Investigation of laterite and black cotton soil using agricultural and industrial waste for road embankment

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The reuse of agricultural and industrial by-product in geotechnical engineering applications offers a sustainable alternative for both waste management and soil improvement. The research examines the enhancement of engineering characteristics of laterite soil and black cotton soil using waste glass (WG), plastic waste (PW), rice husk (RH), bagasse husk ash (BHA), and fly ash (FA) as stabilizing agents. Soil samples were treated with 0–9% waste admixture along with 5–20% fly ash by dry weight. Laboratory tests were conducted according to the Indian Standard (IS) procedures, including index property, modified proctor test, direct shear test, constant head permeability test, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test. The increase in the engineering performance of the soils was observed after soil stabilization. The maximum dry density for laterite soil increased by 65% and that for black cotton soil by 68% at optimum stabilization levels. The permeability decrease by nearly 26–29% for both soils. The shear strength parameters, cohesion and internal friction angle, showed considerable enhancement, particularly at 7% waste admixture combined with 15% fly ash. Furthermore, CBR values increased from 8.50% to 14.81% for laterite soil and from 6.75% to 11.21% for black cotton soil, indicating improvement in load carrying capacity. These improvements contributed to an estimated pavement thickness reduction of approximately 11–12% resulting in potential construction cost savings. The findings confirm that controlled incorporation of agricultural and industrial waste material can significantly improve soil performance and support sustainable road construction. However, excessive addition of waste materials may adversely affect compaction and strength characteristics. Therefore, identification of optimum stabilization proportions is essential. Field-scale validation and long-term performance studies are recommended for practical implementation. Physical sciences/Engineering Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Materials science Index properties Modified proctor test California bearing ratio Waste material admixture Road embankment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction The continuous increase in population, urban expansion, and industrial development has increase the solid waste generation across the world. Improper management and disposal of agricultural, municipal, and industrial waste materials have created serious environmental problems, including contamination of groundwater, land degradation, and public health hazards [2]. Conventional waste disposal methods such as landfilling require large land areas and often result in long-term ecological damage. Consequently, the beneficial reuse of waste materials in civil engineering applications has gained significant attention as a sustainable solution [25]. Construction of transportation infrastructure, particularly road embankment and pavement subgrades, requires enormous quantities of natural soil and aggregates. Excessive Extraction of these material not only increases construction expenses but also contribute to environmental degradation. Incorporation of waste materials as soil stabilizers provides a viable alternative by enhancing engineering properties of soil while simultaneously addressing waste disposal issues. Industrial by-product such as fly ash and waste glass and agricultural residues like rice husk and bagasse ash possess pozzolanic properties which can improve soil strength, reduce compressibility, and enhance durability. Laterite soil and black cotton soil are widely found in several region of India and present considerable challenges for construction. Laterite soil generally exhibits moderate strength but often shows variability in permeability and compaction behaviour. In Contrast, black cotton soil contains expensive clay minerals such as montmorillonite, which cause significant swelling and shrinkage, resulting in low shear strength and poor stability. Stabilization of these soils using waste- based materials can significantly improve their engineering behaviour and provide environmentally sustainable alternatives. Fly ash, a by-product generated during coal combustion in thermal power plants, is abundantly available and widely used in soil stabilization due to its cementitious characteristics and cost-effectiveness [4]. Similarly, waste glass, plastic waste, rice husk, and bagasse husk ash have gained attention for their ability to improve soil mechanical properties. However, the combined effect of multiple waste material on different soil types requires further investigation. Several researchers have explored the use of waste materials for soil stabilization. Olufuwobi et al. 2014 [1] reported enhancement in clay soil strength using powdered glass and cement. Renu and sonthwal 2018 [2] highlighted the potential of various solid waste materials for stabilizing soft soils and emphasized their environmental benefits. Tiwari and mahiyar 2014 [4] investigated stabilization of black cotton soil using fly ash and natural fibers, demonstrating improvement in engineering properties. Chauhan and Kumar 2015 [6] studied stabilization using waste plastic and crushed glass and observed improvement in soil strength parameters. Blayia et al. 2020 [8] evaluated expansive soil stabilized with glass powder and reported enhancement in compaction and strength properties. Hanifi et al. 2016 [10] investigated aluminium can strip as soil reinforcement and observed reduction in swelling behaviour. Baloochi et al. 2020 [11] emphasized the importance of proper proportioning of waste materials for achieving effective stabilization. Recent studies have also focused on agricultural wastes. Thangavel et al. 2021 [21] demonstrated significant strength improvement in expansive soil using bagasse ash and natural fibres. Rawat and Mohanty 2019 [22] examined municipal solid waste utilization in embankment construction. Therefore, the present research aims to evaluate the effectiveness of these materials in improving soil compaction, strength, permeability, and load- bearing capacity using standardized testing methods. The study also assesses the potential reduction in pavement thickness and construction cost resulting from stabilization. Although numerous studies have investigated the stabilization of expansive soils using individual waste materials such as fly ash, glass powder, plastic waste, or agriculture residues, limited research has comparatively evaluated the combined effect of multiple agricultural and industrial wastes on different problematic soil types under identical experimental conditions. Furthermore, previous investigations rarely integrate geotechnical performance improvement with practical pavement design implications such as thickness reduction and cost efficiency based on IRC guidelines. In particular, a comparative assessment between laterite soil and black cotton soil stabilized using blended waste materials remains insufficiently explored. Therefore, the present study aims to address this gap by systematically evaluating the combined influence of fly ash and selected agricultural and industrial waste admixtures on compaction characteristics, permeability, shear strength, and CBR behaviour of both laterite and black cotton soils. Additionally, the study quantifies the potential reduction in pavement thickness using IRC 37-2018 provisions to establish practical engineering relevance. 2. Material and Methodology 2.1 Soil Samples Laterite soil and black cotton soil were selected for the experimental investigation. Soil samples were collected form warvandi region of Nashik Maharashtra India. The collected samples were air dried to natural weather condition and then as per Indian Standard (IS) soil were passed through 4.75mm sieve to remove the gravel particles and organic matter before testing. Laterite soil is used in road construction but shows high variability in permeability and compaction characteristics. The black cotton soil have the property of swelling and shrinkage due to the presence of active clay minerals. The engineering and index properties of both the soil were determined as per IS 2720. 2.2 Fly ash Fly ash was obtained from ekhalare nashik thermal power plant for investigation. It is a fine pozzolanic fly ash of C type a by-product generated during coal combustion. Fly ash contributes to soil strength improvement through formation of cementitious compounds when mixed with water and soil particles [25]. 2.3 Waste Admixtures The following waste materials were used as soil stabilizing admixtures: Waste Glass (WG): Discarded glass materials were crushed and sieved to obtain particles smaller than 4.75 mm. Plastic Waste (PW): Collected plastic waste was cleaned and shredded into small strips. Rice Husk (RH): Agricultural Residue collected from local rice mill and agriculture field. Bagasse Husk Ash (BHA): Obtained from sugar industry waste after controlled burning of baggase. All waste materials were processed to obtain uniform particle size and moisture conditions prior to mixing. 2.4 Mix Proportions Soil stabilization was performed by mixing soil with different proportions of fly ash and waste admixtures based on dry weight of soil. Adopted mix proportions were: Fly ash: 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% Waste admixtures: 0%, 3%, 5%, 7% and 9% The materials were thoroughly blended to ensure uniform distribution before testing. 3. Experimental Program with Result and Discussion Laboratory testing was carried out in accordance with IS 2720 standards to evaluate engineering properties of stabilized and untreated soils. The testing program included index property determination, modified proctor test, shear strength parameters, free swell index as shown in Table 1 . Index properties of soils. Table 1 Index properties of soils Test IS Codes Laterite Soil Black Cotton Soil Specific Gravity IS:2720 Part 2–1964 2.4 2.67 Moisture Content IS:2720 Part 1 11.17% 15.11% Particles Size Distribution IS: 2720 Part 4 -1985 Silt- 74.15% Clay- 25.87% Silt- 68.5% Clay- 31.6% Atterbergs Limit Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plasticity Index IS: 2720 Part 5- 1985 54.96% 24.43% 34.53% 58.40% 30.37% 28.03% Proctor Density Test MDD OMC IS: 2720 Part 7–1965 1.195 gm/cm 3 18.12% 1.2118 gm/cm 3 19.43% Free Swell Index IS: 2720 Part 40–1970 ---- 58% Universal Soil Classification CH CH As per index properties of both the soil the soil has been classified as CH = Inorganic clay of high plasticity. The inorganic clay of high plasticity have high settlement problem, expansive behaviour and low bearing capacity which can be improved by fly ash, lime or cement stabilization. 3.1 Compaction Behaviour and Density Improvement Compaction characteristics were determined using the modified proctor test following is 2720 (Part 7). Soil mixtures were compacted to determine maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) with fly ash and waste admixture. Table 2 Modified proctor test of laterite and black cotton soil Soil Laterite Soil MDD (gm/cm 3 ) Black Cotton Soil MDD (gm/cm 3 ) % FA % Waste Admixture 3% 5% 7% 9% % Waste Admixture 3% 5% 7% 9% 0% 0% 0% 1.19 1.21 5% 1.27 1.36 1.46 1.37 1.24 1.28 1.31 1.26 10% 1.47 1.58 1.73 1.64 1.23 1.34 1.63 1.51 15% 1.73 1.81 1.83 1.65 1.51 1.61 1.75 1.64 20% 1.62 1.69 1.79 1.73 1.52 1.56 1.66 1.63 According to the findings presented in Fig. 1 , the addition of fly ash and waste admixture significantly influenced compaction characteristics. Laterite soil achieved maximum dry density of 1.83 g/cm 3 at 7% admixture and 15% fly ash, with an increase of 65% in comparison with untreated laterite soil while black cotton soil achieved 1.92 g/cm 3 under similar conditions which is 68% higher than untreated black cotton soil. The optimum result are obtained for the 7% of admixture and 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of fly ash. The optimum result obtain from modified proctor test for the percentage of waste material admixtures and fly ash are taken do determine the permeability, direct shear test and California bearing ratio test results. The observed increase in maximum dry density can be attributed to improved particle gradation and enhanced inter- particle bonding due to pozzolanic reactions between fly ash and soil minerals, resulting in denser packing and reduced void ratio. 3.2 Hydraulic Behaviour and Permeability Reduction The Constant Head Permeability Test was conducted following IS 2720 Part (Part 36) to determine the coefficient of Permeability of stabilized soils. From Table 3 , it can be seen that as the percentage of waste material as an admixture to the soil with fly ash increases, the permeability get reduces due to the higher soil density which also reduces voids present in the soil increasing the density of soil. From Fig. 2 for laterite soil almost 26.91% of permeability is reduced and for black cotton soil it reduces by 28.57% of permeability. The reduction in permeability enhances resistance against moisture content, thereby reducing the risk of swelling in black cotton soil and erosion in laterite soil, which is critical for long-term embankment stability. Less is the permeability of both the soil, greater is the soil stability. 3.3 Shear Strength Enhancement Shear strength parameters were evaluated using the direct shear test as per IS 2720 (Part 13). Soil specimens were prepared at their respective MDD and OMC conditions. Tests were conducted under varying normal stresses to determine cohesion and internal friction angle using the Mohr- Coulomb failure criterion. Table 3 Co-efficient of permeability and direct shear strength Soil Laterite Black Cotton % of waste admixture with % of FA Co-efficient of Permeability (cm/s) ɸ Shear Strength S = C + σtanɸ (kg/cm 2 ) Co-efficient of Permeability (cm/s) C ɸ Shear Strength S = C + σtanɸ (kg/cm 2 ) 0% of waste admixture with 0% of FA 9.66 x 10 − 3 22 o 3.43x 10 − 3 21 o 7% of waste admixture with 5% of FA 6.12 x 10 − 3 26 o 7.31 2.41 x 10 − 3 1.42 24 o 6.67 7% of waste admixture with 10% of FA 3.58 x 10 − 3 28 o 7.97 1.88 x 10 − 3 0.84 26 o 7.31 7% of waste admixture with 15% of FA 3.07 x 10 − 3 38 o 11.71 1.49 x 10 − 3 0.46 32 o 9.36 7% of waste admixture with 20% of FA 2.6 x 10 − 3 33 o 9.73 9.82 x 10 − 4 0.6 29 o 8.30 From table no 3, it displays the outcomes of a shear test conducted on soil samples containing 7% admixture with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% fly ash. The results indicate that, under a normal stress of 15 kN/m 2, the shear strength is 11.71 kN/m 2 and 9.36kN/m 2 with 7% admixture with 15% of fly ash for laterite soil and for black cotton soil respectively. This observation implies that an increase in normal stress leads to a proportional increase in shear force and increase in proportion with 20% decrease the result. The increase in strength is attributed to pozzolanic reactions, improved particle interlocking, and reduction in void ratio. Beyond 15% fly ash content, marginal reduction in shear strength suggests possible excess fines leading to lubrication effects and reduced interlocking efficiency. 3.4 Bearing Capacity Improvement and CBR Performance Load bearing Capacity was evaluated using the CBR test as per IS 2720 (Part 16). Both soaked and un-soaked tests were performed, and results were used to estimate pavement thickness according to IRC 37-2018 guidelines. The CBR result for unsoaked and soaked test are from 2.5 mm penetration as the result was greater than 5 mm penetration of CBR result. Table 4 California Bearing Ratio for unsoaked and soaked test Soil Laterite Soil Black Cotton Soil % of admixture with % of FA Unsoaked Soaked Unsoaked Soaked 1 0% of admixture with 0% of fly ash 8.50% 4.18% 6.75% 2.56% 2 7% of admixture with 5% of fly ash 8.55% 4.21% 7.21% 2.91% 3 7% of admixture with 10% of fly ash 9.92% 6.35% 8.72% 3.45% 4 7% of admixture with 15% of fly ash 11.43% 8.35% 10.31% 5.64% 5 7% of admixture with 20% of fly ash 14.81% 8.61% 11.21% 6.81% From Fig. 3 the graph showing the unsoaked CBR tests with 2.5 mm penetration for 7% of waste material admixture and different proportions of fly ash which indicates that the CBR value increase from 8.50% to 14.81% for laterite soil. The CBR value for black cotton soil increases from 6.75% to 11.21% which is almost 66.07% increase in CBR value, and for laterite soil 74.2% increase in CBR value as compared to 100% soil result. From Fig. 4 the graph shows the soaked CBR test with 7% of waste material admixture with different proportions of fly ash indicating that the CBR value for laterite soil increase by almost 105% from 4.16% to 8.61%. For black cotton soil the CBR value increases by 2.56% to 6.81% which is almost an increase of 166% with waste material admixture. These improvements indicates enhanced load carrying capacity and reduced moisture-induced softening, which is particularly beneficial for expansive black cotton soils subjected to seasonal wetting and drying cycles. 3.5 Pavement Thickness Reduction and Engineering Implications The cost analysis of road embankment depend upon the thickness of pavement, which is taken from IRC 37-2018. Assume traffic density for Highway or Expressway = 40msa According th the IRC 37-2018 the figure of catalogue for pavemnt with bituminous surface course with granular base and sub base of thickness of pavement vs design traffic in MSA (Million Standard Axle) depend upon the value of CBR %. i) The CBR value of soil is 8.5% for laterite soil and 7.21% for black cotton soil. For 8% CBR the thickness of pavement is 595 mm for laterite soil and for 7% CBR the thickness of pavement is 605 mm for black cotton soil. Therefore the thickness of pavement for 8.5 % CBR By interpolation is 632.187 mm and for 7.21% CBR value is 612.85 mm. ii) The CBR value of soil with waste material for laterite soil and black cotton soil is 14.81% and 11.21% respectively. The thickness of pavement for 15 % cbr value is 565 mm The thickness of pavement for 12% cbr value is 580 mm Therefore the thickness of pavement for 14.81% is 557.84 mm and for 11.21% is 541.81 mm by interpolation. The thickness of pavement decreases by 74.347 mm i.e. 11.76% in laterite soil and in black cotton soil it decreases by 71.04 mm i.e. 11.6%. so it can be concluded that cost of road embankment construction decreases. The reduction in pavemnet thickness not only lowers material consumption and construction cost but also contributes to sustainable infrastructure development through reduced extraction of natural aggregates. 4 Conclusion The stabilization of road embankment relies on the soil’s strength, and strength can be enhanced by adding an admixture to the soil. The laboratory investigation indicates that the inclusion of small percentages of admixture from 3% to 9% together with 5% to 20% fly ash improves several engineering properties of the laterite and black cotton soil. The maximum dry density increased and optimum moisture content showed changes consisted with denser packing. The direct shear strength parameters and CBR values were also improved for certain combinations notably 7% admixture with 15% fly ash for shear strength and 20% fly ash for CBR in laboratory conditions. The reduction in permeability enhances the moisture content resistance of the soil up to 26–29%, which reduces the risk of swelling in black cotton soil and erosion in laterite soil. The thickness of pavement decrease about 74 mm which can save the construction cost of road embankment and total construction cost of road also. This research leads to the conclusion that both admixture and fly ash have the potential to alter the characteristics of laterite soil and black cotton soil, making it useful for various civil engineering applications. These laboratory results suggest potential for reducing pavement thickness and construction cost with proper implementation. Moreover the results are superior compared to treating black cotton soil with admixture and fly ash. However, the findings are specific to the materials and test conditions used here; field validation, longer-term performance monitoring and environmental assessments are recommended prior to adoption in design practice. Declarations Funding · No funding was received for conducting this study. Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests · The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest or competing interests. Availability of Data and Material · The Datasets generated and analyzed during the current study is attached as an supplementary material. Code Availability · Not Applicable Author contributions · Mr. Toshnil Haribhau Boraste have done Conceptualization, experimental work, data analysis, and manuscript writing and Dr. Amit Sharma reviewed the manuscript with editing. Funding Declaration · There was no Funding, for both the authors. Ethics Approval · Not Applicable. The study does not involve human participants, animals or any ethical concerns. Consent to Participate · Not applicable Consent to Publication · Not Applicable Acknowledgement · I am thank full to everyone who have helped me for completion of research work. I am thank full for guidance, support and encouragement provided by mentors, colleagues and peers throughout the research work. I also acknowledge the contributions of the communities and organizations for cooperation to make this study possible. Permission for Soil Collection · The laterite soil and black cotton soil samples were collected from the warvandi region of Nashik, Maharashtra, India, from open and non- restricted locations. The sampling was conducted strictly for academic and research purposes and did not involve any protected. Privately restricted, or environmentally sensitive areas. Therefore, no formal governmental permit was required for the collection of these soil samples. References Olufuwobi, J., Ogundogu, A., Micheal, B. & Aderin, I. O. Clay soil stabilization using powdered material. J. 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Soganci, A., Ozkan, S., Yenginar, I., Guzel, Y., Ozdemir, A. & Y., and The use of waste materials red mud and bottom ash as road embankment fill. Sustainability 16 , 9077 (2024). Solid Waste Management plan for Nashik Municipal Corporation DPR for SWM Nashik. (2007). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9027682","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":610138641,"identity":"dfc2c563-c41d-4956-8878-7837af5b7d59","order_by":0,"name":"Toshnil Boraste","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA90lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwSTh4EhocAGyGBsPEBYSwKDBESLQRpISwMJWhgMDoP5eLWYs/c+/Pjzh00dP//ZYw8eGJy3W9t+GGhLjU00Li2WPceNpXkS0iQkZ+SlGyQY3E7ediYRqOVYWm4DLofdSGOQZkg4LGFwg8dMAqTF7ABQC2PDYXxamH/+SPgvYXD+DEjLuWSz8w8JamGT4Ek4IGFwIAek5YCd2Q0Ctlj2HGOz5klLlpw5A6wlOcHsBtCWBDx+MWdvY775w8aOn5//jJnkjwo7e7Pz6Q8ffKixwakFAySCVSYQqxwE7ElRPApGwSgYBSMDAABRwl54ncllywAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Oriental University, Indore","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Toshnil","middleName":"","lastName":"Boraste","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-04 08:24:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027682/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027682/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":105294100,"identity":"4ca16459-21e6-46f0-a707-0466efa57e86","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-24 12:51:54","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49043,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaximum dry density\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027682/v1/8a24614efbccfb4562563e40.png"},{"id":105294098,"identity":"f9d34f1b-699d-44e5-abfc-67b742bcd1e6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-24 12:51:54","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCo-efficient of permeability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027682/v1/079666cb4027cb5060c541dd.png"},{"id":105294099,"identity":"d85faee6-498e-43a6-8121-dc78282dc772","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-24 12:51:54","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58164,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUnsoaked Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027682/v1/eabfd1abcd316b615a8b1cee.png"},{"id":105294101,"identity":"67079a0c-1158-4489-ace5-d779d37a4bfe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-24 12:51:54","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67697,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSoaked Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027682/v1/a15d1502f088101f423d0c80.png"},{"id":106866834,"identity":"5a613828-9764-42fc-a1a1-997603af2443","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-14 09:14:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1355874,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027682/v1/dcc4839c-6bb4-4202-b5b5-35eb24a9feac.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Investigation of laterite and black cotton soil using agricultural and industrial waste for road embankment","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe continuous increase in population, urban expansion, and industrial development has increase the solid waste generation across the world. Improper management and disposal of agricultural, municipal, and industrial waste materials have created serious environmental problems, including contamination of groundwater, land degradation, and public health hazards [2]. Conventional waste disposal methods such as landfilling require large land areas and often result in long-term ecological damage. Consequently, the beneficial reuse of waste materials in civil engineering applications has gained significant attention as a sustainable solution [25].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruction of transportation infrastructure, particularly road embankment and pavement subgrades, requires enormous quantities of natural soil and aggregates. Excessive Extraction of these material not only increases construction expenses but also contribute to environmental degradation. Incorporation of waste materials as soil stabilizers provides a viable alternative by enhancing engineering properties of soil while simultaneously addressing waste disposal issues. Industrial by-product such as fly ash and waste glass and agricultural residues like rice husk and bagasse ash possess pozzolanic properties which can improve soil strength, reduce compressibility, and enhance durability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaterite soil and black cotton soil are widely found in several region of India and present considerable challenges for construction. Laterite soil generally exhibits moderate strength but often shows variability in permeability and compaction behaviour. In Contrast, black cotton soil contains expensive clay minerals such as montmorillonite, which cause significant swelling and shrinkage, resulting in low shear strength and poor stability. Stabilization of these soils using waste- based materials can significantly improve their engineering behaviour and provide environmentally sustainable alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFly ash, a by-product generated during coal combustion in thermal power plants, is abundantly available and widely used in soil stabilization due to its cementitious characteristics and cost-effectiveness [4]. Similarly, waste glass, plastic waste, rice husk, and bagasse husk ash have gained attention for their ability to improve soil mechanical properties. However, the combined effect of multiple waste material on different soil types requires further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral researchers have explored the use of waste materials for soil stabilization. Olufuwobi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e [1] reported enhancement in clay soil strength using powdered glass and cement. Renu and sonthwal \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e [2] highlighted the potential of various solid waste materials for stabilizing soft soils and emphasized their environmental benefits. Tiwari and mahiyar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e [4] investigated stabilization of black cotton soil using fly ash and natural fibers, demonstrating improvement in engineering properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChauhan and Kumar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e [6] studied stabilization using waste plastic and crushed glass and observed improvement in soil strength parameters. Blayia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e [8] evaluated expansive soil stabilized with glass powder and reported enhancement in compaction and strength properties. Hanifi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e [10] investigated aluminium can strip as soil reinforcement and observed reduction in swelling behaviour. Baloochi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e [11] emphasized the importance of proper proportioning of waste materials for achieving effective stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies have also focused on agricultural wastes. Thangavel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e [21] demonstrated significant strength improvement in expansive soil using bagasse ash and natural fibres. Rawat and Mohanty \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e [22] examined municipal solid waste utilization in embankment construction. Therefore, the present research aims to evaluate the effectiveness of these materials in improving soil compaction, strength, permeability, and load- bearing capacity using standardized testing methods. The study also assesses the potential reduction in pavement thickness and construction cost resulting from stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough numerous studies have investigated the stabilization of expansive soils using individual waste materials such as fly ash, glass powder, plastic waste, or agriculture residues, limited research has comparatively evaluated the combined effect of multiple agricultural and industrial wastes on different problematic soil types under identical experimental conditions. Furthermore, previous investigations rarely integrate geotechnical performance improvement with practical pavement design implications such as thickness reduction and cost efficiency based on IRC guidelines. In particular, a comparative assessment between laterite soil and black cotton soil stabilized using blended waste materials remains insufficiently explored. Therefore, the present study aims to address this gap by systematically evaluating the combined influence of fly ash and selected agricultural and industrial waste admixtures on compaction characteristics, permeability, shear strength, and CBR behaviour of both laterite and black cotton soils. Additionally, the study quantifies the potential reduction in pavement thickness using IRC 37-2018 provisions to establish practical engineering relevance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Material and Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Soil Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaterite soil and black cotton soil were selected for the experimental investigation. Soil samples were collected form warvandi region of Nashik Maharashtra India. The collected samples were air dried to natural weather condition and then as per Indian Standard (IS) soil were passed through 4.75mm sieve to remove the gravel particles and organic matter before testing. Laterite soil is used in road construction but shows high variability in permeability and compaction characteristics. The black cotton soil have the property of swelling and shrinkage due to the presence of active clay minerals. The engineering and index properties of both the soil were determined as per IS 2720.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Fly ash\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFly ash was obtained from ekhalare nashik thermal power plant for investigation. It is a fine pozzolanic fly ash of C type a by-product generated during coal combustion. Fly ash contributes to soil strength improvement through formation of cementitious compounds when mixed with water and soil particles [25].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Waste Admixtures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following waste materials were used as soil stabilizing admixtures:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaste Glass (WG): Discarded glass materials were crushed and sieved to obtain particles smaller than 4.75 mm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlastic Waste (PW): Collected plastic waste was cleaned and shredded into small strips.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice Husk (RH): Agricultural Residue collected from local rice mill and agriculture field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBagasse Husk Ash (BHA): Obtained from sugar industry waste after controlled burning of baggase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll waste materials were processed to obtain uniform particle size and moisture conditions prior to mixing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Mix Proportions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil stabilization was performed by mixing soil with different proportions of fly ash and waste admixtures based on dry weight of soil. Adopted mix proportions were:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFly ash: 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaste admixtures: 0%, 3%, 5%, 7% and 9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe materials were thoroughly blended to ensure uniform distribution before testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Experimental Program with Result and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaboratory testing was carried out in accordance with IS 2720 standards to evaluate engineering properties of stabilized and untreated soils. The testing program included index property determination, modified proctor test, shear strength parameters, free swell index as shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Index properties of soils.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex properties of soils\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS Codes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaterite Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack Cotton Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS:2720 Part 2\u0026ndash;1964\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMoisture Content\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS:2720 Part 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.17%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticles Size Distribution\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS: 2720 Part 4 -1985\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilt- 74.15%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClay- 25.87%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilt- 68.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClay- 31.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAtterbergs Limit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLiquid Limit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlastic Limit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlasticity Index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS: 2720 Part 5- 1985\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.96%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.43%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.53%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.40%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.37%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.03%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProctor Density Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMDD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS: 2720 Part 7\u0026ndash;1965\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.195 gm/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.12%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2118 gm/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.43%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFree Swell Index\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIS: 2720 Part 40\u0026ndash;1970\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e----\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUniversal Soil Classification\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs per index properties of both the soil the soil has been classified as CH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Inorganic clay of high plasticity. The inorganic clay of high plasticity have high settlement problem, expansive behaviour and low bearing capacity which can be improved by fly ash, lime or cement stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Compaction Behaviour and Density Improvement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompaction characteristics were determined using the modified proctor test following is 2720 (Part 7). Soil mixtures were compacted to determine maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) with fly ash and waste admixture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModified proctor test of laterite and black cotton soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaterite Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDD (gm/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e )\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack Cotton Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDD (gm/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e )\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% FA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Waste Admixture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Waste Admixture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.19\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.83\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.75\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the findings presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the addition of fly ash and waste admixture significantly influenced compaction characteristics. Laterite soil achieved maximum dry density of 1.83 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e at 7% admixture and 15% fly ash, with an increase of 65% in comparison with untreated laterite soil while black cotton soil achieved 1.92 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e under similar conditions which is 68% higher than untreated black cotton soil. The optimum result are obtained for the 7% of admixture and 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of fly ash. The optimum result obtain from modified proctor test for the percentage of waste material admixtures and fly ash are taken do determine the permeability, direct shear test and California bearing ratio test results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed increase in maximum dry density can be attributed to improved particle gradation and enhanced inter- particle bonding due to pozzolanic reactions between fly ash and soil minerals, resulting in denser packing and reduced void ratio.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Hydraulic Behaviour and Permeability Reduction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Constant Head Permeability Test was conducted following IS 2720 Part (Part 36) to determine the coefficient of Permeability of stabilized soils. From Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, it can be seen that as the percentage of waste material as an admixture to the soil with fly ash increases, the permeability get reduces due to the higher soil density which also reduces voids present in the soil increasing the density of soil. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;2 for laterite soil almost 26.91% of permeability is reduced and for black cotton soil it reduces by 28.57% of permeability. The reduction in permeability enhances resistance against moisture content, thereby reducing the risk of swelling in black cotton soil and erosion in laterite soil, which is critical for long-term embankment stability. Less is the permeability of both the soil, greater is the soil stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Shear Strength Enhancement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShear strength parameters were evaluated using the direct shear test as per IS 2720 (Part 13). Soil specimens were prepared at their respective MDD and OMC conditions. Tests were conducted under varying normal stresses to determine cohesion and internal friction angle using the Mohr- Coulomb failure criterion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCo-efficient of permeability and direct shear strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaterite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack Cotton\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% of waste admixture with % of FA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCo-efficient of Permeability (cm/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eɸ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShear Strength S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;σtanɸ (kg/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCo-efficient of Permeability (cm/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eɸ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShear Strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;σtanɸ\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0% of waste admixture with 0% of FA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.66 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of waste admixture with 5% of FA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.41 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of waste admixture with 10% of FA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.58 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of waste admixture with 15% of FA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of waste admixture with 20% of FA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.82 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom table no 3, it displays the outcomes of a shear test conducted on soil samples containing 7% admixture with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% fly ash. The results indicate that, under a normal stress of 15 kN/m\u003csup\u003e2,\u003c/sup\u003e the shear strength is 11.71 kN/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 9.36kN/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e with 7% admixture with 15% of fly ash for laterite soil and for black cotton soil respectively. This observation implies that an increase in normal stress leads to a proportional increase in shear force and increase in proportion with 20% decrease the result. The increase in strength is attributed to pozzolanic reactions, improved particle interlocking, and reduction in void ratio. Beyond 15% fly ash content, marginal reduction in shear strength suggests possible excess fines leading to lubrication effects and reduced interlocking efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Bearing Capacity Improvement and CBR Performance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoad bearing Capacity was evaluated using the CBR test as per IS 2720 (Part 16). Both soaked and un-soaked tests were performed, and results were used to estimate pavement thickness according to IRC 37-2018 guidelines. The CBR result for unsoaked and soaked test are from 2.5 mm penetration as the result was greater than 5 mm penetration of CBR result.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalifornia Bearing Ratio for unsoaked and soaked test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaterite Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack Cotton Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% of admixture with % of FA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnsoaked\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoaked\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnsoaked\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoaked\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0% of admixture with 0% of fly ash\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.50%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.75%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of admixture with 5% of fly ash\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.55%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.21%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.21%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.91%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of admixture with 10% of fly ash\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.92%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.35%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.72%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of admixture with 15% of fly ash\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.43%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.35%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.31%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.64%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7% of admixture with 20% of fly ash\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.81%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.61%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.21%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.81%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e the graph showing the unsoaked CBR tests with 2.5 mm penetration for 7% of waste material admixture and different proportions of fly ash which indicates that the CBR value increase from 8.50% to 14.81% for laterite soil. The CBR value for black cotton soil increases from 6.75% to 11.21% which is almost 66.07% increase in CBR value, and for laterite soil 74.2% increase in CBR value as compared to 100% soil result. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;4 the graph shows the soaked CBR test with 7% of waste material admixture with different proportions of fly ash indicating that the CBR value for laterite soil increase by almost 105% from 4.16% to 8.61%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor black cotton soil the CBR value increases by 2.56% to 6.81% which is almost an increase of 166% with waste material admixture. These improvements indicates enhanced load carrying capacity and reduced moisture-induced softening, which is particularly beneficial for expansive black cotton soils subjected to seasonal wetting and drying cycles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Pavement Thickness Reduction and Engineering Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cost analysis of road embankment depend upon the thickness of pavement, which is taken from IRC 37-2018.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAssume traffic density for Highway or Expressway = 40msa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording th the IRC 37-2018 the figure of catalogue for pavemnt with bituminous surface course with granular base and sub base of thickness of pavement vs design traffic in MSA (Million Standard Axle) depend upon the value of CBR %. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ei) The CBR value of soil is 8.5% for laterite soil and 7.21% for black cotton soil.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor 8% CBR the thickness of pavement is 595 mm for laterite soil and for 7% CBR the thickness of pavement is 605 mm for black cotton soil. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTherefore the thickness of pavement for 8.5 % CBR By interpolation is 632.187 mm and for 7.21% CBR value is 612.85 mm. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eii) The CBR value of soil with waste material for laterite soil and black cotton soil is 14.81% and 11.21% respectively. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe thickness of pavement for 15 % cbr value is 565 mm\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe thickness of pavement for 12% cbr value is 580 mm\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTherefore the thickness of pavement for 14.81% is 557.84 mm and for 11.21% is 541.81 mm by interpolation. The thickness of pavement decreases by 74.347 mm i.e. 11.76% in laterite soil and in black cotton soil it decreases by 71.04 mm i.e. 11.6%. so it can be concluded that cost of road embankment construction decreases. The reduction in pavemnet thickness not only lowers material consumption and construction cost but also contributes to sustainable infrastructure development through reduced extraction of natural aggregates.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe stabilization of road embankment relies on the soil\u0026rsquo;s strength, and strength can be enhanced by adding an admixture to the soil. The laboratory investigation indicates that the inclusion of small percentages of admixture from 3% to 9% together with 5% to 20% fly ash improves several engineering properties of the laterite and black cotton soil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe maximum dry density increased and optimum moisture content showed changes consisted with denser packing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe direct shear strength parameters and CBR values were also improved for certain combinations notably 7% admixture with 15% fly ash for shear strength and 20% fly ash for CBR in laboratory conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reduction in permeability enhances the moisture content resistance of the soil up to 26\u0026ndash;29%, which reduces the risk of swelling in black cotton soil and erosion in laterite soil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe thickness of pavement decrease about 74 mm which can save the construction cost of road embankment and total construction cost of road also.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research leads to the conclusion that both admixture and fly ash have the potential to alter the characteristics of laterite soil and black cotton soil, making it useful for various civil engineering applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese laboratory results suggest potential for reducing pavement thickness and construction cost with proper implementation. Moreover the results are superior compared to treating black cotton soil with admixture and fly ash. However, the findings are specific to the materials and test conditions used here; field validation, longer-term performance monitoring and environmental assessments are recommended prior to adoption in design practice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; No funding was received for conducting this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest/Competing Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest or competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The Datasets generated and analyzed during the current study is attached as an supplementary material.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCode Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Mr. Toshnil Haribhau Boraste have done Conceptualization, experimental work, data analysis, and manuscript writing and Dr. Amit Sharma reviewed the manuscript with editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; There was no Funding, for both the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Not Applicable. The study does not involve human participants, animals or any ethical concerns.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; I am thank full to everyone who have helped me for completion of research work. I am thank full for guidance, support and encouragement provided by mentors, colleagues and peers throughout the research work. I also acknowledge the contributions of the communities and organizations for cooperation to make this study possible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePermission for Soil Collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; The laterite soil and black cotton soil samples were collected from the warvandi region of Nashik, Maharashtra, India, from open and non- restricted locations. The sampling was conducted strictly for academic and research purposes and did not involve any protected. Privately restricted, or environmentally sensitive areas. Therefore, no formal governmental permit was required for the collection of these soil samples.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlufuwobi, J., Ogundogu, A., Micheal, B. \u0026amp; Aderin, I. O. Clay soil stabilization using powdered material. \u003cem\u003eJ. Eng. Sci. Technol.\u003c/em\u003e, (9)5, 541\u0026ndash;558. 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Effective utilization of waste material for soil stabilization AIP Conference Proceedings (2387), 130004. (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRawat, P. \u0026amp; Mohanty, S. Study of municipal solid waste in road embankment 7th Indian Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference 7IYGEC. (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShivaprasad, H. \u0026amp; Kommu, S. \u003cem\u003eGeotechnical laboratory evaluation of construction demolition recycled material for road embankments IOP Conf\u003c/em\u003e (Earth and Environmental Science 012064, 2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSoganci, A., Ozkan, S., Yenginar, I., Guzel, Y., Ozdemir, A. \u0026amp; Y., and The use of waste materials red mud and bottom ash as road embankment fill. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e16\u003c/b\u003e, 9077 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSolid Waste Management plan for Nashik Municipal Corporation DPR for SWM Nashik. (2007).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Index properties, Modified proctor test, California bearing ratio, Waste material admixture, Road embankment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027682/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027682/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe rapid growth of urban areas and industrial activities has substantially increased the solid waste production, resulting in serious environmental and disposal challenges. The reuse of agricultural and industrial by-product in geotechnical engineering applications offers a sustainable alternative for both waste management and soil improvement. The research examines the enhancement of engineering characteristics of laterite soil and black cotton soil using waste glass (WG), plastic waste (PW), rice husk (RH), bagasse husk ash (BHA), and fly ash (FA) as stabilizing agents. Soil samples were treated with 0\u0026ndash;9% waste admixture along with 5\u0026ndash;20% fly ash by dry weight. Laboratory tests were conducted according to the Indian Standard (IS) procedures, including index property, modified proctor test, direct shear test, constant head permeability test, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe increase in the engineering performance of the soils was observed after soil stabilization. The maximum dry density for laterite soil increased by 65% and that for black cotton soil by 68% at optimum stabilization levels. The permeability decrease by nearly 26\u0026ndash;29% for both soils. The shear strength parameters, cohesion and internal friction angle, showed considerable enhancement, particularly at 7% waste admixture combined with 15% fly ash. Furthermore, CBR values increased from 8.50% to 14.81% for laterite soil and from 6.75% to 11.21% for black cotton soil, indicating improvement in load carrying capacity. These improvements contributed to an estimated pavement thickness reduction of approximately 11\u0026ndash;12% resulting in potential construction cost savings. The findings confirm that controlled incorporation of agricultural and industrial waste material can significantly improve soil performance and support sustainable road construction. However, excessive addition of waste materials may adversely affect compaction and strength characteristics. Therefore, identification of optimum stabilization proportions is essential. Field-scale validation and long-term performance studies are recommended for practical implementation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Investigation of laterite and black cotton soil using agricultural and industrial waste for road embankment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-24 12:51:49","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027682/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"af6f3aaf-ded6-482c-9f53-8d846f86f5a2","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 24th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":64920413,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":64920414,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":64920415,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-18T12:46:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-24 12:51:49","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9027682","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9027682","identity":"rs-9027682","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}