methodology, Analysis, Designing sensors & applications, Writing-original draft & editing; K.P.A - Conceptualization, Material fabrication, Experimentation, Analysis, Writing-original draft and Reviewing; M.U.S.C - Experimentation, Formal analysis; E.F - Material fabrication, Data collection; A.N -Conceptualization, analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing-review & editing. R.P - Conceptualization, Analysis, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing-review & editing. Funding Sources This research was funded by the UCalgary Eye High Scholarship (K.P.A), Alberta Innovates Graduate Student Scholarship, Alberta Graduate Excellence Scholarship, MITACS Globalink Graduate Fellowship (S.R), NFRF-E (R.P., A.S.N.), Alberta Innovates Advance (R.P.), NSERC (R.P.), UCalgary Research Excellence Chair (R.P.). Notes The authors declare no competing financial interest. ACKNOWLEDGMENT All the experiments are performed in compliance with the biosafety permit PANDEY-R-24-02 and Ethics # REB23-0555_REN1. References Heo JS, Eom J, Kim YH, Park SK (2018) Recent progress of textile-based wearable electronics: a comprehensive review of materials, devices, and applications. Small 14(3):1703034 Wang X, Liu Z, Zhang T (2017) Flexible sensing electronics for wearable/attachable health monitoring. Small 13(25):1602790 Liu Y, Pharr M, Salvatore GA (2017) Lab-on-skin: a review of flexible and stretchable electronics for wearable health monitoring. ACS Nano 11(10):9614–9635 Zhang Y, Zheng XT, Zhang X, Pan J, Thean AV (2024) Hybrid integration of wearable devices for physiological monitoring. Chem Rev 124(18):10386–10434 Park J, Lee Y, Cho S, Choe A, Yeom J, Ro YG, Kim J, Kang DH, Lee S, Ko H (2024) Soft sensors and actuators for wearable human–machine interfaces. Chem Rev 124(4):1464–1534 Yin R, Wang D, Zhao S, Lou Z, Shen G (2021) Wearable sensors-enabled human–machine interaction systems: from design to application. Adv Funct Mater 31(11):2008936 Rao Z, Ershad F, Almasri A, Gonzalez L, Wu X, Yu C (2020) Soft electronics for the skin: from health monitors to human–machine interfaces. Adv Mater Technol 5(9):2000233 Lim HR, Kim HS, Qazi R, Kwon YT, Jeong JW, Yeo WH (2020) Advanced soft materials, sensor integrations, and applications of wearable flexible hybrid electronics in healthcare, energy, and environment. Adv Mater 32(15):1901924 Mamun MA, Yuce MR (2020) Recent progress in nanomaterial enabled chemical sensors for wearable environmental monitoring applications. Adv Funct Mater 30(51):2005703 Haghi M, Danyali S, Ayasseh S, Wang J, Aazami R, Deserno TM (2021) Wearable devices in health monitoring from the environmental towards multiple domains: A survey. Sensors 21(6):2130 Wang Y, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Sun P, Chen H (2020) High-sensitivity wearable and flexible humidity sensor based on graphene oxide/non-woven fabric for respiration monitoring. Langmuir 36(32):9443–9448 Alhashmi Alamer F, Althagafy K, Alsalmi O, Aldeih A, Alotaiby H, Althebaiti M, Alghamdi H, Alotibi N, Saeedi A, Zabarmawi Y, Hawsawi M (2022) Review on PEDOT: PSS-based conductive fabric. ACS omega 7(40):35371–35386 Ding Y, Xu W, Wang W, Fong H, Zhu Z (2017) Scalable and facile preparation of highly stretchable electrospun PEDOT: PSS@ PU fibrous nonwovens toward wearable conductive textile applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9(35):30014–30023 Paleo AJ, Krause B, Cerqueira MF, Muñoz E, Pötschke P, Rocha AM (2022) Electronic features of cotton fabric e-textiles prepared with aqueous carbon nanofiber inks. ACS Appl Eng Mater 1(1):122–131 Kongahge D, Foroughi J, Gambhir S, Spinks GM, Wallace GG (2016) Fabrication of a graphene coated nonwoven textile for industrial applications. RSC Adv 6(77):73203–73209 Zhang Y, Gao Q, Zhang S, Fan X, Qin J, Shi X, Zhang G (2022) rGO/MXene sandwich-structured film at spunlace non-woven fabric substrate: Application to EMI shielding and electrical heating. J Colloid Interface Sci 614:194–204 Wang D, Li D, Zhao M, Xu Y, Wei Q (2018) Multifunctional wearable smart device based on conductive reduced graphene oxide/polyester fabric. Appl Surf Sci 454:218–226 Jin F, Lv D, Shen W, Song W, Tan R (2022) High performance flexible and wearable strain sensor based on rGO and PANI modified Lycra cotton e-textile. Sens Actuators A: Phys 337:113412 Li Y, Ma B, Yang R, Zhao Y (2025) Optimisation of polypyrrole-modified conductive nonwoven fabrics: study of electrical and sensing properties. J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 36(6):374 Tang H, Zhou L, Chen Z, Zong Y, Niu K (2025) High-sensitivity and large-strain graphene non-woven fabric composites for multifunctional application. Chem Eng J 508:160837 Cai G, Yang M, Xu Z, Liu J, Tang B, Wang X (2017) Flexible and wearable strain sensing fabrics. Chem Eng J 325:396–403 Ma Q, Zhang Z, Zhang D, Tian W (2025) Multi-Scenario Applications of Multi‐Dimensional Yarn‐Based Wearable Integrated Sensors. Adv Funct Mater 35(6):2415044 Hu Q, Nag A, Zhang L, Wang K (2022) Reduced graphene oxide-based composites for wearable strain-sensing applications. Sens Actuators A: Phys 345:113767 Mi Q, Wang Q, Zang S, Mao G, Zhang J, Ren X (2017) RGO-coated elastic fibres as wearable strain sensors for full-scale detection of human motions. Smart Mater Struct 27(1):015014 Islam GN, Collie S, Gould M, Ali MA (2023) Two-dimensional carbon material incorporated and PDMS-coated conductive textile yarns for strain sensing. J Coat Technol Res 20(6):1881–1895 Yin F, Guo Y, Li H, Yue W, Zhang C, Chen D, Geng W, Li Y, Gao S, Shen G (2022) A waterproof and breathable Cotton/rGO/CNT composite for constructing a layer-by-layer structured multifunctional flexible sensor. Nano Res 15(10):9341–9351 Du D, Li P, Ouyang J (2016) Graphene coated nonwoven fabrics as wearable sensors. J Mater Chem C 4(15):3224–3230 Galvão FM, Cabral RL, Santos JE, Santos EV, Kim S, Souza DF, Silva KK, Nascimento JH (2025) Superhydrophobic and supercapacitive reduced graphene oxide/fluoropolymer nanocoating on polyester fabric via spray mist coating. Colloids Surf A 716:136696 Brown CJ Design of Electronics for Wearable Electrochemical Sensors (Doctoral dissertation, UC San Diego) Wang C, Xiang C, Tan L, Lan J, Peng L, Jiang S, Guo R (2017) Preparation of silver/reduced graphene oxide coated polyester fabric for electromagnetic interference shielding. RSC Adv 7:40452 Xin L, Qin Z, Dou Z, Liu N, Chen L, Zhu M (2014) Fabricating conductive poly(ethylene terephthalate) nonwoven fabrics using an aqueous dispersion of reduced graphene oxide as a sheet dyestuff. RSC Adv 4:23869 Wang C, Xiang C, Tan L, Lan J, Peng L, Jiang S, Guo R (2017) Preparation of silver/reduced graphene oxide coated polyester fabric for electromagnetic interference shielding. RSC Adv 7:40452–40461 Qianhe Shu Y, Pang Q, Li Y, Gu Z, Liu B, Liu J, Li Y, Li (2024) Flexible resistive tactile pressure sensors. J Mater Chem A 12:9296 Thiyagarajan S, Vogelzang W, Knoop RJI, Frissen AE, Haverena JV, van Es DS (2014) Biobased furandicarboxylic acids (FDCAs): effects of isomeric substitution on polyester synthesis and properties. Green Chem 16:1957–1966 Aryal KP, Jeong HK (2019) Functionalization of β-cyclodextrin into ambient plasma modified carbon nanotube-thermally reduced graphite oxide for electrochemical sensing of uric acid. Mater Chem Phys 238:121899 Santa-Nokki H, Kallioinen J, Korppi-Tommola J (2007) A dye-sensitized solar cell driven electrochromic device. Photochem Photobiol Sci 6:63–66 Wang K, Wu H, Meng Y, Zhang Y, Wei Z (2012) Integrated energy storage and electrochromic function in one flexible device: an energy storage smart window energy. Environ Sci 5:8384–8389 Dimitrios G, Papageorgiou IA, Ian KA, Young RJ (2017) Mechanical properties of graphene and graphene-based nanocomposites. Progress Mater Sci 90:75–127 Legner C, Kalwa U, Patel V, Chesmore A, Pandey S (2019) Sweat sensing in the smart wearables era: Towards integrative, multifunctional and body-compliant perspiration analysis. Sens Actuators A 296:200–221 Fupeng Gao C, Liu L, Zhang T, Liu Z, Wang Z, Song H, Cai Z, Fang J, Chen J, Wang M, Han J, Wang K, Lin R, Wang M, Li Q, Mei (2023) Xibo Ma, Shuli Liang, Guangyang Gou, and Ning Xue, Wearable and flexible electrochemical sensors for sweat analysis: a review. Microsystems Nanoengineering 9 Moonen EJ, Haakma JR, Peri E, Pelssers E, Mischi M, den Toonder JM (2020) Wearable sweat sensing for prolonged, semicontinuous, and nonobtrusive health monitoring. View 1(4):20200077 Li J, Sun Y, Yang X, Fu Z, Zhu X, Sun H Bin Yu, Superwetting Polypropylene Nonwoven Fabrics Modified by a Catechol-Based Biomimetic Strategy for Oil/Water Separation, ACS Appl. Polym Mater 5(12) 10484–10493 Herbert R, Kim JH, Kim YS, Lee HM, Yeo WH (2018) Soft material-enabled, flexible hybrid electronics for medicine, healthcare, and human-machine interfaces. Materials 11(2):187 Wu S, Huang J, Jing S, Xie H, Zhou S (2023) Biodegradable Shape-Memory Ionogels as Green and Adaptive Wearable Electronics Toward Physical Rehabilitation. Adv Funct Mater 33(36):2303292 Roy S, Chowdhury MU, Noim JO, Pandey R, Nittala AS HoloChemie-Sustainable Fabrication of Soft Biochemical Holographic Devices for Ubiquitous Sensing. InProceedings of the 37th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology 2024 Oct 13 (pp. 1–19) Nittala AS, Steimle J (2022) Next steps in epidermal computing: Opportunities and challenges for soft on-skin devices. InProceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Apr 29 (pp. 1–22) Kwon S, Kwon YT, Kim YS, Lim HR, Mahmood M, Yeo WH (2020) Skin-conformal, soft material-enabled bioelectronic system with minimized motion artifacts for reliable health and performance monitoring of athletes. Biosens Bioelectron 151:111981 Sun Y, Ouyang B, Rawat RS, Chen Z (2020) Rapid and stable plasma transformation of polyester fabrics for highly efficient oil–water separation. Global Challenges 4(7):1900095 Jinka S, Behrens R, Korzeniewski C, Singh V, Arunachalam A, Parameswaran S, Coimbatore G, Kendall R, Wolf R, Ramkumar S (2013) Atmospheric pressure plasma treatment and breathability of polypropylene nonwoven fabric. J Ind Text 42(4):501–514 Sun G, Jiang Y, Sun H, Wang P, Meng C, Guo S (2023) Flexible, breathable, and hydrophobic iontronic tactile sensors based on a nonwoven fabric platform for permeable and waterproof wearable sensing applications. ACS Appl Electron Mater 5(11):6477–6489 Li S, Luo P, Lu H, Xu H, Zhou T (2025 May) Multifunctional flexible wearable liquid metal electronic textiles with excellent antimicrobial and electromagnetic interference shielding based on laser-induced selective metallization. Chem Eng J 8:163372 Heo JS, Eom J, Kim YH, Park SK (2018) Recent progress of textile-based wearable electronics: a comprehensive review of materials, devices, and applications. Small 14(3):1703034 Wang Y, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Sun P, Chen H (2020) High-sensitivity wearable and flexible humidity sensor based on graphene oxide/non-woven fabric for respiration monitoring. Langmuir 36(32):9443–9448 Jose M, Oudebrouckx G, Bormans S, Veske P, Thoelen R, Deferme W (2021) Monitoring body fluids in textiles: Combining impedance and thermal principles in a printed, wearable, and washable sensor. ACS Sens 6(3):896–907 Zhang L, Zhou M, He Y, Wang L, Song H, Du H, Liu H, Liu C (2024) Flexible porous non-woven silk fabric based conductive composite for efficient multimodal sensing. Chem Eng J 497:154445 Azani MR, Hassanpour A (2024) Electronic textiles (E-Textiles): Types, fabrication methods, and recent strategies to overcome durability challenges (washability & flexibility). J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 35(29):1897 Yu R, Zhu C, Wan J, Li Y, Hong X (2021) Review of graphene-based textile strain sensors, with emphasis on structure activity relationship. Polymers 13(1):151 Shu Q, Pang Y, Li Q, Gu Y, Liu Z, Liu B, Li J, Li Y (2024) Flexible resistive tactile pressure sensors. J Mater Chem A 12(16):9296–9321 De Geyter N, Morent R, Leys C (2006) Surface modification of a polyester non-woven with a dielectric barrier discharge in air at medium pressure. Surf Coat Technol 201(6):2460–2466 Zafar H, Channa A, Jeoti V, Stojanović GM (2022) Comprehensive review on wearable sweat-glucose sensors for continuous glucose monitoring. Sensors 22(2):638 Davison B (2010) Techniques for robust touch sensing design. AN1334 Microchip Technology Inc. ;53 Chowdhury MU, Roy S, Aryal KP, Leung H, Pandey R (2024) Realizing the Potential of Commercial E-Textiles for Wearable Glucose Biosensing Application. ACS Mater Au 4(6):592–603 Chen Q, Liu Y, Gu K, Yao J, Shao Z, Chen X (2022) Silk-based electrochemical sensor for the detection of glucose in sweat. Biomacromolecules 23(9):3928–3935 Wang M, Zheng J, Zhang G, Lu S, Zhou J (2025) Wearable Electrochemical Glucose Sensors for Fluid Monitoring: Advances and Challenges in Non-Invasive and Minimally Invasive Technologies. Biosensors 15(5):309 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files SupplementoryInformationmWeTex.docx m-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform floatimage6.jpeg For Table of Contents Only/Abstract Graphics Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7208298","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":490498428,"identity":"c91959b3-368a-4af1-a704-ca81de67733d","order_by":0,"name":"Sutirtha Roy","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-8952-886X","institution":"University of Calgary","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sutirtha","middleName":"","lastName":"Roy","suffix":""},{"id":490499218,"identity":"e3f71240-bde8-4889-b742-33facd9de277","order_by":1,"name":"Dr. Krishna Prasad Aryal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Calgary","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Krishna","middleName":"Prasad","lastName":"Aryal","suffix":""},{"id":490499219,"identity":"cac04500-9b60-42ae-8ef4-2b50def12d17","order_by":2,"name":"Moshfiq-Us-Saleheen Chowdhury","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9562-5916","institution":"University of Calgary","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Moshfiq-Us-Saleheen","middleName":"","lastName":"Chowdhury","suffix":""},{"id":490499220,"identity":"48c67fa7-4e66-4ca7-a7b7-2993a0f7bf3b","order_by":3,"name":"Eliot Felix","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Calgary","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eliot","middleName":"","lastName":"Felix","suffix":""},{"id":490499221,"identity":"5ce865e2-1419-4ed6-afef-fd6f548dd272","order_by":4,"name":"Dr. Aditya Shekhar Nittala","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3698-9733","institution":"University of Calgary","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Aditya","middleName":"Shekhar","lastName":"Nittala","suffix":""},{"id":490499222,"identity":"c37b7d38-49b1-40fe-8d52-5038260db438","order_by":5,"name":"Dr. Richa Pandey","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABE0lEQVRIie3OsUrEMBjA8S9W4hLMmiMHfYWWwpUb2r7KlYCT4iDIjU5xKbgKuvkCBSe3QMEu4tzhBl0y3XBwIB0cLu0dOKXnbYL5D0mG/PIFwOX6i3mAd6cZwMpspwcRdG82PHR71w/xyG9IfOvpjxYWfnwiXnkiUx/TJ70mkPo2Mq5wHBagw5dCn/ELKULJdPRAQIQ3FsI8ghmBCpXN+cQQhSRTkfmhQkNk9A1VVjaXX3wqVSZZve5INkS4mZKbKZgjqXJJi35Kbid4wseBFuWbjqbFuxCSkSv0GAhhJbTSo+V8kZS1+Gza6zS5o/UzLOdpYiPbAtWtx2z7ygyOSDB4v6sn3qo/UwWo3StcLpfrH7UBikpQaY06dGAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5070-0353","institution":"University of Calgary","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Richa","middleName":"","lastName":"Pandey","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-24 19:08:22","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7208298/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7208298/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87685220,"identity":"b73c0ded-1dfd-4453-94f0-71bd70bca0bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:11:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70910,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic illustration of the fabrication and potential applications of the rGO-coated flexible non-woven polyester textile. (a) Fabrication process showing deposition of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) ink onto the non-woven polyester textile substrate, followed by drying and patterning to form conductive pathways. (b) Conceptual representation of the diverse sensing modalities enabled by the rGO-coated textile, including its use in electrochemical sensing of biomarkers, strain and deformation sensing for monitoring body movements, and other on-body physiological measurements.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/57178dfa173a4b1ab7aefe04.png"},{"id":87685637,"identity":"c6f815da-b768-4280-b745-fce1952737be","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:27:38","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":141672,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStructural, wettability, mechanical, and electrical characterization of the flexible non-woven polyester textile and rGO-coated textile (rGO-F2). (a, e) SEM images of (a) pristine non-woven polyester textile showing smooth fiber morphology, and (b) rGO-F2-coated textile exhibiting uniform rGO coverage on fiber surfaces. (c) Tensile strength curves comparing the mechanical properties of pristine and rGO-F2-coated textiles, indicating changes in mechanical behavior upon rGO deposition. (d) Sheet resistance measurements of the rGO-F2 textile. (e) Water contact angle measurements showing the pristine textile is hydrophobic with a contact angle of 117.8° (f), while the rGO-F2 textile becomes fully hydrophilic with a contact angle of 0°.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/9a64ff1f51fc84f129a7f169.png"},{"id":87685221,"identity":"4be1b460-7b0a-462b-ae55-89d125d5ff92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:11:38","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":136531,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eElectrochemical glucose sensing performance of the rGO-F2-coated non-woven polyester textile. (a) Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) curves obtained for varying glucose concentrations demonstrating increasing peak currents with higher glucose levels. (b) Calibration plot of peak current versus glucose concentration, indicating a linear relationship and demonstrating sensor sensitivity. (c) DPV responses of rGO-F2 sensors in the presence of glucose and potential interfering analytes (e.g., cortisol, lactate, or other biomarkers), highlighting distinct electrochemical signatures. (d) Bar graph comparing peak current responses of the sensor toward glucose and interfering analytes, confirming the high selectivity of the rGO-F2-based glucose sensor.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/35a1aa7de2435e4ca0716fc7.png"},{"id":87685231,"identity":"bc7b349c-16f9-4815-8d89-ff51bd16d305","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:11:38","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":136837,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMultifunctional interaction capabilities of the m-WeTex platform under diverse mechanical, capacitive, and environmental stimuli. (a) Sensor resistance decreases with increasing compressive pressure, confirming piezoresistive sensitivity for soft pressure input. (b) Resistance increases under tensile strain and plateaus beyond 5 N, indicating reliable stretch detection for moderate deformation. (c) ADC values drop steadily as a finger approaches, demonstrating effective proximity and touch sensing. (d) Capacitive ADC values decrease with increasing applied pressure, enabling graded pressure-based capacitive input. (e) Electrical switching is enabled by adhesive bridging of rGO strips, showing reversible on/off behavior. (f) Push-triggered contact reduces resistance sharply, validating a binary soft switch using compressive interaction. (g) Resistance varies inversely with conductive strip width, supporting passive input identification through geometric encoding. (h) Resistance decreases with increasing humidity volume and saturates after 600 µL, confirming environmental moisture responsiveness for applications like sweat detection.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/3582d28c0a76448f043423fb.png"},{"id":87685364,"identity":"9500aa62-0f8e-4944-afc2-fa557c88765f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:19:38","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2113046,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDemonstration of multifunctional sensing applications using m-WeTex. (a–d) Sweat glucose sensing via an electrochemical textile sensor worn on the forehead: (a) photograph of on-body measurement; (b) schematic of electrochemical sensing using m-WeTex sensor; (c) differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) curves showing glucose responses for three users; (d) corresponding peak current levels, with measured sweat glucose concentrations indicated. (e–h) Joint movement monitoring using an rGO-based deformation sensor: (e–g) resistance changes recorded during finger, elbow and knee flexion movements; (h) signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) analysis across three trials demonstrating repeatable deformation sensing performance. (i–l) Touch-sensitive shortcut control using an rGO-based capacitive touch sensor: (i, j) photographs showing activation of digital shortcuts through finger touch on the textile; (k) time-dependent capacitive response during repeated touch events; (l) SNR analysis across three trials confirming consistent touch sensing performance.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/4c1a6c2c741137e69fbae1e8.png"},{"id":87685790,"identity":"94e8e96a-37d3-49fd-8861-7759ba63168a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:35:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3291843,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/496347ba-8e70-4aad-b817-8f6f85bfa7a1.pdf"},{"id":87685365,"identity":"9ced4564-f3f5-4e67-bc12-71266f1aa001","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:19:38","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":14498212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003em-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"SupplementoryInformationmWeTex.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/06a92e1dadccfe265b174e5b.docx"},{"id":87685361,"identity":"8e210374-1b01-4fa6-9fc2-8016b2eee803","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 02:19:38","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":50074,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFor Table of Contents Only/Abstract Graphics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7208298/v1/1596c401d57b6abb206ebc5d.jpeg"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003em-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWearable and soft electronic devices have gained substantial momentum in recent years due to their unique ability to integrate seamlessly with the human body [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], enabling real-time physiological monitoring [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], human-machine interaction [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], and environmental sensing [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. These technologies are central to emerging applications such as personalized healthcare [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], athletic performance monitoring [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], rehabilitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], and ubiquitous computing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. As these applications increasingly demand unobtrusive, skin-compatible, and continuously operable platforms, textile-based substrates, particularly nonwoven polyester fabrics, have emerged as compelling candidates due to their intrinsic softness, breathability, mechanical robustness, low cost, and mass-market availability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Transformation of textiles into functional electronic interfaces presents fundamental challenges, particularly in achieving stable conductivity without significantly altering the fabric’s mechanical and tactile properties. Conventional fabrication techniques, including metallic coatings or chemical polymerization (e.g., PEDOT: PSS or carbon-based inks), often require high-temperature curing, toxic reagents, and complex infrastructure [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], which limits scalability and compatibility with wearable applications. Thus, there remains a critical need for simple, low-cost, and scalable strategies to utilize everyday textiles with multifunctional sensing capabilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNonwoven fabrics have garnered increasing attention in the field of wearable electronics due to their lightweight nature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], high porosity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e], breathability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e], and mechanical adaptability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Constructed by entangled, randomly oriented fibers, these fabrics exhibit a three-dimensional fibrous structure that not only allows excellent air and moisture permeability but also ensures skin-conformal softness, crucial for long-term wearability. From a materials standpoint, their rough microstructure and large surface area provide ideal conditions for functionalization with conductive coatings, making them a compelling substrate for physiological and environmental monitoring [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, nonwoven textiles have been explored in diverse sensing applications, including hydration tracking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], thermal effusivity mapping [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e], skin impedance analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e], and electrochemical sweat sensing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. A notable study demonstrated a multimodal printed sensor on a woven polyester textile capable of both impedance and thermal sensing, highlighting the potential of integrating multiple sensing modalities onto a single wearable platform [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. However, despite these advancements, several challenges remain in adapting nonwoven textiles for practical, multimodal sensing. One of the most significant hurdles lies in imparting reliable and durable electrical conductivity without compromising the material’s inherent softness, breathability, and tactile quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. Conventional fabrication approaches, such as vacuum-deposited metals, screen-printed carbon inks, or conductive polymer coatings, typically require high-temperature curing, toxic solvents, or complex multi-step processing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. These conditions not only make the fabrication process infrastructure-dependent but also risk altering the physical characteristics of the textile, thereby reducing user comfort and sensor robustness due to wear and tear. To address these limitations, nanomaterial-based conductive coatings have gained momentum, with materials like reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and MXenes offering attractive alternatives due to their excellent conductivity, solution processability, and mechanical resilience. rGO can be dispersed in aqueous media and deposited onto textiles via simple methods such as dip coating or spray coating. While some recent efforts have used rGO to create strain sensors, capacitive touch sensors, or electrochemical sensors individually, most of these implementations rely on cleanroom facilities or require post-processing steps incompatible with scalable, low-cost manufacturing. Thus, despite promising early results, a gap remains in developing multifunctional, superhydrophilic textile sensors that combine durability, comfort, and accessibility using environmentally benign, out-of-lab fabrication techniques (Table S1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this work, we present \u003cb\u003em-WeTex\u003c/b\u003e, a \u003cb\u003em\u003c/b\u003eultifunctional \u003cb\u003eWe\u003c/b\u003earable \u003cb\u003eTex\u003c/b\u003etile platform developed by uniformly coating reduced graphene oxide (rGO) onto nonwoven polyester fabric using a scalable, and operationally facile technique termed Kinetic Immersion Coating (KIC). Our method leverages common tools such as magnetic stirrers and aqueous dispersions of rGO, allowing for easy and reproducible fabrication outside specialized laboratories. This approach eliminates the need for high-temperature processing, cleanroom environments, or toxic reagents, making it viable for low-resource settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy combining simplicity of fabrication, preservation of substrate softness, and multifunctional sensing capabilities, m-WeTex offers a practical and accessible pathway for embedding electronic functionality into everyday soft wearable systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur approach holds significant promises for diverse applications, including continuous health monitoring, interactive garments, sports performance tracking, environmental sensing, and future e-textile platforms that merge comfort with capability. This work contributes to the growing interest in research on sustainable and scalable fabrication of wearable electronics using everyday materials and low-cost tools/fabrication methods.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS AND MATERIALS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMATERIALS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNonwoven polyester fabric (Amazon) and kinesiology tape (CKeep Kinesiology Tape, Amazon) were purchased from Amazon. Graphene oxide (GO), L-ascorbic acid, potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) (K₄[Fe(CN)₆], ACS reagent, 98.5 − 102.0%), sodium chloride (NaCl, ACS reagent, ≥ 99.0%), phosphate buffer solution (PB, 1.0 M, pH 7.4), and glucose oxidase (GOx, from Aspergillus niger, ≥ 100,000 U/g) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. Artificial sweat was also procured from Sigma-Aldrich. The Thermoweb Heat’n Bond Ultrahold Iron-On Adhesive (5/8 inch × 10 yards) and regular clear nail polish were sourced from Amazon. A Cricut Maker 3 desktop xurography machine and digital multimeter were also purchased from Cricut and Amazon. Electrical components including resistors, MPR121 capacitive touch sensor, Arduino Uno R3, and connector cables were sourced from DigiKey Electronics. Deionized (DI) water was used as the solvent in all experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFABRICATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePREPARATION OF CONDUCTIVE rGO COATED NON-WOVEN FABRIC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduced graphene oxide (rGO) was synthesized by reducing GO with L-ascorbic acid. A solution of 50 mg GO (1 mg/mL) and 50 mg AA in 100 mL deionized (DI) water was heated at 95°C for 1 hour, followed by 1 hour of sonication. The resulting black precipitate was filtered, washed with DI water to remove excess AA, and dried overnight at room temperature. The rGO was then deposited onto 4 cm × 4 cm non-woven polyester fabric using a Kinetic Immersion Coating (KIC) method. Fabrics were immersed in rGO dispersions of varying concentrations (1:1, 1:2, and 1:4 mg/mL, labeled rGO-F1, F2, F3) and stirred for 12 hours, followed by 24 hours of static soaking (Figure S1). After rinsing and drying, conductive rGO-coated fabrics were obtained for sensor fabrication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eELECTROCHEMICAL SENSING\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo develop a wearable sweat glucose sensor, a three-electrode electrochemical patch was fabricated using rGO-coated non-woven fabric. The patch comprised a working electrode (WE), counter electrode (CE), and reference electrode (RE), all cut from the same rGO-coated textile. To ensure that the redox reaction is limited by the working electrode, the counter electrode was de-signed to be larger and more conductive, enabling greater charge transfer capacity and stable electrochemical performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Electrode strips with surface areas of 0.08 cm², 0.12 cm², and 0.14 cm² were cut using a desktop xurography machine (Cricut Maker 3), and their resistances were measured in a two-probe configuration using a digital multimeter. Measurements were repeated across three samples per dimension, and the optimal configuration, featuring a low-resistance CE and moderate-resistance WE, was selected for patch assembly (see Supporting Information). The electrodes were mounted onto a non-woven fabric substrate, and Ag/AgCl paste was applied to the reference electrode. For enzymatic glucose sensing, 0.1 µM GOx was drop-cast onto the WE. The electrochemically active area was defined, and the remaining surface insulated, using commercially available nail polish.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEFORMATION AND TOUCH SENSING\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the m-WeTex platform for biomechanical and interactive applications, we implemented two sensing configurations: deformation-based joint movement monitoring and capacitive touch interface design. For deformation sensing, rGO-coated non-woven m-WeTex fabric was integrated into a wearable joint sensor by mounting it on kinesiology tape, which was first applied to the skin across target joints. This approach ensured stable skin attachment while allowing conformal deformation tracking. The fabric strips were cut using a Cricut Maker 3 and affixed to the tape at the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint of the finger, the cubital region of the elbow, and the patellar region of the knee. These positions were chosen to capture a range of joint flexion–extension dynamics. Resistance changes in the fabric were monitored using a voltage divider circuit interfaced with an Arduino Uno, enabling real-time motion tracking. Five consecutive trials were conducted for each joint motion task, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] was calculated to assess repeatability and sensing fidelity. For touch sensing, discrete electrode zones were patterned from the same rGO-coated textile and bonded to a woven cotton backing using iron-on adhesive (Thermoweb Heat’n Bond). This configuration was assembled into a wearable wristband featuring multiple touch-sensitive regions. Each electrode was connected to an MPR121 capacitive touch sensor, with outputs interfaced to an Arduino board for gesture recognition and shortcut triggering. Sensor performance was quantified by recording ADC values across multiple trials and computing SNR to validate signal consistency. The system demonstrated the feasibility of low-cost, fabric-based capacitive touch interfaces for on-body interactive control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCHARACTERIZATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eScanning electron microscopy (SEM, Phenom Pro X, Thermo Fisher Scientific) and Electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) are studied to observe the detailed morphology and elemental composition of the fabrics before and after the transformation, respectively. The chemical environment of the prepared films is confirmed with X-ray photoelectron microscopy (XPS, omicron Nanotechnology ESCA probe system). Raman spectroscopy is explicitly measured to verify the reduction of GO into rGO. Additionally, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA, in the temperature range of 10°C to 900°C in the presence of N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) is performed to further confirm the successful coating of nonwoven fabric with conductive material.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface absorptivity and hydrophilicity of all the fabrics are evaluated by dispensing 100 µl of distilled water onto the surface. Subsequently, the contact angle of the water droplet is recorded for 800 seconds using a contact angle analysis machine (OCA15EC Optical Contact Angle \u0026amp; Contour Analysis System, Data-physics). Tensile strength (UniVert, Cell Scale) measurement is performed to record breaking point of each fabric sample applying force in the range of 0–50 N. To analyze the electrical properties and also to confirm the loading of conductive material onto nonwoven fabric surface, sheet resistance of each modified fabric is measured. For this analysis, a 4-point probe measurement is conducted using a four-point probe (Four Point Probe, Ossila). The experimental setup involved a probe equipped with four uniformly positioned electrical contacts (needles or pins) establishing direct contact with the fabric material under examination. Further, to confirm the broader scope and versatility of the modified nonwoven fabric material, the intensity of the LED bulb is recorded using light-dependent resistor (LDR) under deformation of modified fabric such as straight, bending and twisted. The stability of coated conductive materials over the surface of the nonwoven fabric is confirmed with a water-deepening test for an extended period under continuous observation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate mechanical durability, cyclic stress tests were performed by subjecting each printed sample to 1000 cycles of repeated bending and compression over one week, following the protocol of Khan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. For each material, three samples were tested, and resistance was measured three times per sample. The average resistance values and standard deviations were calculated to assess stability under mechanical strain. Washability tests were conducted to evaluate material durability after repeated exposure to water and mechanical agitation, simulating realistic laundering conditions. Each sample underwent seven washing cycles over one week. For each material, three samples were tested, and resistance measurements were averaged to determine changes in electrical performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen developing interactive wearable devices using textile substrates, it is essential to ensure that the processes used to impart electrical functionality, such as coating with conductive inks or nanomaterials, do not significantly alter the inherent softness, flexibility, and comfort of the fabric. To evaluate whether the deposition of conductive coatings, particularly rGO, affects the mechanical softness of non-woven polyester textiles, we conducted a dedicated experimental study. In this experiment, samples of the rGO-coated non-woven polyester textile were prepared and subsequently coated with functional inks as part of the device fabrication process. To systematically quantify changes in material softness, we measured the Shore hardness of these textile samples using a Durometer Type O, an instrument designed to assess indentation resistance and provide a standardized measure of elasticity and flexibility. For the study, three independent trials were performed, and in each trial, three replicate textile samples were measured, resulting in a total of nine measurements for the rGO-coated textile. Baseline Shore hardness readings were also recorded for the uncoated rGO textile to serve as a reference for comparison. This investigation aims to verify whether integrating conductive inks and nanomaterial coatings into non-woven textiles results in significant stiffening or changes in the fabric’s tactile properties, which is crucial for maintaining user comfort and wearability in practical applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eELECTROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the electrochemical performance of the rGO-based textile patch, Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) was first performed using a portable potentiostat (EmStat Pico, PalmSens). The CV was conducted over a voltage range of − 0.8 V to + 0.8 V at a scan rate of 100 mV/s, using the three-electrode textile patch immersed in a 2 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) (K₄[Fe (CN)₆]) solution. This initial test aimed to confirm the patch’s ability to support reversible redox reactions and establish baseline electrochemical behavior. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) was subsequently conducted under similar conditions to extract the charge transfer resistance (R_ct) and double-layer capacitance (C_dl), which provide insight into interfacial kinetics and surface behavior. To evaluate enzymatic glucose sensing, the working electrode was functionalized by GOx. After enzyme immobilization, 100 µL of 0.1 mM glucose solution was applied to the surface of the patch, and CV was repeated under the same scan parameters. Two control conditions were also tested: (i) a GOx-modified patch with no glucose (0 mM), and (ii) a patch without GOx exposed to 0.1 mM glucose. These controls were essential to isolate the contribution of the enzyme–substrate interaction to the observed current response. To assess sensitivity across a physiologically relevant range, Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) was performed from − 0.8 V to + 1.5 V at a scan rate of 100 mV/s. Glucose concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.015, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2 mM were prepared in artificial sweat (pH 4.5), and 100 µL of each was applied to the sensor. The resulting peak current values were recorded and averaged across three sensors for each concentration to construct a calibration curve. The sensitivity (S) of the patch was calculated from the slope of this linear fit. The limit of detection (LOD) was determined using the standard formula:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLOD = (3.3 x σ)/S\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere σ is the standard deviation of the signal measured at 0 mM glucose concentration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate selectivity, additional DPV tests were conducted using solutions of 0.05 mM glucose, 25 mM lactic acid, 0.1 mM ascorbic acid, and 1 µM cortisol, each prepared in artificial sweat (pH 4.5). These analytes were selected based on their common presence in human sweat and potential to interfere with glucose sensing. The same DPV protocol was followed, and comparative analysis of current responses was used to assess molecular specificity and interference effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMULTIMODAL INTERACTION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll experiments in this section were conducted using rGO-coated non-woven fabric patches patterned using a Cricut Maker 3 and electrically interfaced with standard connector cables. Resistance measurements were performed under ambient laboratory conditions (24 ± 1°C) using a digital multimeter, and each test was repeated in triplicate to ensure reproducibility. To investigate the deformation-driven response, two separate modes were assessed. In the press/bend experiment, rGO patches were placed beneath 4 mm spacer foam and subjected to calibrated metal weights corresponding to pressures in the range of 981–2500 Pa. Resistance values were recorded after each loading step to characterize pressure-dependent piezoresistive behavior. In the stretch configuration, rGO strips were clamped within a custom tensile fixture and loaded incrementally with uniaxial force; resistance was simultaneously recorded to generate force–resistance curves quantifying the material’s strain sensitivity. For humidity response characterization, incremental volumes of deionized water (10–100 µL) were sprayed onto the rGO surface, and resistance was recorded after a 30-second interval following each application to evaluate moisture-induced conductivity changes. To demonstrate conductive path switching, two configurations were tested. In the push test, rGO pads were affixed to opposite sides of a spacer foam block; applying vertical pressure compressed the foam and brought the two pads into contact, thus closing the circuit and forming a textile-based binary switch. In the adhere test, two stationary rGO electrodes were patterned with a small gap between them. A third movable rGO strip was used as a bridging element; when its ends made contact with both fixed electrodes, the circuit was completed, and the closed-state resistance was measured. This test was repeated with bridge strips of equal length but varying widths to evaluate geometry-dependent resistance values. Each width produced a distinct resistance signature, enabling identification of discrete inputs based on passive physical dimensions. For capacitive sensing characterization, rGO pads were interfaced with an MPR121 capacitive touch controller connected to an Arduino Uno. In the proximity test, a grounded human finger was moved from a distance of 50 mm above the fabric to direct contact, while the Arduino serial monitor logged changes in ADC counts to quantify capacitive response versus distance. In the pressure test, the same rGO pad was subjected to calibrated normal loads while maintaining touch contact, and the corresponding shifts in ADC values were recorded to examine the correlation between applied pressure and capacitive signal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUSER EVALUATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants: We recruited 3 participants (2 male and 1 female, mean age = 28.7, sd = 4.73) for an uncontrolled user study (REB23-0555_REN1) to evaluate the performance of the m-WeTex based electrochemical sweat glucose sensor under real-world conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethod: An uncontrolled user study was conducted to assess the performance of the rGO-textile-based sensor for detecting sweat glucose levels on-body under real-world conditions. Three participants wore the rGO-textile glucose sensing patch during moderate physical activity to induce sweat production. Sweat samples were collected and analyzed using a sweat glucose assay testing kit, and glucose concentrations were measured with a portable spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific NanoDrop 2000). Simultaneously, electrochemical current measurements were recorded from the rGO coated textile sensor for each participant by running DPV using PalmSens Sensit Smart. This study aimed to examine whether the sensor could reliably detect variations in sweat glucose levels and to establish the correlation between biochemical assay results and electrical sensor outputs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003em-WeTex platform is developed by coating a rGO layer on the non-woven textile fabric using the KIC method. A notable and unprecedented outcome of this coating strategy is the transformation of fabric\u0026rsquo;s surface from strongly hydrophobic to superhydrophilic, a shift that is highly advantageous for fluid-interactive and biosensing applications (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). Altogether, these features result in a fabric surface that promotes ultra-fast liquid spreading and absorption, making it ideally suited for applications requiring consistent analyte contact and conformal skin interfacing. Building on these unique material properties, the multifunctional capability of m-WeTex is illustrated through various sensing modalities (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). These include capacitive touch sensing, enabled by fabric-integrated switches interfaced with an MPR121 capacitive sensor; resistive deformation sensing for accurate tracking of joint movements, such as elbow flexion; and electrochemical glucose sensing, facilitated by sensors functionalized with the glucose oxidase enzyme.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface morphology of the unmodified non-woven polyester fabric (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) reveals a very compact and rigid surface with an intrinsic fibrous morphology (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea). On the other hand, a modified rGO-coated non-woven fabric (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb) showed a significantly altered morphology, showcasing successful loading of the conducting rGO onto the unmodified non-woven polyester fabric. The coated fabric\u0026rsquo;s surface shows a more expanded, porous, and crosslinked morphology. It has been demonstrated that porous and crosslinked surfaces provide better current flow and bioreceptor loading [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], leading to enhanced electrochemical surface performance. The successful binding between the unmodified fabric and rGO surface may be attributed to Van-der Waals force of attraction, π-π stacking interactions, covalent bonding and mechanical interlocking or interfusing under a dynamic coating environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Additional SEM images of rGO-F2 measured at different magnifications clearly display the altered morphology, presented in Figure S2 (a-d). In the meantime, the morphology of both modified fabrics, rGO-F1 and rGO-F3, was also studied and elaborated in supplementary information (SI), Figure S3 (a-f). In addition, the elemental composition of the modified fabric, rGO-F2, is also analyzed and compared with the unmodified fabric, using EDS measurement (Figure S4). This result further confirmed the successful coating of the non-woven fabric surface with the conductive surface of rGO.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fabrication of a rGO-modified nonwoven fabric surface is further confirmed by TGA analysis, as shown in Figure S5. The curve showed the % weight loss from the modified rGO-F2 surface over the applied temperature range of 10\u0026deg;C to 700\u0026deg;C. Detailed information is included in the SI file. Additionally, to study the details on the structure and chemical composition of rGO-F2 fabric, Raman and XPS measurements were conducted. Results and further detailed explanation is included in SI (Figure S6a and Figure S7, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical strength of all the prepared fabrics, including the unmodified nonwoven fabric, is systematically evaluated with tensile strength measurement, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec and Figure S6b. Among all the fabrics tested, rGO-F2 possessed the highest mechanical performance, with a maximum breaking point of 6.4 N and corresponding displacement of almost 10 mm. In contrast, non-woven fabric displayed a lower breaking point of 5.5 N and a corresponding displacement of around 5 mm. The improved mechanical performance of rGO-F2 compared to the pristine nonwoven suggested the higher durability, flexibility and resistance to mechanical stress during real-time applications in wearables. Enhancement of these mechanical properties, both tensile strength and elongation, observed with rGO-F2 fabric, is are, is likely attributed to the crosslinked and loosely held morphology, as evidenced by SEM images.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sheet resistance of all the rGO-coated fabrics, rGO-F1, rGO-F2 and rGO-F3, is also examined systematically to assess the conductivities following the introduction of rGO onto nonwoven fabric and presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed and Figure S6c. The measurement revealed that rGO-F2 exhibited the lowest sheet resistance of 1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;30.39) Ω/sq., providing clear evidence of the formation of a conductive surface onto the nonwoven fabric. Generally, for practical applications in sensing and interactive devices, it demands sheet resistance in the range of 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e to 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e Ω/sq [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], ensuring the required conductivity while maintaining flexibility. Minimum sheet resistance is preferred for highly sensitive applications, as it reduces interference while transferring signal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. All prepared sensors are examined for 25 repeated measurement cycles to validate reproducibility and stability. A negligible deviation in sheet resistance is observed across the cycle, with a very low standard deviation of 0.65, a mean value of 1.69\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e Ω/sq, and coefficient of variation of 3.71 \u0026times; 10⁻⁵, indicating the high reliability of the conductive surface.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNonwoven fabrics are inherently flexible. This makes them suitable for various applications, such as wearable and flexible electronic devices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. We performed the flexibility test of the integrated sensor to ensure that it will not impose any limitations when used in practical applications. Specifically, variations of LED bulbs connected to the fabric under straight, bending and twisting configurations are analyzed. Results showed consistent LED intensities of ~\u0026thinsp;23 lux, 19.55 lux, and 18.57 lux, respectively, as measured with the light-dependent resistor (LDR), while the initial intensity was ~\u0026thinsp;11 lux, as shown in Figure S6d. We used an LED-LDR setup as mentioned in the literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] for measuring the light intensity of the LEDs in each deformation state. We also recorded the intensities for each deformation scenarios for 40s at an interval of 5s to verify the stability of the luminance over the period, resulting in no significant difference in intensity during the observation period, as shown in Figure S6d. These findings indicated that the fabric\u0026rsquo;s electrical performance is unaffected by the range of deformations, confirming its suitability for broader applications in flexible electronics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurface absorptivity is a significant parameter for characterizing the fabric surface, particularly in its interaction with moisture, including water and sweat molecules [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. In sweat-sensing wearable devices, absorptivity plays a key role in consistent fluid transport, ensuring reliable biosensing and user comfort [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Contact angle measurement was carried out to observe the affinity of water towards the sensor surface, both unmodified and modified. The unmodified sensor showed a water contact angle of 117.8\u0026deg; (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ee), confirming a completely hydrophobic or water-repellent surface area. Polyester non-woven fabric possesses absence of polar functional groups and low surface energy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, randomly arranged fibers and air pockets reduce the interaction with moisture, enhancing hydrophobicity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, the surface of rGO-F2 exhibited surprisingly increased hydrophilicity, offering exceptionally strong affinity with water molecules with almost zero water contact angle, θ\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;0\u0026deg; (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ef). In the case of rGO-F3, the water contact angle slightly reduced to 89.9\u0026deg; tending to show some hydrophilic nature (Figure S8b) and for rGO-F1 it is 38.4\u0026deg; (Figure S8c).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo the best of our knowledge, we are the first to demonstrate such a transformation to superhydrophilicity in nonwoven polyester fabric via rGO coating alone (SI Table S1), marking a significant advancement in textile functionalization. This exceptional wetting behaviour is attributed to the following contributions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col style=\"list-style-type:lower-roman;\"\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual oxygen-containing functional groups on the rGO surface, retained through ascorbic acid-assisted reduction;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe inherent surface roughness of the nonwoven fabric, which enhances wettability via Wenzel\u0026rsquo;s wetting model, and\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe porous, randomly oriented fiber network of the nonwoven structure, which supports capillary-driven fluid transport.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe strong super-hydrophilic behaviour might also be corroborated by the results of altered morphology after introducing rGO onto the rigid and compact surfaces of nonwoven fabric. Additionally, the presence of hydrophilic functionalities (-OH, -COOH), confirmed by both TGA and XPS, plays a significant role in making the surface hydrophilic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe stability of the m-WeTex to washing is assessed by immersing the sensor in water for an extended duration. Following this, water is closely observed to confirm if there is any detachment of sensing particles from the nonwoven fabric surface. After the observation at 24h and 48h of immersion period, the water remained clear and showed no visible particulate matter, as shown in Figure S9. The finding suggested that the rGO modification firmly adhered to the surface of non-woven fabric, exhibiting excellent stability under an aqueous solution. After performing all the morphological characterization, we found that rGO-F2 outperforms the other coated fabrics, i.e., rGO-F1 and rGO-F3. Hence, we decided to use rGO-F2 for creating various sensors and interactions in the following sections.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe also conducted another set of durability tests where the rGO-F2 fabric was went through cyclic stress tests and washed under a sink. rGO-coated nonwoven polyester fabric, resistance increased from an initial mean of 115.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50 kΩ to 120.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.94 kΩ after cyclic stress, representing a 4.37% increase (Figure S10a). Also, the coefficient of variation (cv) for this case is 1.61%. These results suggest that while the rGO textile remains functional under cyclic deformation. The rGO-coated textile showed a very small increase in resistance from 115.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50 kΩ to 118.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.16 kΩ after washing, representing a 2.75% rise (Figure S10a). Also, the coefficient of variation (cv) for this case is 3.5%. Despite this change, the textile retained reliable electrical performance, supporting its suitability for wearable applications requiring repeated washing. The rGO textile showed slightly greater sensitivity to mechanical and washing stresses but remained well within operational limits for wearable electronics. The durometer measurements collected for both uncoated and rGO-coated non-woven polyester textiles suggest that coating the fabric with reduced graphene oxide has minimal effect on its elastic properties. The average shore hardness of the bare non-woven fabric was measured at 10.4 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89). In comparison, the rGO-coated fabric samples showed slightly higher average shore hardness values of 11.0 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.35), 10.9 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.55), and 10.8 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.51) across three independent trials, yielding a combined average of 10.9. The observed increase of approximately 0.5 shore units remains small relative to the overall range of measurements, indicating that the rGO coating does not substantially stiffen or alter the softness of the textile (Figure S10b). These findings confirm that imparting electrical properties through rGO deposition preserves the inherent flexibility and comfort of the non-woven textile, ensuring its suitability for wearable applications requiring close skin contact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eELECTROCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND SWEAT GLUCOSE SENSING\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe electrochemical behavior of the m-WeTex was first examined using Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) in a 2 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution. All three fabricated patches exhibited stable and reproducible current responses across the potential range of \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.8 V to +\u0026thinsp;0.8 V. A distinct reduction peak was observed at approximately \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.11 V, with a peak current of ~\u0026thinsp;15 \u0026micro;A, indicating effective electron transfer at the electrode surface (Figure S11a). While clearly defined oxidation peaks were not observed, the gradual increase in current with applied voltage suggested effective interfacial charge transfer and capacitive behavior. This behavior is typical for fabric-based electrodes, where high surface area and porous morphology contribute to enhanced electrochemical activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe consistent current profiles across the samples also suggested reliable fabrication and intact conductive networks in the textile. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) supported these findings, revealing an average charge transfer resistance (Rct) of 756.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.7 kΩ, an average solution resistance (Rs) of 838.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 kΩ, and an average double-layer capacitance (Cdl) of 869.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.2 nF across the three patches, consistent with expected behavior in porous textile electrodes (Figure S11b). Collectively, the CV and EIS data demonstrated that the fabricated m-WeTex electrodes are electrochemically active, stable, and suitable for further biosensing applications. To assess enzymatic sensing capability, CV was repeated using m-WeTex sensors functionalized with glucose oxidase (GOx) and exposed to 0.1 mM glucose. A clear cathodic peak appeared near \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.45 V with a minor anodic peak near +\u0026thinsp;0.45 V, both of which were absent in control experiments lacking either GOx or glucose (Figure S11c). This confirms that the observed redox activity originated specifically from the enzymatic glucose oxidation, verifying the bio-functionalization and electrochemical activity of the patch. Quantitative evaluation using DPV revealed a linear increase in peak current with increasing glucose concentration, ranging from 0 to 0.2 mM in artificial sweat (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea). The sensor exhibited a sensitivity of ~\u0026thinsp;0.12 \u0026micro;A/\u0026micro;M with a calculated limit of detection (LOD) of 470 nM, demonstrating its ability to detect glucose at nanomolar concentrations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb). This low limit of detection (470 nM) is significant because physiologically relevant glucose concentrations in human sweat typically range from 0.06 to 1 mM, with basal levels around 0.06\u0026ndash;0.2 mM in healthy individuals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Detecting concentrations in the nanomolar range allows for early detection of glucose fluctuations and ensures accurate sensing even at the lower end of physiological levels, such as during fasting or hypoglycemic episodes. Compared to other textile-based sweat glucose sensors, which often report detection limits in the micromolar range (typically\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 \u0026micro;M), our device demonstrates superior sensitivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. This level of sensitivity supports its potential use in non-invasive sweat glucose monitoring applications. Specificity studies further validated the selectivity of the sensor. The response to 0.05 mM glucose was significantly higher than that of other physiologically relevant interferents, including 25 mM lactic acid, 0.1 mM ascorbic acid, and 1 \u0026micro;M cortisol (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec). Although cortisol produced a modest signal, the glucose response remained substantially higher, exceeding other analytes by more than an order of magnitude in most cases (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed). These results underscore the m-WeTex\u0026rsquo;s compatibility with enzyme functionalization, and selective bio-recognition capabilities, affirming its promise as a fabric-based glucose sensor for wearable, sweat-interfaced biochemical monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMULTIMODAL INTERACTION VALIDATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the responsiveness and versatility of the m-WeTex platform, we examined its electrical behavior under a diverse set of interaction scenarios, including compressive and tensile mechanical inputs, environmental moisture exposure, reconfigurable conductive pathways, and capacitive sensing via proximity and pressure. Under compressive loading using calibrated weights (981 to 2500 Pa), the fabric exhibited a pronounced decrease in resistance from ~\u0026thinsp;133 kΩ to ~\u0026thinsp;31 kΩ, with the most significant changes occurring at lower pressures before plateauing (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea), suggesting high sensitivity to gentle presses and a saturation point at higher loads. In tensile tests, the resistance increased from ~\u0026thinsp;1.2 MΩ to ~\u0026thinsp;1.45 MΩ up to 5 N, beyond which it remained stable (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb), indicating the fabric\u0026rsquo;s capability to detect moderate stretching, such as in joint or muscle movements. Proximity interaction was assessed by monitoring ADC values from an MPR121 sensor as a finger approached from ~\u0026thinsp;50 mm to contact, showing a consistent decrease from ~\u0026thinsp;170 to ~\u0026thinsp;85, the most prominent drop was observed within ~\u0026thinsp;10 mm of the surface (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec), confirming the fabric\u0026rsquo;s potential for touchless gesture recognition and shortcut-based user interfaces. Capacitive pressure sensing further demonstrated a decrease in ADC values from ~\u0026thinsp;178 to ~\u0026thinsp;163 when subjected to pressures between 0.9 and 2.4 kPa, revealing a repeatable and graded response attributable to dielectric compression effects (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed). For reconfigurable switching, bridging two rGO-coated textile strips with a third connector strip resulted in a resistance drop from open circuit to ~\u0026thinsp;0.5 MΩ (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ee), which reversed upon removal, validating a simple and reversible on/off interaction mechanism. Similarly, a push-to-connect configuration with spacer foam showed a transition from open circuit to ~\u0026thinsp;1.5 MΩ upon compression (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ef), demonstrating a soft tactile switch suitable for discrete digital input. Width-based identification experiments, using conductive strips of equal length but varied widths (5\u0026ndash;20 mm), exhibited an inverse relationship between width and resistance, ranging from ~\u0026thinsp;0.8 MΩ to ~\u0026thinsp;0.2 MΩ (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eg), confirming that passive geometric encoding can reliably distinguish between different user inputs. Finally, humidity sensitivity tests with water volumes from 100 to 1000 \u0026micro;L resulted in a resistance drop from ~\u0026thinsp;0.4 MΩ to ~\u0026thinsp;0.1 MΩ, with signal saturation beyond 600 \u0026micro;L (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eh), indicating suitability for sweat detection, leak monitoring, or other wet-contact alert scenarios. Across all these modalities, m-WeTex demonstrated clear, consistent, and application-relevant electrical responses without the need for rigid hardware, supporting its use as a flexible and scalable multimodal sensing platform for wearable and ambient interfaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAPPLICATIONS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSweat Glucose Monitoring Headband with rGO Textile Electrodes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The m-WeTex reliably detected variations in sweat glucose levels among participants. A wearable sweat glucose monitoring system by integrating the m-WeTex platform into a headband, enabling real-time, non-invasive glucose detection from sweat. The m-WeTex sensor was embedded in the headband and connected to a PalmSens Sensit Smart wearable potentiostat for on-body measurement (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eb illustrates the schematic of the electrochemical interface between the textile sensor and the skin. Upon a mild physical activity, the sweat was induced in users and the sensor detected the glucose in the sweat at the interface of the skin. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed sweat glucose concentrations of 0.016 mM, 0.040 mM, and 0.074 mM for Participants 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The corresponding electrical current responses were 3.34 \u0026micro;A, 4.16 \u0026micro;A, and 5.23 \u0026micro;A. The measured currents followed the same trend as the glucose concentrations (as measured by the spectrophotometer), indicating that higher glucose levels produced higher electrical signals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ed). These findings validate the capability of the sensor-WeTex to detect physiologically relevant sweat glucose levels on the body, even under uncontrolled conditions, highlighting its potential for non-invasive wearable glucose monitoring applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJoint Movement Monitoring\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo demonstrate real-time biomechanical sensing using m-WeTex, we developed a wearable joint movement monitoring system using rGO-coated fabric as a deformation sensor. The fabric patch was affixed using kinesiology tape across various joints including the finger, elbow, and knee to capture flexion\u0026ndash;extension motion. For the finger joint (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ee), the sensor was mounted longitudinally across the dorsal side of the finger, spanning the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint. During repeated bending and straightening of the finger, the sensor recorded sharp resistance spikes corresponding to each flexion event. These peaks were discrete, consistent in amplitude, and reproducible across cycles, highlighting the sensor\u0026rsquo;s sensitivity to small-scale, high-frequency joint motion. In the elbow joint configuration (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ef), the fabric was applied across the cubital region. As the forearm moved through flexion and extension, resistance signals showed smoother but well-defined waveforms, corresponding to slower, larger-range joint movements. For the knee joint (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eg), the sensor was placed over the patellar region to monitor deep leg flexion. The resulting signal featured high-amplitude, gradual resistance changes during squatting and rapid recovery upon extension. Across all joints, the waveforms remained stable and consistent over five repeated trials, with a very good mean signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of ~\u0026thinsp;26 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eh). These results confirm that m-WeTex enables reliable, conformal, and real-time monitoring of joint kinematics, adaptable to both fine and gross motor movements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInteractive Wristband with Touch-Sensitive Shortcuts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo explore the utility of m-WeTex as a capacitive interface for interactive computing, we developed a wrist-worn touch-sensing system designed for personalized, on-body control. The wristband consists of multiple discrete sensing zones placed circumferentially around the forearm, allowing users to trigger context-specific actions with simple touch inputs. Each zone acts as an individual capacitive electrode and is connected to an Arduino-based controller programmed to recognize touch events through ADC signal changes. When a finger makes contact with any zone, the system registers a significant drop in ADC value due to capacitive coupling between the user\u0026rsquo;s finger and the conductive surface. These transitions were highly repeatable, and the sensor response was stable across multiple repetitions, with minimal noise fluctuations. We configured the touch-sensitive zones to serve as shortcut buttons for opening frequently used websites (e.g., Google, YouTube) or launching specific applications (e.g., Zoom, Spotify), as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ei\u0026ndash;k. This interaction mechanism enables low-effort, intuitive triggering of digital functions without needing screens or physical buttons. Performance characterization across five consecutive trials yielded an excellent SNR value\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;34 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003el), confirming the robustness of the system in distinguishing intentional touches from background noise.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work presents a superhydrophilic, conductive, and washable reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-coated non-woven polyester fabric patch, m-WeTex, as a multifunctional platform for wearable sensing. Developed via an accessible aqueous-phase reduction and immersion coating process, the rGO fabric maintains excellent electrical conductivity and surface wettability, critical for stable biofluid interfacing in on-skin applications. Its superhydrophilic nature enables efficient absorption and distribution of sweat, supporting consistent electrochemical measurements even under low-volume sample conditions. The patch was successfully configured into a three-electrode system for enzyme-assisted glucose detection in artificial sweat. Electrochemical characterization confirmed its activity and stability through CV and EIS. Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) demonstrated a linear and concentration-dependent current response to glucose, yielding a sensitivity of 0.119 \u0026micro;A/\u0026micro;M and a calculated limit of detection (LOD) of 470 nM. These results validate the platform\u0026rsquo;s efficacy in detecting physiologically relevant glucose levels in sweat. Beyond biochemical sensing, the rGO-coated textile supports a range of physical and interaction-driven functionalities. It was demonstrated as a deformation sensor for joint movement monitoring by integrating with kinesiology tape, responding to flexion-extension cycles across various joints. The fabric also enabled resistive and capacitive interaction modes, including pressure sensitivity, moisture response, and on\u0026ndash;off switching through conductive bridging, along with capacitive touch input using MPR121. This was applied to create an interactive textile wristband capable of triggering shortcut actions such as launching websites on a computer. Together, these results highlight the versatility of the proposed m-WeTex patch as a multimodal interface. Its combination of conductivity, flexibility, superhydrophilicity, and washability makes it an attractive candidate for scalable, low-cost fabrication of wearable health and interaction devices, addressing the growing demand for sustainable and user-friendly electronic textiles.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAUTHOR INFORMATION\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorresponding Authors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Aditya Shekhar Nittala \u0026ndash; Department of Computer Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Richa Pandey \u0026ndash; Department of Biomedical Engineering and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSutirtha Roy \u0026ndash; Department of Electrical and Software Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Krishna Prasad Aryal \u0026ndash; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoshfiq-Us-Saleheen Chowdhury \u0026ndash; Department of Electrical and Software Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEliot Felix \u0026ndash; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS.R\u003c/strong\u003e-Conceptualization, Experimentation, Methodology, Analysis, Designing sensors \u0026amp; applications, Writing-original draft \u0026amp; editing; \u003cstrong\u003eK.P.A\u003c/strong\u003e- Conceptualization, Material fabrication, Experimentation, Analysis, Writing-original draft and Reviewing; \u003cstrong\u003eM.U.S.C\u003c/strong\u003e- Experimentation, Formal analysis; \u003cstrong\u003eE.F\u003c/strong\u003e- Material fabrication, Data collection; \u003cstrong\u003eA.N\u003c/strong\u003e-Conceptualization, analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing-review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eR.P\u003c/strong\u003e- Conceptualization, Analysis, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing-review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding Sources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the UCalgary Eye High Scholarship (K.P.A), Alberta Innovates Graduate Student Scholarship, Alberta Graduate Excellence Scholarship, MITACS Globalink Graduate Fellowship (S.R), NFRF-E (R.P., A.S.N.), Alberta Innovates Advance (R.P.), NSERC (R.P.), UCalgary Research Excellence Chair (R.P.).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing financial interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENT\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the experiments are performed in compliance with the biosafety permit PANDEY-R-24-02 and Ethics # REB23-0555_REN1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHeo JS, Eom J, Kim YH, Park SK (2018) Recent progress of textile-based wearable electronics: a comprehensive review of materials, devices, and applications. Small 14(3):1703034\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang X, Liu Z, Zhang T (2017) Flexible sensing electronics for wearable/attachable health monitoring. Small 13(25):1602790\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu Y, Pharr M, Salvatore GA (2017) Lab-on-skin: a review of flexible and stretchable electronics for wearable health monitoring. ACS Nano 11(10):9614\u0026ndash;9635\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang Y, Zheng XT, Zhang X, Pan J, Thean AV (2024) Hybrid integration of wearable devices for physiological monitoring. Chem Rev 124(18):10386\u0026ndash;10434\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePark J, Lee Y, Cho S, Choe A, Yeom J, Ro YG, Kim J, Kang DH, Lee S, Ko H (2024) Soft sensors and actuators for wearable human\u0026ndash;machine interfaces. Chem Rev 124(4):1464\u0026ndash;1534\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYin R, Wang D, Zhao S, Lou Z, Shen G (2021) Wearable sensors-enabled human\u0026ndash;machine interaction systems: from design to application. Adv Funct Mater 31(11):2008936\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRao Z, Ershad F, Almasri A, Gonzalez L, Wu X, Yu C (2020) Soft electronics for the skin: from health monitors to human\u0026ndash;machine interfaces. Adv Mater Technol 5(9):2000233\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLim HR, Kim HS, Qazi R, Kwon YT, Jeong JW, Yeo WH (2020) Advanced soft materials, sensor integrations, and applications of wearable flexible hybrid electronics in healthcare, energy, and environment. Adv Mater 32(15):1901924\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMamun MA, Yuce MR (2020) Recent progress in nanomaterial enabled chemical sensors for wearable environmental monitoring applications. Adv Funct Mater 30(51):2005703\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaghi M, Danyali S, Ayasseh S, Wang J, Aazami R, Deserno TM (2021) Wearable devices in health monitoring from the environmental towards multiple domains: A survey. Sensors 21(6):2130\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang Y, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Sun P, Chen H (2020) High-sensitivity wearable and flexible humidity sensor based on graphene oxide/non-woven fabric for respiration monitoring. Langmuir 36(32):9443\u0026ndash;9448\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlhashmi Alamer F, Althagafy K, Alsalmi O, Aldeih A, Alotaiby H, Althebaiti M, Alghamdi H, Alotibi N, Saeedi A, Zabarmawi Y, Hawsawi M (2022) Review on PEDOT: PSS-based conductive fabric. ACS omega 7(40):35371\u0026ndash;35386\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDing Y, Xu W, Wang W, Fong H, Zhu Z (2017) Scalable and facile preparation of highly stretchable electrospun PEDOT: PSS@ PU fibrous nonwovens toward wearable conductive textile applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9(35):30014\u0026ndash;30023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePaleo AJ, Krause B, Cerqueira MF, Mu\u0026ntilde;oz E, P\u0026ouml;tschke P, Rocha AM (2022) Electronic features of cotton fabric e-textiles prepared with aqueous carbon nanofiber inks. ACS Appl Eng Mater 1(1):122\u0026ndash;131\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKongahge D, Foroughi J, Gambhir S, Spinks GM, Wallace GG (2016) Fabrication of a graphene coated nonwoven textile for industrial applications. RSC Adv 6(77):73203\u0026ndash;73209\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang Y, Gao Q, Zhang S, Fan X, Qin J, Shi X, Zhang G (2022) rGO/MXene sandwich-structured film at spunlace non-woven fabric substrate: Application to EMI shielding and electrical heating. J Colloid Interface Sci 614:194\u0026ndash;204\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang D, Li D, Zhao M, Xu Y, Wei Q (2018) Multifunctional wearable smart device based on conductive reduced graphene oxide/polyester fabric. Appl Surf Sci 454:218\u0026ndash;226\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJin F, Lv D, Shen W, Song W, Tan R (2022) High performance flexible and wearable strain sensor based on rGO and PANI modified Lycra cotton e-textile. Sens Actuators A: Phys 337:113412\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi Y, Ma B, Yang R, Zhao Y (2025) Optimisation of polypyrrole-modified conductive nonwoven fabrics: study of electrical and sensing properties. J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 36(6):374\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTang H, Zhou L, Chen Z, Zong Y, Niu K (2025) High-sensitivity and large-strain graphene non-woven fabric composites for multifunctional application. Chem Eng J 508:160837\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCai G, Yang M, Xu Z, Liu J, Tang B, Wang X (2017) Flexible and wearable strain sensing fabrics. Chem Eng J 325:396\u0026ndash;403\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMa Q, Zhang Z, Zhang D, Tian W (2025) Multi-Scenario Applications of Multi‐Dimensional Yarn‐Based Wearable Integrated Sensors. Adv Funct Mater 35(6):2415044\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHu Q, Nag A, Zhang L, Wang K (2022) Reduced graphene oxide-based composites for wearable strain-sensing applications. Sens Actuators A: Phys 345:113767\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMi Q, Wang Q, Zang S, Mao G, Zhang J, Ren X (2017) RGO-coated elastic fibres as wearable strain sensors for full-scale detection of human motions. Smart Mater Struct 27(1):015014\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIslam GN, Collie S, Gould M, Ali MA (2023) Two-dimensional carbon material incorporated and PDMS-coated conductive textile yarns for strain sensing. J Coat Technol Res 20(6):1881\u0026ndash;1895\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYin F, Guo Y, Li H, Yue W, Zhang C, Chen D, Geng W, Li Y, Gao S, Shen G (2022) A waterproof and breathable Cotton/rGO/CNT composite for constructing a layer-by-layer structured multifunctional flexible sensor. Nano Res 15(10):9341\u0026ndash;9351\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDu D, Li P, Ouyang J (2016) Graphene coated nonwoven fabrics as wearable sensors. J Mater Chem C 4(15):3224\u0026ndash;3230\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGalv\u0026atilde;o FM, Cabral RL, Santos JE, Santos EV, Kim S, Souza DF, Silva KK, Nascimento JH (2025) Superhydrophobic and supercapacitive reduced graphene oxide/fluoropolymer nanocoating on polyester fabric via spray mist coating. Colloids Surf A 716:136696\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBrown CJ \u003cem\u003eDesign of Electronics for Wearable Electrochemical Sensors\u003c/em\u003e (Doctoral dissertation, UC San Diego)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang C, Xiang C, Tan L, Lan J, Peng L, Jiang S, Guo R (2017) Preparation of silver/reduced graphene oxide coated polyester fabric for electromagnetic interference shielding. RSC Adv 7:40452\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXin L, Qin Z, Dou Z, Liu N, Chen L, Zhu M (2014) Fabricating conductive poly(ethylene terephthalate) nonwoven fabrics using an aqueous dispersion of reduced graphene oxide as a sheet dyestuff. RSC Adv 4:23869\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang C, Xiang C, Tan L, Lan J, Peng L, Jiang S, Guo R (2017) Preparation of silver/reduced graphene oxide coated polyester fabric for electromagnetic interference shielding. RSC Adv 7:40452\u0026ndash;40461\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQianhe Shu Y, Pang Q, Li Y, Gu Z, Liu B, Liu J, Li Y, Li (2024) Flexible resistive tactile pressure sensors. J Mater Chem A 12:9296\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThiyagarajan S, Vogelzang W, Knoop RJI, Frissen AE, Haverena JV, van Es DS (2014) Biobased furandicarboxylic acids (FDCAs): effects of isomeric substitution on polyester synthesis and properties. Green Chem 16:1957\u0026ndash;1966\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAryal KP, Jeong HK (2019) Functionalization of β-cyclodextrin into ambient plasma modified carbon nanotube-thermally reduced graphite oxide for electrochemical sensing of uric acid. Mater Chem Phys 238:121899\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSanta-Nokki H, Kallioinen J, Korppi-Tommola J (2007) A dye-sensitized solar cell driven electrochromic device. Photochem Photobiol Sci 6:63\u0026ndash;66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang K, Wu H, Meng Y, Zhang Y, Wei Z (2012) Integrated energy storage and electrochromic function in one flexible device: an energy storage smart window energy. Environ Sci 5:8384\u0026ndash;8389\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDimitrios G, Papageorgiou IA, Ian KA, Young RJ (2017) Mechanical properties of graphene and graphene-based nanocomposites. Progress Mater Sci 90:75\u0026ndash;127\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLegner C, Kalwa U, Patel V, Chesmore A, Pandey S (2019) Sweat sensing in the smart wearables era: Towards integrative, multifunctional and body-compliant perspiration analysis. Sens Actuators A 296:200\u0026ndash;221\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFupeng Gao C, Liu L, Zhang T, Liu Z, Wang Z, Song H, Cai Z, Fang J, Chen J, Wang M, Han J, Wang K, Lin R, Wang M, Li Q, Mei (2023) Xibo Ma, Shuli Liang, Guangyang Gou, and Ning Xue, Wearable and flexible electrochemical sensors for sweat analysis: a review. Microsystems Nanoengineering 9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoonen EJ, Haakma JR, Peri E, Pelssers E, Mischi M, den Toonder JM (2020) Wearable sweat sensing for prolonged, semicontinuous, and nonobtrusive health monitoring. View 1(4):20200077\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi J, Sun Y, Yang X, Fu Z, Zhu X, Sun H Bin Yu, Superwetting Polypropylene Nonwoven Fabrics Modified by a Catechol-Based Biomimetic Strategy for Oil/Water Separation, ACS Appl. Polym Mater 5(12) 10484\u0026ndash;10493\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHerbert R, Kim JH, Kim YS, Lee HM, Yeo WH (2018) Soft material-enabled, flexible hybrid electronics for medicine, healthcare, and human-machine interfaces. Materials 11(2):187\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWu S, Huang J, Jing S, Xie H, Zhou S (2023) Biodegradable Shape-Memory Ionogels as Green and Adaptive Wearable Electronics Toward Physical Rehabilitation. Adv Funct Mater 33(36):2303292\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoy S, Chowdhury MU, Noim JO, Pandey R, Nittala AS HoloChemie-Sustainable Fabrication of Soft Biochemical Holographic Devices for Ubiquitous Sensing. InProceedings of the 37th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology 2024 Oct 13 (pp. 1\u0026ndash;19)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNittala AS, Steimle J (2022) Next steps in epidermal computing: Opportunities and challenges for soft on-skin devices. InProceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Apr 29 (pp. 1\u0026ndash;22)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKwon S, Kwon YT, Kim YS, Lim HR, Mahmood M, Yeo WH (2020) Skin-conformal, soft material-enabled bioelectronic system with minimized motion artifacts for reliable health and performance monitoring of athletes. Biosens Bioelectron 151:111981\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSun Y, Ouyang B, Rawat RS, Chen Z (2020) Rapid and stable plasma transformation of polyester fabrics for highly efficient oil\u0026ndash;water separation. Global Challenges 4(7):1900095\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJinka S, Behrens R, Korzeniewski C, Singh V, Arunachalam A, Parameswaran S, Coimbatore G, Kendall R, Wolf R, Ramkumar S (2013) Atmospheric pressure plasma treatment and breathability of polypropylene nonwoven fabric. J Ind Text 42(4):501\u0026ndash;514\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSun G, Jiang Y, Sun H, Wang P, Meng C, Guo S (2023) Flexible, breathable, and hydrophobic iontronic tactile sensors based on a nonwoven fabric platform for permeable and waterproof wearable sensing applications. ACS Appl Electron Mater 5(11):6477\u0026ndash;6489\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi S, Luo P, Lu H, Xu H, Zhou T (2025 May) Multifunctional flexible wearable liquid metal electronic textiles with excellent antimicrobial and electromagnetic interference shielding based on laser-induced selective metallization. Chem Eng J 8:163372\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHeo JS, Eom J, Kim YH, Park SK (2018) Recent progress of textile-based wearable electronics: a comprehensive review of materials, devices, and applications. Small 14(3):1703034\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang Y, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Sun P, Chen H (2020) High-sensitivity wearable and flexible humidity sensor based on graphene oxide/non-woven fabric for respiration monitoring. Langmuir 36(32):9443\u0026ndash;9448\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJose M, Oudebrouckx G, Bormans S, Veske P, Thoelen R, Deferme W (2021) Monitoring body fluids in textiles: Combining impedance and thermal principles in a printed, wearable, and washable sensor. ACS Sens 6(3):896\u0026ndash;907\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang L, Zhou M, He Y, Wang L, Song H, Du H, Liu H, Liu C (2024) Flexible porous non-woven silk fabric based conductive composite for efficient multimodal sensing. Chem Eng J 497:154445\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAzani MR, Hassanpour A (2024) Electronic textiles (E-Textiles): Types, fabrication methods, and recent strategies to overcome durability challenges (washability \u0026amp; flexibility). J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 35(29):1897\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu R, Zhu C, Wan J, Li Y, Hong X (2021) Review of graphene-based textile strain sensors, with emphasis on structure activity relationship. Polymers 13(1):151\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShu Q, Pang Y, Li Q, Gu Y, Liu Z, Liu B, Li J, Li Y (2024) Flexible resistive tactile pressure sensors. J Mater Chem A 12(16):9296\u0026ndash;9321\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDe Geyter N, Morent R, Leys C (2006) Surface modification of a polyester non-woven with a dielectric barrier discharge in air at medium pressure. Surf Coat Technol 201(6):2460\u0026ndash;2466\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZafar H, Channa A, Jeoti V, Stojanović GM (2022) Comprehensive review on wearable sweat-glucose sensors for continuous glucose monitoring. Sensors 22(2):638\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDavison B (2010) Techniques for robust touch sensing design. AN1334 Microchip Technology Inc. ;53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChowdhury MU, Roy S, Aryal KP, Leung H, Pandey R (2024) Realizing the Potential of Commercial E-Textiles for Wearable Glucose Biosensing Application. ACS Mater Au 4(6):592\u0026ndash;603\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen Q, Liu Y, Gu K, Yao J, Shao Z, Chen X (2022) Silk-based electrochemical sensor for the detection of glucose in sweat. Biomacromolecules 23(9):3928\u0026ndash;3935\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang M, Zheng J, Zhang G, Lu S, Zhou J (2025) Wearable Electrochemical Glucose Sensors for Fluid Monitoring: Advances and Challenges in Non-Invasive and Minimally Invasive Technologies. Biosensors 15(5):309\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University of Calgary","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Non-woven Polyester Fabric, Electrochemical Sensing, Touch Sensing, Deformation Sensing, Superhydrophilicity, Wearables","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7208298/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7208298/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNon-woven polyester fabric is an inexpensive, flexible, breathable, and mechanically robust substrate ideally suited for wearable electronics. However, integrating electronic functionalities without compromising its intrinsic softness and comfort remains a significant challenge. Existing methods often reduce flexibility or require complex laboratory setups that limit scalability. In this work, we report the first demonstration of superhydrophilicity, with a static water contact angle near 0\u0026deg;, achieved via a scalable Kinetic Immersion Coating (KIC) technique operable outside conventional wet-lab environments. This transformation from hydrophobic (θ\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;117.8\u0026deg;) to superhydrophilic (θ\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;0\u0026deg;) surfaces occur without chemical post-treatments and results from residual oxygen-containing functional groups, the inherent fiber roughness, and the capillary properties of the non-woven architecture. The resulting superhydrophilic fabric enables uniform analyte dispersion and enhanced interactions with aqueous media, which are crucial for reliable sensing. Importantly, the rGO-coated fabric retains its original softness, breathability, and flexibility while achieving a surface conductivity of approximately 1.7 \u0026times; 10⁴ Ω/sq, which is about 4 to 10 times lower than values reported for similar textile coatings, representing a significant improvement in electrical performance while preserving mechanical comfort. We demonstrate the versatility of this platform through multiple applications, including touch sensors achieving a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) exceeding 34, resistive deformation sensors with an SNR around 26, and textile-based electrochemical biosensors capable of detecting sweat glucose across the physiological range with a sensitivity of 0.119 \u0026micro;A\u0026middot;\u0026micro;M⁻\u0026sup1; and a detection limit of approximately 0.471 \u0026micro;M. Additional functionalities include humidity-responsive conductance changes and contact-based user identification. Collectively, m-WeTex establishes an accessible, reproducible, and multifunctional approach for imparting electronic properties into everyday textiles.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"m-WeTex: A Scalable, Superhydrophilic, Multifunctional Wearable Textile Platform","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-28 02:11:33","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7208298/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c70299a2-744a-4e49-9791-0e7251c143a2","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":52082702,"name":"Biomedical Engineering"},{"id":52082703,"name":"Electrochemistry"},{"id":52082704,"name":"Materials Chemistry"},{"id":52082705,"name":"Electronic Materials and Devices"},{"id":52082706,"name":"Electrical Engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-28T02:11:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-28 02:11:33","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7208298","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7208298","identity":"rs-7208298","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}