Best practices for achieving high-quality parts in IN625 via PBF-LB

Best practices for achieving high-quality parts in IN625 via PBF-LB | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Best practices for achieving high-quality parts in IN625 via PBF-LB Mohsen Afshani, Mariangela Quarto, Sara Bocchi, Gabriele Locatelli, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7760288/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Additive manufacturing (AM), particularly powder bed fusion-laser beam (PBF-LB) technology, offers new opportunities for fabricating complex alloy components with enhanced design flexibility. Specifically, Inconel 625 (IN625), a nickel-based superalloy, is widely used in high-performance applications because of its excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. However, the quality of PBF-LB-manufactured parts is highly sensitive to process parameters, especially the volumetric energy density (VED). This study investigated the influence of various process parameters, specifically the laser power ( P ) and scan speed ( v ), on the quality of IN625 samples produced via PBF-LB. A total of 60 samples were fabricated across three build plate rotation angles (0°, 90°, and 180°) and evaluated for porosity, surface morphology, and microhardness, revealing a clear correlation between VED and key quality metrics. Optimal material properties were achieved within a VED range of 66–100 J/mm³, whereas deviations from this range led to defects such as a lack of fusion (LOF), keyholing, and balling. Additionally, maintaining a balanced relationship between P and v while keeping the other parameters constant was found to be essential for proper melting and defect mitigation. The results further indicate that, under the tested conditions, the rotation of the build plate and the position of the specimen have no significant influence on part of the quality or properties. Overall, the findings highlight the critical role of process parameter control in producing dense, defect-minimized IN625 parts via PBF-LB. Inconel 625 (IN625) Additive manufacturing powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) process parameters volumetric energy density (VED) process optimization Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1 Introduction Additive manufacturing (AM), also most popularly known as “3D printing”, is an advanced manufacturing technology developed in the past 30 years that encompasses a set of advanced manufacturing techniques that are able to produce 3D components from virtual models generated by computer-aided design (CAD) software [ 1 – 4 ]. These technologies allow the production of complex 3D components of any shape via 3D model data, which are impossible to fabricate via traditional manufacturing techniques. Among all available technologies, laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB), which uses an adequate energy laser beam to melt prelaid thin metal powder layer by layer (generally between 20 and 100 µm) and form high-performance parts after cooling and solidification, is one of the most promising AM technologies for metals [ 5 – 7 ]. Several AM techniques are focused on the production of complex geometries and structure components, such as stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), selective laser sintering (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), electron beam melting (EBM), fusion deposition modeling (FDM), multijet/polyjet 3D printing, selective laser melting (PBF-LB) and laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [ 4 , 8 ]. Among all these technologies, PBF-LB can be used to produce parts from both pure and alloyed metal powders. There is a broad consensus in the literature that volume energy density (VED) is one of the best predictors of a part’s relative density in PBF-LB processes. Various formulations of this parameter exist. VED is typically defined as the ratio of the laser power ( P ) to the product of the scan speed ( v ), hatch spacing ( h ), and powder bed layer thickness ( t ) (as shown in Fig. 1 ). It represents the amount of energy delivered per unit volume of powder in the bed, directly influencing key dimensions, particularly the penetration depth [ 9 , 10 ]. It is worth noting that, in some studies, the laser beam diameter is used instead of the hatch spacing to calculate the energy density (e.g., [ 11 ]), but in the present study, a more common formula was adopted to examine the parameters (Fig. 1 ). However, PBF-LB is especially suitable for forming small batches, high value, customized, and complex structural parts for aerospace, biomedical, automotive, abrasive, and other applications[ 12 – 15 ]. Inconel 625 (IN625) is a Ni-Cr-Mo solid-solution-hardened wrought superalloy that presents a combination of high-temperature strength and very high corrosion and oxidation resistance, even at temperatures up to approximately 1000°C [ 17 – 19 ]. Table 1 shows its nominal chemical composition. Table 1 Nominal compositions of IN625 [ 17 ] Composition (wt.%) Ni Cr Mo Ti Nb Fe Al C IN625 58 (min) 20–23 8–10 0.4 3.15–4.15 5 0.2–0.4 0.05 At the current state-of-the-art, the established and commercialized process parameters for PBF-LB allows to produce defect-free components of IN625 with a density close to 100% owing to its high weldability [ 20 – 22 ]. There is also growing interest in the mechanical properties required for structural materials, particularly their fatigue and creep resistance [ 23 , 24 ]. Koutiri et al. [ 25 ] studied the fatigue behavior of as-built IN625 produced via PBF-LB, focusing on the effects of surface finish conditions and porosity (including pore location). The results were consistent with expectations; PBF-LB-manufactured IN625 with high surface roughness and numerous defects, such as pores and lack of fusion (LOF), exhibited significantly reduced fatigue life. To address this issue, Marchese et al. [ 26 ] mentioned that it is crucial to perform postheat treatments to reduce defects such as residual stresses, develop the desired microstructure and texture, and achieve mechanical properties that meet or exceed those of post-heat-treated IN625 alloy in its traditional state. In addition, during the melting and solidification processes, which are provided by complex thermal cycles, the heat flux dissipation from the top of the samples to the building platform results in the development of columnar grains, which lead to anisotropic mechanical properties. Consequently, the orientations of the components on the building platform must be carefully taken into account. The PBF-LB process while printing parts may also induce defects, such as pores, inclusions, cracks, LOFs, keyholing, balling and poor interlayer fusion, due to improper control of the forming process, which may further affect the mechanical properties of the fabricated parts. On the basis of a literature review, the metallurgical defects of IN625 obtained via the PBF-LB process are summarized in Table 2 . Table 2 Main defects and reasons for the formation of PBF-LB IN625 alloy parts. Density Defects Formation Reasons Elimination (Weakening) Measures Ref. Almost 100% A lack of fusion, gas entrapment porosity Powder factor Reasonable process parameters [ 27 ] -- Macro defect : balling, irregularity, distortion, spatter, unmelted particles, necking Micro defect : unmelted, inclusions, cracks, porosity (20 ~ 100 µm) Insufficient heat input, low melt viscosity, instability of melt pool Reasonable process parameters [ 28 ] -- Surface topography : open pore, balling, microcracks Subsurface defect : pores Uneven layer thickness distribution, high tensile residual stress, high viscosity and surface tension of the melt pool material -- [ 29 ] -- Surface cracks, internal inclusions Oxidation, residual thermal stress Annealing [ 30 ] 99% Surface cracks Local eutectic structure (γ + Laves), residual thermal stress Substrate preheating [ 31 ] Related to laser parameters Most pores and a small number of cracks in interlayer boundaries -- -- [ 32 ] Regarding these issues, Li et al. [ 29 ] mentioned that the apparent porosity and balling spheres are the main reasons for the poor surface finish of as-built IN625 alloy samples. When macroscopic defects occur in the PBF-LB sample, the number of microscopic defects also increases. Generally, to achieve adequate energy, are considerable I) an extremely low energy input results in insufficient melting or “LOF” porosity, whereas II) an extremely high energy input results in “keyholing” [ 33 – 35 ]. Briefly, LOF, as the name suggests, is the result of incomplete welding of layers or adjacent melt pools, resulting in an irregular morphology [ 36 , 37 ], and keyholing is a welding term used to describe the deep, narrow vapor depression that forms under high-energy density melting conditions due to the vaporization of metal under the heat source [ 38 ]. On the other hand, owing to lower scan speeds and higher repetition rates, the balling phenomenon severely impedes interlayer bonding, reducing part of the density and increasing both the top and side surface roughness. However, its effect on side roughness is more pronounced, as the scattered balls predominantly accumulate along the sides of the melt pool rather than on the top surface. Nevertheless, in this study, the probabilities of the aforementioned defects (both predicted and real) across varying VED values and build plate rotations were analyzed. The predicted defects were identified on the basis of an extensive review of the literature [ 39 – 42 ], whereas the real defects were directly observed on the fabricated samples. Unlike conventional works that focus either on single process parameters or limited VED ranges [ 43 , 44 ], this work systematically correlates a wide range of VED values with both surface and volumetric defects while also investigating the influence of build plate rotation. This integrated approach provides new insights into optimizing process windows for IN625 fabrication via PBF-LB. The aim of this study was to investigate how P and v (and consequently VED) affect the manufacturing quality of IN625 samples fabricated via PBF-LB. In the first stage, cylindrical samples were fabricated via PBF-LB in three Runs with different build plate rotations. In the second stage, the as-built samples were characterized by surface roughness measurement, Vickers microhardness testing on both the top and bottom surfaces, and porosity analysis of the cross-sections perpendicular to the build direction. This work provides a unified experimental framework that simultaneously examines these characteristics across a wide VED spectrum. A distinctive feature of this study lies in its incorporation of build plate rotation as a secondary factor to assess spatial consistency and potential thermal gradient effects. Furthermore, this work offers a critical validation of literature-based defect prediction thresholds through direct experimental observations. This systematic comparison between predicted and actual defect formation across different processing conditions has not been widely discussed in previous research. As such, the findings of this study contribute new insights toward defining optimal process windows for defect minimization and property enhancement in the PBF-LB of IN625. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Specimen fabrication The IN625 powders used in this work were sieved, and the distribution of the grain size was analyzed via a laser diffraction particle size analyzer Mastersizer 3000 (Malvern Panalytical), which revealed a particle size range of 21–48 µm. As illustrated in Fig. 2 -left , cylindrical samples with diameters of 10 mm and thicknesses of 6 mm were produced, using a Laser Powder Bed Fusion machine (Print Genius 150 machine by Prima Additive s.r.l. – Italy) with a circular build platform. P and v were varied at levels 5 and 4, respectively, while h and t were held constant. A full factorial plan was considered for sample production, as reported in Table 3 . As a consequence of the variation in P and v , each sample is characterized by a different VED value. As shown in Fig. 2 -right , each sample was assigned an ID number from 1 to 20 in three separate Runs with each Run consisting of a matrix (4x5). Table 3 Parameters used in the specimen production process (repeated over three Runs with different build plate rotations) Sample ID P [W] v [mm/s] h [µm] t [µm] VED [J/mm 3 ] 1 100 500 30 50 133.33 2 100 1000 30 50 66.66 3 100 1500 30 50 44.44 4 100 2000 30 50 33.33 5 150 500 30 50 200 6 150 1000 30 50 100 7 150 1500 30 50 66.66 8 150 2000 30 50 50 9 200 500 30 50 266.66 10 200 1000 30 50 133.33 11 200 1500 30 50 88.88 12 200 2000 30 50 66.66 13 250 500 30 50 333.33 14 250 1000 30 50 166.66 15 250 1500 30 50 111.11 16 250 2000 30 50 83.33 17 300 500 30 50 400 18 300 1000 30 50 200 19 300 1500 30 50 133.33 20 300 2000 30 50 100 To evaluate the influence of the printing position and the effect of gas flow, the build job was repeated three times, and the build plate was rotated 90° counter-clockwise relative to its original orientation around the build direction (Z-axis), as illustrated in Fig. 3 . More specifically, in the first Run, the samples were printed such that sample No. 1 was positioned in the far bottom-left corner, far from the gas inlet. In the second Run, sample No. 16 occupied the bottom-left corner, while sample No. 1 was placed in the first row, closest to the gas inlet, and in the third Run, sample No. 20 was positioned far from the gas inlet, directly opposite to its position in the first Run. In total, 60 test samples were produced for analysis. After specimen preparation, the build plate was carefully removed from the machine and cleaned using a specialized brush to remove any residual powder. Unfused powders were then removed carefully via a vacuum system. The samples were subsequently prepared for further experimental analysis. 2.2 Characterization The as-built samples were comprehensively characterized, focusing on surface conditions, mechanical performance, and porosity. As shown in Fig. 4 , the as-built samples were sectioned along the build direction (Z-axis), using wire electrical discharge machining (W-EDM) – HB600, to facilitate of assess the influence of the AM process on the porosity distribution. Generally, surface analysis reveals a typically rough morphology, which is critical because it influences post-processing requirements and potential fatigue behavior [ 45 ]. Even if the bulk material has excellent mechanical properties, a rough surface can become a weak link. Therefore, enhancing the fatigue life necessitates reducing the surface roughness and improving the overall surface integrity. Microhardness analysis was employed to evaluate the relative hardness distribution across the fabricated samples. Porosity analysis revealed the presence, shape, and distribution of residual pores, which are influenced by processing parameters such as P , v , and h . Effective monitoring and control of porosity (on the cross-section) are essential to ensure the structural integrity required for specific applications. 2.2.1 Surface analysis Due to rapid solidification and cooling, a nucleation rate that exceeds the growth rate occurs. Consequently, the fusion zone develops a fine and dense grain structure, which contributes to improved mechanical strength, as a surface roughness of 0.8 µm helps prevent premature failure from surface-initiated cracking [ 46 , 47 ]. However, the surface roughness at the top of a melt pool can be influenced by a rippling phenomenon, which arises from surface tension-induced shear forces acting on the liquid metal. This effect is driven mainly by temperature variations between the area heated by the laser and the adjacent solidifying region, resulting from the movement of the laser. As these thermal gradients decrease, the opposing effects of gravity and the curvature of the melt pool surface work to restore the molten surface to its original level [ 48 ]. Nevertheless, owing to the viscosity of the molten metal, this recovery process is slowed, and the rapid solidification of the melt pool often prevents full surface levelling from occurring. In this study, the average surface roughness (Ra) of the as-built samples was analyzed via a 3D Optical Profilometer – Sensofar S Neox by Sensofar Metrology (Spain) across all three Runs. The measurements for each Run were conducted in accordance with the ASME B46.1 (2019) standard [ 49 ]. 2.2.2 Microhardness Analysis Nickel-based superalloys made from PBF-LBs have demonstrated comparable or improved mechanical properties in terms of hardness, tensile strength, and ultimate strength but usually low ductility compared with conventionally manufactured materials (cast or forged) [ 50 , 51 ]. The mechanical properties, especially the microhardness, of the as-built IN625 alloy typically strongly depend on the building orientation. The samples were cut from the build plate using W-EDM machine. Both surfaces (top and bottom) were then prepared using abrasive papers (grits 600, 800, 1000, and 1200) to obtain improved results. The microhardness test was subsequently performed via the Vickers hardness test UHL – VHMT-001 by UHL (Germany), which employs a diamond indenter with a vertex angle of 136° according to UNI EN ISO 6507-1 and applies a load of 1000 gf for 15 s. Measurements were taken from both the top and bottom polished surfaces of the cylindrical samples (for each Runs), with the final hardness determined as the average of three measurements for each surface. 2.2.3 Porosity analysis Porosity is a material discontinuity that defines the volumetric properties of porous media, which indicate the volumetric ratio of the void space (pores, fractures, and cracks) occupied in the unit volume of the porous medium [ 52 ]. Depending on the final application of the product, pores can either negatively or positively affect the mechanical properties of AM parts. For instance, components intended for high-stress environments should be fully dense to minimize the risk of failure. Conversely, some biomedical implants are intentionally designed with a certain degree of porosity to promote osseointegration with biological tissue [ 53 ]. Poulin et al. [ 24 ] produced up to 10% porosity in PBF-LB IN625 samples by intentionally seeding pores by changing the laser scanning speed to study the influence of porosity on long fatigue crack propagation behavior. When the scanning speed increased from 960 mm/s to 1920 mm/s (960, 1440, 1680, and 1920 mm/s), the intentionally seeded porosities increased from 0.1% to 2.7% (0.1, 0.3, 0.9, and 2.7%). In this study, the P was presumably very low, which may have accounted for these results. Therefore, the relationship between the scanning speed and porosity is not linear, and the porosity increases when the scanning speed exceeds a certain value. Nevertheless, Ziegelmeier et al. [ 54 ] reported that the surface quality and porosity of the fabricated part were highly dependent on the packing density and roughness of the layered powder bed. To prepare the samples for this part of the study, the cylindrical samples were cut perpendicularly via W-EDM, as this orientation (across the build direction) enables a more comprehensive porosity analysis (see Fig. 4 ). The metallographic preparation involved several steps: mounting with resin glass fibre black at 10 bar pressure for 5 minutes; grinding , which included both coarse and fine steps using progressively finer abrasive papers (600, 1000, 1200 and 1400); and polishing , which was performed in stages using fine abrasives on polishing cloths. Finally, the polished samples were cleaned and prepared for porosity evaluation. The porosity was subsequently analyzed via a Keyence VHX-700 digital microscope at 100× magnification and high resolution. The captured images were processed with ImageJ software, which detects and quantifies pores on the basis of contrast differences between the material matrix and voids. The software calculates the total pore area within a given cross-section and divides it by the total area of that section to determine the percentage of porosity. This method provides a reliable and precise measurement of the closed porosity of additively manufactured components. 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Surface analysis According to investigations, lower scan speeds and higher repetition rates can reduce top surface roughness by stabilizing the melt pool and minimizing surface profile variations; however, they can significantly increase the volume of the melt pool produced and promote the balling phenomenon. [ 55 – 58 ]. Figure 5 (selective images), captured at 20× magnification with 2x2 stitching, illustrates the variations in surface roughness associated with defect probabilities, such as keyholing (Fig. 5 -a), balling (Fig. 5 -b), LOF (Fig. 5 -c), and dense regions (Fig. 5 -d). These observations were made without any post-processing to evaluate the relationship between the VED values and the occurrence of defects for all the samples. In accordance with the literature [ 59 – 61 ], as shown in Fig. 5 -a (VED: 400 J/mm³) and Fig. 5 -b (VED: 333 J/mm³), keyhole pore formation can occur at high VED values. In addition, the formation of keyhole pores at the end of the track occurs when the laser is switched off [ 62 ] or when melt flow instabilities are caused by oscillation [ 63 ]. Despite the reduction in VED, which can mitigate keyholing or balling, Fig. 5 -c and Fig. 5 -d demonstrate that at low VED values of \(\:\sim\) 33 and 67 J/mm³, LOF defects and dense region defects, respectively, are observed (see Table 4 ). Furthermore, the numerical data were analyzed to extract more detailed insights. The \(\:{R}_{a}\) values for the three experimental Runs (average values) are summarized in Table 4 . On the basis of a literature review, the relationship between VED values and the types of defects (predicted defects) can be expressed as follows: VED ≤ 50 J/mm³: higher probability of LOF; 50 J/mm³ < VED ≤ 100 J/mm³: dense regions with minimal defects; 100 J/mm³ < VED < 150 J/mm³: keyholing defects become more likely; 150 J/mm³ < VED < 400 J/mm³: increased probability of keyholing and balling defects. Although these defects have been identified and reported in other studies, they have been examined in greater detail in this work, with the findings presented in the "Real Defect" column. For instance, in samples No. 9, 13, and 17, v is constant and relatively low compared with the other samples (500 mm/s), whereas P varies (200, 250, and 300 W). For the other samples, increasing v clearly led to an increase in surface roughness. Therefore, a lower v generally results in smoother surfaces, whereas a higher v generally results in increased roughness. In sample No. 1, despite the low v , the surface is still very rough because, in this case, the P is very low (100 W). Thus, achieving a good surface finish on the as-built part requires not only an appropriate v but also a sufficient P . The balance between these two parameters is crucial for optimizing surface quality. Additionally, on the basis of the images obtained from digital microscopy, an extra column has been added next to the predicted defects in Table 4 to illustrate the actual defects observed after processing each sample. In most cases, the predicted defects were accurate and are highlighted in green. The samples where the observed defects did not match the predictions are marked in red, while brown indicates additional defects that appeared in the as-built samples. Notably, balling was clearly observed in all the samples, which may be attributed to the close spacing between them. Table 4 Measurement of the surface roughness of the as-built samples related to the laser power and scan speed. (LOF=Lake of Fusion, K=Keyholing, B=Balling, D=Dense Region) Based on objective observations and analysis of the obtained images, in sample No. 1, although VED typically promotes keyholing defects, both P and v are low. This could explain why keyholing was not observed on the surface of the real samples. In sample No. 8, in addition to the presence of LOF, a dense region was also observed. This could be due to the high scanning speed (2000 mm/s), which may have prevented sufficient melt pool fluidity. In sample No. 11, in addition to the predicted defect, keyholing was observed exclusively during Run 3, when the sample was positioned closest to the gas inlet in the first row exposed to the shielding gas. In contrast, all other samples in the same position exhibited only the predicted defect. This suggests that the orientation of the samples relative to the gas flow or build chamber geometry does not noticeably influence the surface texture under the tested conditions. Instead, surface roughness appears to be governed primarily by key printing parameters, particularly v and P . These parameters directly influence melt pool dynamics, solidification behavior, and the energy input per unit area, all of which play critical roles in determining the final surface quality of the printed parts. Fig. 6-Top shows the Ra value as a function of the laser scanning speed at various power levels used during sample production. At 100 W, the Ra values are generally high, indicating poor surface quality and a different trend than those in the other cases. At 150 W, the surface roughness improved slightly but remained relatively high. As v increases, the Ra value remains nearly constant with no significant variation. The smoothest surface was observed at 200 W and 500 mm/s, corresponding to sample No. 9, and at this P , increasing v led to rougher surfaces. Additionally, at higher v values (>1000 mm/s), the Ra values become almost the same as those observed at 150 W. For P values of 250 and 300 W, a similar trend is observed, with the smoothest surfaces occurring at a v of 1000 mm/s. This indicates that scan speeds of approximately 1000 mm/s, when combined with moderate to high P , are optimal for achieving improved surface quality. However, when P exceeds 100 W and v increases to 1500 mm/s, an increase in the Ra value is observed. In addition, in terms of the VED and its influence on the surface quality of the manufactured samples, a clear trend is observed, as shown in Fig. 6-Bottom . Higher VED values are associated with improved surface finish, characterized by lower surface roughness, as indicated by the green oval within the VED range of 267–400 J/mm³. This improvement can be attributed to a more consistent energy input, which promotes stable melt pool formation and enhanced material consolidation. As the VED decreases, the surface of the final parts becomes noticeably rougher. This trend is illustrated by the red oval (VED 133–200 J/mm³) and is even more pronounced in the brown oval (VED 50–100 J/mm³). Consequently, lower VED values may lead to incomplete melting, unstable melt pools, and poor interlayer bonding, all of which contribute to increased surface irregularities. In summary, this study confirms the validity of VED-based defect prediction models reported in the literature, resulting in the presence of keyhole and balling defects in samples processed at VED > 150 J/mm³, whereas LOF defects predominantly occurred at VED ≤ 50 J/mm³. Dense regions with minimal porosity were typically found within the intermediate range (50–100 J/mm³). From the surface roughness point of view, a lower v combined with sufficient P contributes to reduced surface irregularities. This behavior is attributed to more stable melt pool formation and reduced thermal gradients, minimizing surface undulations and spattering. Conversely, high scan speeds with low power led to increased roughness due to insufficient melting and instabilities in the melt pool. A strong inverse relationship was observed between VED and average surface roughness. Higher VED values result in smoother surfaces due to improved energy absorption, consistent melting, and enhanced inter-layer bonding. At lower VED values, incomplete melting, poor layer consolidation, and unstable melt flow significantly increase the surface roughness. These findings reinforce the importance of energy density optimization to improve the as-built surface finish. This part of the analysis identifies sample No. 9 (VED = 267 J/mm³, P = 200 W, v = 500 mm/s – see Fig. 6 ) as exhibiting the best surface finish, with an Ra value of 4.92 µm, as shown in Table 4 . This highlights the effectiveness of combining moderate-to-high P with moderate v for process stability and surface quality. Furthermore, while an increase in P generally improves the surface finish, it must be carefully balanced with the scan speed to prevent the onset of keyholing or balling. An unexpected but noteworthy observation is the consistent presence of balling across the greater part of the samples, even in regimes not typically associated with this defect. This may be attributed to additional experimental conditions, such as sample proximity, powder packing density, or heat accumulation between neighboring tracks. This finding suggests that balling may not be solely governed by VED and warrants further investigation into mesoscale thermal interactions during PBF-LB processing. 3.2 Microhardness Analysis The microhardness results for all the samples are illustrated in Fig. 7 -Top , which are sorted by the VED value. According to Li et al. [ 64 ], the as-built samples produced through the AM process had a greater hardness than the forged samples did (approximately 305 HV, indicated by the red dashed line) because of the finer microstructure typical of a PBF-LB/M material. The microhardness results reveal variability between the top and bottom surfaces of each sample. Notably, owing to the outlier HV values of samples 4 and 13 (< 290 HV), they are excluded from this part of the analysis. However, both surfaces exhibit similar hardness values, with the hardness of the top surface ranging from 290 HV to 312 HV and that of the bottom surface ranging from 297 HV to 309 HV. However, some samples, such as samples 4 and 13, show notably lower hardness values on the top surface, which is likely due to local defects, especially for sample 4 caused by LOF defects, thermal gradients, or process-induced inconsistencies. In several cases (specimens 5, 10, 14, 15, and 18), the bottom surface exhibits significantly greater hardness than the top surface does, suggesting a higher relative VED in those regions (ranging from 111 to 400 J/mm³), where keyholing and balling defects were identified. Additionally, factors such as supercoiling rates, heat accumulation in lower layers near the build plate, or localized phase transformations (e.g., white layer formation) may influence the material’s hardness distribution. Generally, the top layers are affected by rapid solidification, which can result in residual stresses or a heterogeneous microstructure, reducing hardness consistency. In contrast, the bottom layers are subjected to repeated thermal cycling during deposition, which may induce grain refinement or secondary phase precipitation (e.g., δ-Ni 3 Nb or Laves phase), leading to increased hardness [ 16 ]. On the other hand, when comparing the microhardness values across the different build plate orientations, most samples (with a few exceptions) show that Run 1 results in the lowest microhardness value, whereas Run 3 shows the highest. These differences, however, are not relatively dramatic, with variations limited to approximately 12% on the top surface and up to 5% on the bottom surface, which can be compensated for by adjusting the processing parameters. As such, the effects of the rotation of the build plate and the position of the specimen on the microhardness can also be considered negligible. Although higher VED values are generally associated with improved surface finish, as discussed in the previous section, an inverse trend was observed in terms of hardness. As illustrated in Fig. 7 -bottom , on the top surface, the samples with the highest VED values tended to exhibit lower microhardness values and vice versa. In contrast, on the bottom surface (with the exception of the 250 W power level), an increase in the VED up to 200 J/mm³ led to a higher microhardness, which was the opposite trend observed on the top surface. However, variations in the microhardness values between the top and bottom surfaces indicate a vertical temperature gradient, which likely affects microstructural evolution during processing. This behavior is likely driven by thermal cycling effects and prolonged heat exposure near the build plate, which promote grain refinement or precipitation hardening. Conversely, the top layers may experience more pronounced residual stress and incomplete melting due to rapid cooling and reduced reheating. Regarding this issue, with respect to other parameters, such as P and v , the observed relationship between them can be attributed to the combined influence of energy input and the cooling rate, which could be evaluated as follows: I) At 100 W, increasing v led to a decrease in HV values (approximately 13% on the top surface and approximately 9% on the bottom surface). This may be because increasing v reduces the energy input, leading to insufficient melting, weaker microstructures, and hence lower hardness. II) In an opposite trend, at 250 W, increasing v resulted in an increase in HV values (around 11% on the top surface and nearly 5% on the bottom surface). This can be explained by the fact that a higher v at high P reduces excessive heat accumulation, promotes faster cooling, and leads to finer microstructures, thereby enhancing hardness. III) At other P levels, the hardness remains relatively invariant to changes in v , indicating a threshold beyond which process stability is maintained. Furthermore, samples 6, 8, 11, 16, and 19, with VED values ranging from 50–133 J/mm 3 , exhibited the most uniform hardness across both surfaces, indicating well-balanced process parameters and minimal vertical thermal gradients. In contrast, anomalies in samples such as No. 4 (~ 33 J/mm³) and No. 13 (~ 333 J/mm³), both with HV values below 290 and considered outliers, showed significant differences between their top and bottom surfaces, which these discrepancies can be attributed to LOF or keyholing defects, as well as thermal inconsistencies during layer deposition. 3.3 Porosity analysis For porosity analysis, cylindrical samples were cut perpendicularly using W-EDM across the build direction (Z-axis), enabling a more comprehensive analysis during production. Figure 8 (selective samples) shows the perpendicular surfaces of the samples at 100x magnification. This relatively high-magnification and high-resolution imaging technique was used to ensure high-quality and more accurate results. The porosity measurement results shown in Fig. 9 were averaged over three Runs across 20 distinct samples, sorted by the VED value. In this test, sample No. 4 was also considered an outlier sample, whereas for the other samples, two key parameters were analyzed for each sample. For each sample, two key parameters were evaluated: the mean % area, ranging from 0.024% to 0.454%, which represents the area occupied by the pores, and the mean pore count, which varied between 14 and 334. Despite variations in both parameters across the samples, the results indicate that the production settings were generally effective in achieving a dense material in most cases. In this analysis, as shown in Fig. 9 and considering the VED effect on porosity (%area and quantity), the lowest porosity quantity was observed in sample No. 15 (14 pores), with a VED value of 111 J/mm³, and the lowest %area occupied by pores was recorded in sample No. 11 at 0.024%, corresponding to a VED value of 89 J/mm³. Several samples (e.g., Samples 2, 7, 10, 12, 14, 19 and 20) present nearly zero values for both the pore quantity and the area percentage they occupy, suggesting negligible porosity and high-density material. Specimens 3, 5, 9, 13 and 17 have higher porosities (with 217–334 pores and 0.322–0.454% surface aria occupied) or lower-than-average densities. These results suggest the presence of defects or inconsistencies such as LOF, keyholing, or balling in the material, which could be attributed to specific process parameters or conditions. More specifically, within the VED range of 50–167 J/mm³, the lowest porosity levels were observed in the as-built samples, with an average of up to 95 pores and an average porosity area of up to 0.25% (as indicated by the red dashed line). In addition, the results indicated that a higher v , when combined with sufficient P , can enhance the material density while also improving the energy efficiency during manufacturing. Notably, at higher scan speeds, the reduced interaction time between the laser and the powder bed helps minimize overheating and mitigates defect mechanisms such as keyholing and excessive melt pool instability. However, at the lowest P level (100 W), the energy input is likely insufficient to fully melt the powder at higher v , leading to incomplete fusion and higher porosity and defects such as LOF and balling [ 65 ]. This highlights the importance of optimizing both P and v to achieve a suitable VED that ensures effective material consolidation without excessive energy use. Notably, no consistent pattern was observed with respect to the various positions of the samples. Therefore, the effect of build plate rotation on material properties appears to be negligible for the majority of the samples and can be disregarded in this context. However, minor local variations may still occur due to other factors, such as localized thermal gradients or gas flow disturbances, which could warrant further investigation in more sensitive applications. On the other hand, to quantify the relationship between the pore count and the percentage of the total surface area they occupy, a metric referred to as the porosity index is defined. This index is calculated as the ratio of the total surface area percentage occupied by pores to the total number of pores, as illustrated in Fig. 10 . The porosity index reflects the average relative size of individual pores within a material. Higher values indicate the presence of larger pores, whereas lower values correspond to smaller and more uniformly distributed pores. For example, sample No. 11, with an index of 0.0009, has a very large number of small pores, in contrast to sample No. 1, with an index of 0.0042, which contains fewer but larger pores. Despite its simplicity, this metric offers a useful comparative measure for evaluating pore size distributions across different samples. Summarizing, the porosity results significantly vary depending on the processing parameters according to the literature, which identifies incomplete fusion and melt pool instabilities as key contributors to elevated porosity. A clear relationship is observed between VED and porosity. The samples with VED values between 50 and 167 J/mm³ corresponded to optimal porosity levels, with an average porosity area less than 0.25%. These findings indicate that within this intermediate VED range, the material density is maximized because of sufficient but not excessive energy input. At extremely low VED, LOF and poor melt pool overlap dominate, while excessive VED may risk defects such as keyholing and increased energy consumption without necessarily improving porosity. Additionally, a synergistic balance between P and v is essential for minimizing porosity while ensuring energy efficiency. The process parameters outside of declared VED range, particularly low P with high v , result in incomplete melting and elevated defect levels. Conversely, while higher P and v combinations can achieve dense parts, they must be carefully controlled to avoid undesirable thermal effects and reduce energy inefficiency. However, the variations observed during the printing process can be attributed primarily to key process parameters such as h , t , and especially v and P , which influence the VED value. In order to index porosity, no clear or consistent pattern has been observed that can be established as a definitive result. Nevertheless, the relationship between pore quantity and pore size appears to be a critical factor. A greater number of small pores may lead to a more uniform distribution, whereas fewer but larger pores can create weak points in the material. This balance between pore size and distribution is particularly important, as it can significantly influence the occurrence of defects and, consequently, the overall quality, durability, and performance of the final AMed parts in their intended applications. 4 Conclusion In this study, IN625 samples were produced via PBF-LB technology under various process parameters, comprising 20 samples in each of three runs with different build plate rotations (Run 1: 0°, Run 2: 90°, and Run 3: 180°), and were thoroughly investigated. The results indicate a strong correlation between the VED (which differed only in v and P ) and the quality of the final product, particularly in terms of porosity, surface morphology, and microhardness. It was observed that both excessively high and low VED values can adversely affect the consolidation of powder layers. High VEDs led to defects such as keyhole porosity and balling, whereas low VEDs resulted in LOF due to insufficient energy input. Optimal combinations of P and v were essential for minimizing defects and achieving a dense and uniform microstructure. On the basis of the detailed analysis presented in this article, Table 5 has been created as a comprehensive guide summarizing the key relationships between process parameters, VED, and the resulting characteristics of IN625 fabricated by PBF-LB. Table 5 Process Parameter Optimization Guide for IN625 Using PBF-LB VED (J/mm³) P (W) v (mm/s) Defects Porosity \(\:{\varvec{R}}_{\varvec{a}}\:\) HV Comments VED < 50 100–150 1500–2000 LOF (samples 3, 4 and 8) Hight (~ 1.6%) High (13 µm<) 271–290 Incomplete melting, high porosity - poor mechanical properties 60 < VED < 100 100–200 1000–2000 Dence regions (samples 2, 6, 7, 11 and 12) Low (0.024–0.1%) Moderate (10–12 µm) 299–309 (best hardness range) Acceptable mechanical properties due to optimal balance between fusion and defect mitigation 110 < VED < 150 200–250 1500–2000 Keyholing onset (samples 1,10, 14, 15 and 19) Low (slight increase) Moderate to high (~ 13 µm) 291–312 Transition zone - Careful tuning needed 160 < VED < 200 250–300 1000–1500 Keyholing/balling (samples 5, 14 and 18) Moderate to high Acceptable (~ 7–9 µm) Drops slightly compared to idea range (due to o overheat) Best surface quality but risk of internal defects from overheating 200 < VED 1%) Low (~ 6 µm) (very smooth surface) ~ 278–297 Overmelting - surface good - but internal quality and hardness may degrade In conclusion, for the successful fabrication of IN625 parts using PBF-LB, which is highly dependent on the precise optimization of process parameters, the following factors should be considered: An ideal VED range of 66–100 J/mm³ offers the best overall balance in terms of surface quality, porosity, and microhardness. Extreme VED values should be avoided; values below 50 J/mm³ often lead to LOF defects and poor surface finish, while those above 167 J/mm³ increase the risk of keyholing and excessive thermal input. A balanced relationship between P and v is crucial; lower P demands slower v to ensure proper melting, whereas higher P requires faster scanning to avoid overheating. Additionally, the slight decrease in hardness observed at very high VEDs may be attributed to phase coarsening or residual thermal effects. Notably, the surface finish tends to improve with moderate to high VED levels, particularly when combined with low to medium scan speeds. As a result, no consistent pattern was identified with respect to build plate orientation, and its overall influence can be considered negligible since the printing process is governed primarily by key parameters such as h , t , and especially v and P , which determine the VED value. 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12:05:10","extension":"html","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":171099,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/8680904b19942dae66d02e8e.html"},{"id":94760706,"identity":"67b96bf6-fe5b-476a-9a19-6bc64e2c1745","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 12:05:09","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic of the PBF-LB process and various parameters used to determine the volumetric energy density (VED) formulation [16].\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/fb0cf01844ee78c127f18603.png"},{"id":94760704,"identity":"4e53ac94-a48b-45be-989c-4d170d458a42","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 12:05:09","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":156953,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic of the build direction and CAD model of the build job, including the 20 samples on the build plate with various parameters\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/af20ab723fb780ef583c242c.png"},{"id":94824422,"identity":"c78527c0-6e84-4903-b240-a12165de0664","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:48:59","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":141204,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVarious build-plate rotations (counter-clockwise) and changes in the specimen position relative to the gas flow inlet and outlet.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/962e82b798d8df66a2082848.png"},{"id":94760707,"identity":"b728a740-eefa-439b-ab5d-683236a4798b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 12:05:09","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73190,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScheme of the cylindrical sample processed by PBF-LB showing the locations of various analyses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/0881dfabec359ef242d4d59b.png"},{"id":94824492,"identity":"a18e0af0-c8ec-46b9-a367-48f0b3ab69fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:49:02","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":372132,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSurface morphology of the as-built parts produced by the PBF-LB method, as observed at 20× magnification with 2x2 stitching. a) Image of Sample No. 17, Run 3; b) image of Sample No. 13, Run 3; c) image of Sample No. 04, Run 3; d) image of Sample No. 07, Run 1.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/454ad9d7d1e384f143f2a3d4.png"},{"id":94823390,"identity":"f602e1a9-b9bc-4e36-afff-8dbaffb73661","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:47:17","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":140793,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTop–\u003c/em\u003eInfluence of the scanning speed and laser power on the average surface roughness. \u003cem\u003eBottom\u003c/em\u003e–Effect of VED on average surface roughness (Bottom).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/e8f70f697a95763a265ea85b.png"},{"id":94824579,"identity":"99aa18c4-010b-4fa1-8cf9-41edc1c1df51","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:49:08","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":221435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTop\u003c/em\u003e–Microhardness comparison between PBF-LB as-built IN625 (Brown: Top surface and Blue: Bottom Surface). \u003cem\u003eBottom\u003c/em\u003e–The mean microhardness values ​​as a function of laser power and VED\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/ff01a49d23050ab3a7ff18e4.png"},{"id":94823786,"identity":"d1657484-cb49-427e-917e-66be1ab076a7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:47:58","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":280084,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePerpendicular surface of the samples at 100× magnification – Run 2.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/25000163ef9714c23616e720.png"},{"id":94824587,"identity":"6a23ad7d-b5a2-4f8a-a237-7de1a70db5a2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 06:49:09","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97377,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRelationship between VED and average porosity characteristics (% area and pore count) of samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/d3454a063bbec27c3ef89141.png"},{"id":94760720,"identity":"82806bc2-49bf-476e-9b3b-30ca89601188","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-30 12:05:09","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96448,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between the pore count and the percentage of area occupied is expressed as the porosity index.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/09f2ac7a2478aa12ed1d7051.png"},{"id":100804196,"identity":"8c869908-4db0-4777-af8c-9251cb5a0b80","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 14:38:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2504494,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7760288/v1/d331dbff-e39c-45e3-98a1-9282152deba2.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Best practices for achieving high-quality parts in IN625 via PBF-LB","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdditive manufacturing (AM), also most popularly known as \u0026ldquo;3D printing\u0026rdquo;, is an advanced manufacturing technology developed in the past 30 years that encompasses a set of advanced manufacturing techniques that are able to produce 3D components from virtual models generated by computer-aided design (CAD) software [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. These technologies allow the production of complex 3D components of any shape via 3D model data, which are impossible to fabricate via traditional manufacturing techniques. Among all available technologies, laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB), which uses an adequate energy laser beam to melt prelaid thin metal powder layer by layer (generally between 20 and 100 \u0026micro;m) and form high-performance parts after cooling and solidification, is one of the most promising AM technologies for metals [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Several AM techniques are focused on the production of complex geometries and structure components, such as stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), selective laser sintering (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), electron beam melting (EBM), fusion deposition modeling (FDM), multijet/polyjet 3D printing, selective laser melting (PBF-LB) and laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Among all these technologies, PBF-LB can be used to produce parts from both pure and alloyed metal powders. There is a broad consensus in the literature that volume energy density (VED) is one of the best predictors of a part\u0026rsquo;s relative density in PBF-LB processes. Various formulations of this parameter exist. VED is typically defined as the ratio of the laser power (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e) to the product of the scan speed (\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e), hatch spacing (\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e), and powder bed layer thickness (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e) (as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). It represents the amount of energy delivered per unit volume of powder in the bed, directly influencing key dimensions, particularly the penetration depth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. It is worth noting that, in some studies, the laser beam diameter is used instead of the hatch spacing to calculate the energy density (e.g., [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]), but in the present study, a more common formula was adopted to examine the parameters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). However, PBF-LB is especially suitable for forming small batches, high value, customized, and complex structural parts for aerospace, biomedical, automotive, abrasive, and other applications[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13 CR14\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInconel 625 (IN625) is a Ni-Cr-Mo solid-solution-hardened wrought superalloy that presents a combination of high-temperature strength and very high corrosion and oxidation resistance, even at temperatures up to approximately 1000\u0026deg;C [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows its nominal chemical composition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNominal compositions of IN625 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposition (wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNi\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCr\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMo\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTi\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFe\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAl\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN625\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (min)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.15\u0026ndash;4.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026ndash;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the current state-of-the-art, the established and commercialized process parameters for PBF-LB allows to produce defect-free components of IN625 with a density close to 100% owing to its high weldability [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. There is also growing interest in the mechanical properties required for structural materials, particularly their fatigue and creep resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Koutiri et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] studied the fatigue behavior of as-built IN625 produced via PBF-LB, focusing on the effects of surface finish conditions and porosity (including pore location). The results were consistent with expectations; PBF-LB-manufactured IN625 with high surface roughness and numerous defects, such as pores and lack of fusion (LOF), exhibited significantly reduced fatigue life. To address this issue, Marchese et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] mentioned that it is crucial to perform postheat treatments to reduce defects such as residual stresses, develop the desired microstructure and texture, and achieve mechanical properties that meet or exceed those of post-heat-treated IN625 alloy in its traditional state. In addition, during the melting and solidification processes, which are provided by complex thermal cycles, the heat flux dissipation from the top of the samples to the building platform results in the development of columnar grains, which lead to anisotropic mechanical properties. Consequently, the orientations of the components on the building platform must be carefully taken into account.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe PBF-LB process while printing parts may also induce defects, such as pores, inclusions, cracks, LOFs, keyholing, balling and poor interlayer fusion, due to improper control of the forming process, which may further affect the mechanical properties of the fabricated parts. On the basis of a literature review, the metallurgical defects of IN625 obtained via the PBF-LB process are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain defects and reasons for the formation of PBF-LB IN625 alloy parts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDefects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormation Reasons\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElimination (Weakening) Measures\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRef.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlmost 100%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA lack of fusion, gas entrapment porosity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePowder factor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReasonable process parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMacro defect\u003c/b\u003e: balling, irregularity, distortion, spatter, unmelted particles, necking\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMicro defect\u003c/b\u003e: unmelted, inclusions, cracks, porosity (20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;100 \u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsufficient heat input, low melt viscosity, instability of melt pool\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReasonable process parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSurface topography\u003c/b\u003e: open pore, balling, microcracks\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSubsurface defect\u003c/b\u003e: pores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUneven layer thickness distribution, high tensile residual stress, high viscosity and surface tension of the melt pool material\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurface cracks, internal inclusions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOxidation, residual thermal stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnealing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e99%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurface cracks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal eutectic structure (γ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Laves), residual thermal stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubstrate preheating\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelated to laser parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost pores and a small number of cracks in interlayer boundaries\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding these issues, Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] mentioned that the apparent porosity and balling spheres are the main reasons for the poor surface finish of as-built IN625 alloy samples. When macroscopic defects occur in the PBF-LB sample, the number of microscopic defects also increases. Generally, to achieve adequate energy, are considerable \u003cem\u003eI)\u003c/em\u003e an extremely low energy input results in insufficient melting or \u0026ldquo;LOF\u0026rdquo; porosity, whereas \u003cem\u003eII)\u003c/em\u003e an extremely high energy input results in \u0026ldquo;keyholing\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Briefly, LOF, as the name suggests, is the result of incomplete welding of layers or adjacent melt pools, resulting in an irregular morphology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], and keyholing is a welding term used to describe the deep, narrow vapor depression that forms under high-energy density melting conditions due to the vaporization of metal under the heat source [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, owing to lower scan speeds and higher repetition rates, the balling phenomenon severely impedes interlayer bonding, reducing part of the density and increasing both the top and side surface roughness. However, its effect on side roughness is more pronounced, as the scattered balls predominantly accumulate along the sides of the melt pool rather than on the top surface.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, in this study, the probabilities of the aforementioned defects (both predicted and real) across varying VED values and build plate rotations were analyzed. The predicted defects were identified on the basis of an extensive review of the literature [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR40 CR41\" citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], whereas the real defects were directly observed on the fabricated samples. Unlike conventional works that focus either on single process parameters or limited VED ranges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], this work systematically correlates a wide range of VED values with both surface and volumetric defects while also investigating the influence of build plate rotation. This integrated approach provides new insights into optimizing process windows for IN625 fabrication via PBF-LB.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to investigate how \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e (and consequently VED) affect the manufacturing quality of IN625 samples fabricated via PBF-LB. In the first stage, cylindrical samples were fabricated via PBF-LB in three Runs with different build plate rotations. In the second stage, the as-built samples were characterized by surface roughness measurement, Vickers microhardness testing on both the top and bottom surfaces, and porosity analysis of the cross-sections perpendicular to the build direction. This work provides a unified experimental framework that simultaneously examines these characteristics across a wide VED spectrum. A distinctive feature of this study lies in its incorporation of build plate rotation as a secondary factor to assess spatial consistency and potential thermal gradient effects. Furthermore, this work offers a critical validation of literature-based defect prediction thresholds through direct experimental observations. This systematic comparison between predicted and actual defect formation across different processing conditions has not been widely discussed in previous research. As such, the findings of this study contribute new insights toward defining optimal process windows for defect minimization and property enhancement in the PBF-LB of IN625.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Specimen fabrication\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe IN625 powders used in this work were sieved, and the distribution of the grain size was analyzed via a laser diffraction particle size analyzer Mastersizer 3000 (Malvern Panalytical), which revealed a particle size range of 21\u0026ndash;48 \u0026micro;m.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e-left\u003c/b\u003e, cylindrical samples with diameters of 10 mm and thicknesses of 6 mm were produced, using a Laser Powder Bed Fusion machine (Print Genius 150 machine by Prima Additive s.r.l. \u0026ndash; Italy) with a circular build platform. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e were varied at levels 5 and 4, respectively, while \u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e were held constant. A full factorial plan was considered for sample production, as reported in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. As a consequence of the variation in \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, each sample is characterized by a different VED value. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e-right\u003c/b\u003e, each sample was assigned an ID number from 1 to 20 in three separate Runs with each Run consisting of a matrix (4x5).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameters used in the specimen production process (repeated over three Runs with different build plate rotations)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e [W]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e [mm/s]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e [\u0026micro;m]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e [\u0026micro;m]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVED [J/mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e266.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e333.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the influence of the printing position and the effect of gas flow, the build job was repeated three times, and the build plate was rotated 90\u0026deg; counter-clockwise relative to its original orientation around the build direction (Z-axis), as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. More specifically, in the first Run, the samples were printed such that sample No. 1 was positioned in the far bottom-left corner, far from the gas inlet. In the second Run, sample No. 16 occupied the bottom-left corner, while sample No. 1 was placed in the first row, closest to the gas inlet, and in the third Run, sample No. 20 was positioned far from the gas inlet, directly opposite to its position in the first Run. In total, 60 test samples were produced for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter specimen preparation, the build plate was carefully removed from the machine and cleaned using a specialized brush to remove any residual powder. Unfused powders were then removed carefully via a vacuum system. The samples were subsequently prepared for further experimental analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Characterization\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe as-built samples were comprehensively characterized, focusing on surface conditions, mechanical performance, and porosity. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the as-built samples were sectioned along the build direction (Z-axis), using wire electrical discharge machining (W-EDM) \u0026ndash; HB600, to facilitate of assess the influence of the AM process on the porosity distribution. Generally, surface analysis reveals a typically rough morphology, which is critical because it influences post-processing requirements and potential fatigue behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Even if the bulk material has excellent mechanical properties, a rough surface can become a weak link. Therefore, enhancing the fatigue life necessitates reducing the surface roughness and improving the overall surface integrity. Microhardness analysis was employed to evaluate the relative hardness distribution across the fabricated samples. Porosity analysis revealed the presence, shape, and distribution of residual pores, which are influenced by processing parameters such as \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e. Effective monitoring and control of porosity (on the cross-section) are essential to ensure the structural integrity required for specific applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Surface analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to rapid solidification and cooling, a nucleation rate that exceeds the growth rate occurs. Consequently, the fusion zone develops a fine and dense grain structure, which contributes to improved mechanical strength, as a surface roughness of 0.8 \u0026micro;m helps prevent premature failure from surface-initiated cracking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the surface roughness at the top of a melt pool can be influenced by a rippling phenomenon, which arises from surface tension-induced shear forces acting on the liquid metal. This effect is driven mainly by temperature variations between the area heated by the laser and the adjacent solidifying region, resulting from the movement of the laser. As these thermal gradients decrease, the opposing effects of gravity and the curvature of the melt pool surface work to restore the molten surface to its original level [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, owing to the viscosity of the molten metal, this recovery process is slowed, and the rapid solidification of the melt pool often prevents full surface levelling from occurring. In this study, the average surface roughness (Ra) of the as-built samples was analyzed via a 3D Optical Profilometer \u0026ndash; Sensofar S Neox by Sensofar Metrology (Spain) across all three Runs. The measurements for each Run were conducted in accordance with the ASME B46.1 (2019) standard [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Microhardness Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNickel-based superalloys made from PBF-LBs have demonstrated comparable or improved mechanical properties in terms of hardness, tensile strength, and ultimate strength but usually low ductility compared with conventionally manufactured materials (cast or forged) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The mechanical properties, especially the microhardness, of the as-built IN625 alloy typically strongly depend on the building orientation. The samples were cut from the build plate using W-EDM machine. Both surfaces (top and bottom) were then prepared using abrasive papers (grits 600, 800, 1000, and 1200) to obtain improved results. The microhardness test was subsequently performed via the Vickers hardness test UHL \u0026ndash; VHMT-001 by UHL (Germany), which employs a diamond indenter with a vertex angle of 136\u0026deg; according to UNI EN ISO 6507-1 and applies a load of 1000 gf for 15 s. Measurements were taken from both the top and bottom polished surfaces of the cylindrical samples (for each Runs), with the final hardness determined as the average of three measurements for each surface.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Porosity analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePorosity is a material discontinuity that defines the volumetric properties of porous media, which indicate the volumetric ratio of the void space (pores, fractures, and cracks) occupied in the unit volume of the porous medium [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Depending on the final application of the product, pores can either negatively or positively affect the mechanical properties of AM parts. For instance, components intended for high-stress environments should be fully dense to minimize the risk of failure. Conversely, some biomedical implants are intentionally designed with a certain degree of porosity to promote osseointegration with biological tissue [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Poulin et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] produced up to 10% porosity in PBF-LB IN625 samples by intentionally seeding pores by changing the laser scanning speed to study the influence of porosity on long fatigue crack propagation behavior. When the scanning speed increased from 960 mm/s to 1920 mm/s (960, 1440, 1680, and 1920 mm/s), the intentionally seeded porosities increased from 0.1% to 2.7% (0.1, 0.3, 0.9, and 2.7%). In this study, the P was presumably very low, which may have accounted for these results. Therefore, the relationship between the scanning speed and porosity is not linear, and the porosity increases when the scanning speed exceeds a certain value. Nevertheless, Ziegelmeier et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] reported that the surface quality and porosity of the fabricated part were highly dependent on the packing density and roughness of the layered powder bed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo prepare the samples for this part of the study, the cylindrical samples were cut perpendicularly via W-EDM, as this orientation (across the build direction) enables a more comprehensive porosity analysis (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The metallographic preparation involved several steps: \u003cem\u003emounting\u003c/em\u003e with resin glass fibre black at 10 bar pressure for 5 minutes; \u003cem\u003egrinding\u003c/em\u003e, which included both coarse and fine steps using progressively finer abrasive papers (600, 1000, 1200 and 1400); and \u003cem\u003epolishing\u003c/em\u003e, which was performed in stages using fine abrasives on polishing cloths. Finally, the polished samples were cleaned and prepared for porosity evaluation. The porosity was subsequently analyzed via a Keyence VHX-700 digital microscope at 100\u0026times; magnification and high resolution. The captured images were processed with ImageJ software, which detects and quantifies pores on the basis of contrast differences between the material matrix and voids. The software calculates the total pore area within a given cross-section and divides it by the total area of that section to determine the percentage of porosity. This method provides a reliable and precise measurement of the closed porosity of additively manufactured components.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Surface analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to investigations, lower scan speeds and higher repetition rates can reduce top surface roughness by stabilizing the melt pool and minimizing surface profile variations; however, they can significantly increase the volume of the melt pool produced and promote the balling phenomenon. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e (selective images), captured at 20\u0026times; magnification with 2x2 stitching, illustrates the variations in surface roughness associated with defect probabilities, such as keyholing (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-a), balling (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-b), LOF (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-c), and dense regions (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-d). These observations were made without any post-processing to evaluate the relationship between the VED values and the occurrence of defects for all the samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn accordance with the literature [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e], as shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-a (VED: 400 J/mm\u0026sup3;) and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-b (VED: 333 J/mm\u0026sup3;), keyhole pore formation can occur at high VED values. In addition, the formation of keyhole pores at the end of the track occurs when the laser is switched off [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e] or when melt flow instabilities are caused by oscillation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite the reduction in VED, which can mitigate keyholing or balling, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-c and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e-d demonstrate that at low VED values of \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\sim\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e33 and 67 J/mm\u0026sup3;, LOF defects and dense region defects, respectively, are observed (see Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the numerical data were analyzed to extract more detailed insights. The \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{R}_{a}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e values for the three experimental Runs (average values) are summarized in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn the basis of a literature review, the relationship between VED values and the types of defects (predicted defects) can be expressed as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVED\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;50 J/mm\u0026sup3;: higher probability of LOF;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50 J/mm\u0026sup3; \u0026lt; VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;100 J/mm\u0026sup3;: dense regions with minimal defects;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100 J/mm\u0026sup3; \u0026lt; VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;150 J/mm\u0026sup3;: keyholing defects become more likely;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150 J/mm\u0026sup3; \u0026lt; VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;400 J/mm\u0026sup3;: increased probability of keyholing and balling defects.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough these defects have been identified and reported in other studies, they have been examined in greater detail in this work, with the findings presented in the \u0026quot;Real Defect\u0026quot; column. For instance, in samples No. 9, 13, and 17, \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e is constant and relatively low compared with the other samples (500 mm/s), whereas \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e varies (200, 250, and 300 W). For the other samples, increasing \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e clearly led to an increase in surface roughness. Therefore, a lower \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e generally results in smoother surfaces, whereas a higher \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e generally results in increased roughness. In sample No. 1, despite the low \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, the surface is still very rough because, in this case, the \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e is very low (100 W). Thus, achieving a good surface finish on the as-built part requires not only an appropriate \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e but also a sufficient \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. The balance between these two parameters is crucial for optimizing surface quality. Additionally, on the basis of the images obtained from digital microscopy, an extra column has been added next to the predicted defects in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e to illustrate the actual defects observed after processing each sample. In most cases, the predicted defects were accurate and are highlighted in green. The samples where the observed defects did not match the predictions are marked in red, while brown indicates additional defects that appeared in the as-built samples. Notably, balling was clearly observed in all the samples, which may be attributed to the close spacing between them.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMeasurement of the surface roughness of the as-built samples related to the laser power and scan speed. (LOF=Lake of Fusion, K=Keyholing, B=Balling, D=Dense Region)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"char\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on objective observations and analysis of the obtained images, in sample No. 1, although VED typically promotes keyholing defects, both \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e are low. This could explain why keyholing was not observed on the surface of the real samples. In sample No. 8, in addition to the presence of LOF, a dense region was also observed. This could be due to the high scanning speed (2000 mm/s), which may have prevented sufficient melt pool fluidity. In sample No. 11, in addition to the predicted defect, keyholing was observed exclusively during Run 3, when the sample was positioned closest to the gas inlet in the first row exposed to the shielding gas. In contrast, all other samples in the same position exhibited only the predicted defect. This suggests that the orientation of the samples relative to the gas flow or build chamber geometry does not noticeably influence the surface texture under the tested conditions. Instead, surface roughness appears to be governed primarily by key printing parameters, particularly\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;v\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. These parameters directly influence melt pool dynamics, solidification behavior, and the energy input per unit area, all of which play critical roles in determining the final surface quality of the printed parts.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 6-Top\u003c/strong\u003e shows the Ra value as a function of the laser scanning speed at various power levels used during sample production. At 100 W, the Ra values are generally high, indicating poor surface quality and a different trend than those in the other cases. At 150 W, the surface roughness improved slightly but remained relatively high. As \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e increases, the Ra value remains nearly constant with no significant variation. The smoothest surface was observed at 200 W and 500 mm/s, corresponding to sample No. 9, and at this \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e, increasing \u003cem\u003ev\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eled to rougher surfaces. Additionally, at higher \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e values (\u0026gt;1000 mm/s), the Ra values become almost the same as those observed at 150 W. For \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e values of 250 and 300 W, a similar trend is observed, with the smoothest surfaces occurring at a \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e of 1000 mm/s. This indicates that scan speeds of approximately 1000 mm/s, when combined with moderate to high \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e, are optimal for achieving improved surface quality. However, when \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e exceeds 100 W and \u003cem\u003ev\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eincreases to 1500 mm/s, an increase in the Ra value is observed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, in terms of the VED and its influence on the surface quality of the manufactured samples, a clear trend is observed, as shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFig. 6-Bottom\u003c/strong\u003e. Higher VED values are associated with improved surface finish, characterized by lower surface roughness, as indicated by the green oval within the VED range of 267\u0026ndash;400 J/mm\u0026sup3;. This improvement can be attributed to a more consistent energy input, which promotes stable melt pool formation and enhanced material consolidation. As the VED decreases, the surface of the final parts becomes noticeably rougher. This trend is illustrated by the red oval (VED 133\u0026ndash;200 J/mm\u0026sup3;) and is even more pronounced in the brown oval (VED 50\u0026ndash;100 J/mm\u0026sup3;). Consequently, lower VED values may lead to incomplete melting, unstable melt pools, and poor interlayer bonding, all of which contribute to increased surface irregularities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study confirms the validity of VED-based defect prediction models reported in the literature, resulting in the presence of keyhole and balling defects in samples processed at VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;150 J/mm\u0026sup3;, whereas LOF defects predominantly occurred at VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;50 J/mm\u0026sup3;. Dense regions with minimal porosity were typically found within the intermediate range (50\u0026ndash;100 J/mm\u0026sup3;). From the surface roughness point of view, a lower \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e combined with sufficient \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e contributes to reduced surface irregularities. This behavior is attributed to more stable melt pool formation and reduced thermal gradients, minimizing surface undulations and spattering. Conversely, high scan speeds with low power led to increased roughness due to insufficient melting and instabilities in the melt pool. A strong inverse relationship was observed between VED and average surface roughness. Higher VED values result in smoother surfaces due to improved energy absorption, consistent melting, and enhanced inter-layer bonding. At lower VED values, incomplete melting, poor layer consolidation, and unstable melt flow significantly increase the surface roughness. These findings reinforce the importance of energy density optimization to improve the as-built surface finish. This part of the analysis identifies sample No. 9 (VED\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;267 J/mm\u0026sup3;, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;200 W, \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;500 mm/s \u0026ndash; see Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) as exhibiting the best surface finish, with an Ra value of 4.92 \u0026micro;m, as shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. This highlights the effectiveness of combining moderate-to-high \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e with moderate \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e for process stability and surface quality. Furthermore, while \u003cem\u003ean\u003c/em\u003e increase in \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e generally improves the surface finish, it must be carefully balanced with the scan speed to prevent the onset of keyholing or balling.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn unexpected but noteworthy observation is the consistent presence of balling across the greater part of the samples, even in regimes not typically associated with this defect. This may be attributed to additional experimental conditions, such as sample proximity, powder packing density, or heat accumulation between neighboring tracks. This finding suggests that balling may not be solely governed by VED and warrants further investigation into mesoscale thermal interactions during PBF-LB processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Microhardness Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe microhardness results for all the samples are illustrated in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-Top\u003c/strong\u003e, which are sorted by the VED value. According to Li et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e], the as-built samples produced through the AM process had a greater hardness than the forged samples did (approximately 305 HV, indicated by the red dashed line) because of the finer microstructure typical of a PBF-LB/M material. The microhardness results reveal variability between the top and bottom surfaces of each sample. Notably, owing to the outlier HV values of samples 4 and 13 (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;290 HV), they are excluded from this part of the analysis. However, both surfaces exhibit similar hardness values, with the hardness of the top surface ranging from 290 HV to 312 HV and that of the bottom surface ranging from 297 HV to 309 HV. However, some samples, such as samples 4 and 13, show notably lower hardness values on the top surface, which is likely due to local defects, especially for sample 4 caused by LOF defects, thermal gradients, or process-induced inconsistencies. In several cases (specimens 5, 10, 14, 15, and 18), the bottom surface exhibits significantly greater hardness than the top surface does, suggesting a higher relative VED in those regions (ranging from 111 to 400 J/mm\u0026sup3;), where keyholing and balling defects were identified. Additionally, factors such as supercoiling rates, heat accumulation in lower layers near the build plate, or localized phase transformations (e.g., white layer formation) may influence the material\u0026rsquo;s hardness distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenerally, the top layers are affected by rapid solidification, which can result in residual stresses or a heterogeneous microstructure, reducing hardness consistency. In contrast, the bottom layers are subjected to repeated thermal cycling during deposition, which may induce grain refinement or secondary phase precipitation (e.g., \u0026delta;-Ni\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eNb or Laves phase), leading to increased hardness [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, when comparing the microhardness values across the different build plate orientations, most samples (with a few exceptions) show that Run 1 results in the lowest microhardness value, whereas Run 3 shows the highest. These differences, however, are not relatively dramatic, with variations limited to approximately 12% on the top surface and up to 5% on the bottom surface, which can be compensated for by adjusting the processing parameters. As such, the effects of the rotation of the build plate and the position of the specimen on the microhardness can also be considered negligible.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough higher VED values are generally associated with improved surface finish, as discussed in the previous section, an inverse trend was observed in terms of hardness. As illustrated in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-bottom\u003c/strong\u003e, on the top surface, the samples with the highest VED values tended to exhibit lower microhardness values and vice versa. In contrast, on the bottom surface (with the exception of the 250 W power level), an increase in the VED up to 200 J/mm\u0026sup3; led to a higher microhardness, which was the opposite trend observed on the top surface. However, variations in the microhardness values between the top and bottom surfaces indicate a vertical temperature gradient, which likely affects microstructural evolution during processing. This behavior is likely driven by thermal cycling effects and prolonged heat exposure near the build plate, which promote grain refinement or precipitation hardening. Conversely, the top layers may experience more pronounced residual stress and incomplete melting due to rapid cooling and reduced reheating.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegarding this issue, with respect to other parameters, such as \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, the observed relationship between them can be attributed to the combined influence of energy input and the cooling rate, which could be evaluated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI)\u003c/em\u003e At 100 W, increasing \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e led to a decrease in HV values (approximately 13% on the top surface and approximately 9% on the bottom surface). This may be because increasing \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e reduces the energy input, leading to insufficient melting, weaker microstructures, and hence lower hardness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eII)\u003c/em\u003e In an opposite trend, at 250 W, increasing \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e resulted in an increase in HV values (around 11% on the top surface and nearly 5% on the bottom surface). This can be explained by the fact that a higher \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e at high \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e reduces excessive heat accumulation, promotes faster cooling, and leads to finer microstructures, thereby enhancing hardness.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIII)\u003c/em\u003e At other \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e levels, the hardness remains relatively invariant to changes in \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, indicating a threshold beyond which process stability is maintained.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, samples 6, 8, 11, 16, and 19, with VED values ranging from 50\u0026ndash;133 J/mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, exhibited the most uniform hardness across both surfaces, indicating well-balanced process parameters and minimal vertical thermal gradients. In contrast, anomalies in samples such as No. 4 (~\u0026thinsp;33 J/mm\u0026sup3;) and No. 13 (~\u0026thinsp;333 J/mm\u0026sup3;), both with HV values below 290 and considered outliers, showed significant differences between their top and bottom surfaces, which these discrepancies can be attributed to LOF or keyholing defects, as well as thermal inconsistencies during layer deposition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Porosity analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor porosity analysis, cylindrical samples were cut perpendicularly using W-EDM across the build direction (Z-axis), enabling a more comprehensive analysis during production. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e (selective samples) shows the perpendicular surfaces of the samples at 100x magnification. This relatively high-magnification and high-resolution imaging technique was used to ensure high-quality and more accurate results.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe porosity measurement results shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e were averaged over three Runs across 20 distinct samples, sorted by the VED value. In this test, sample No. 4 was also considered an outlier sample, whereas for the other samples, two key parameters were analyzed for each sample. For each sample, two key parameters were evaluated: the mean % area, ranging from 0.024% to 0.454%, which represents the area occupied by the pores, and the mean pore count, which varied between 14 and 334. Despite variations in both parameters across the samples, the results indicate that the production settings were generally effective in achieving a dense material in most cases.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this analysis, as shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e and considering the VED effect on porosity (%area and quantity), the lowest porosity quantity was observed in sample No. 15 (14 pores), with a VED value of 111 J/mm\u0026sup3;, and the lowest %area occupied by pores was recorded in sample No. 11 at 0.024%, corresponding to a VED value of 89 J/mm\u0026sup3;. Several samples (e.g., Samples 2, 7, 10, 12, 14, 19 and 20) present nearly zero values for both the pore quantity and the area percentage they occupy, suggesting negligible porosity and high-density material. Specimens 3, 5, 9, 13 and 17 have higher porosities (with 217\u0026ndash;334 pores and 0.322\u0026ndash;0.454% surface aria occupied) or lower-than-average densities. These results suggest the presence of defects or inconsistencies such as LOF, keyholing, or balling in the material, which could be attributed to specific process parameters or conditions. More specifically, within the VED range of 50\u0026ndash;167 J/mm\u0026sup3;, the lowest porosity levels were observed in the as-built samples, with an average of up to 95 pores and an average porosity area of up to 0.25% (as indicated by the red dashed line).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the results indicated that a higher \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, when combined with sufficient \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e, can enhance the material density while also improving the energy efficiency during manufacturing. Notably, at higher scan speeds, the reduced interaction time between the laser and the powder bed helps minimize overheating and mitigates defect mechanisms such as keyholing and excessive melt pool instability. However, at the lowest \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e level (100 W), the energy input is likely insufficient to fully melt the powder at higher \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, leading to incomplete fusion and higher porosity and defects such as LOF and balling [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. This highlights the importance of optimizing both \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e to achieve a suitable VED that ensures effective material consolidation without excessive energy use. Notably, no consistent pattern was observed with respect to the various positions of the samples. Therefore, the effect of build plate rotation on material properties appears to be negligible for the majority of the samples and can be disregarded in this context. However, minor local variations may still occur due to other factors, such as localized thermal gradients or gas flow disturbances, which could warrant further investigation in more sensitive applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, to quantify the relationship between the pore count and the percentage of the total surface area they occupy, a metric referred to as the porosity index is defined. This index is calculated as the ratio of the total surface area percentage occupied by pores to the total number of pores, as illustrated in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e. The porosity index reflects the average relative size of individual pores within a material. Higher values indicate the presence of larger pores, whereas lower values correspond to smaller and more uniformly distributed pores. For example, sample No. 11, with an index of 0.0009, has a very large number of small pores, in contrast to sample No. 1, with an index of 0.0042, which contains fewer but larger pores. Despite its simplicity, this metric offers a useful comparative measure for evaluating pore size distributions across different samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSummarizing, the porosity results significantly vary depending on the processing parameters according to the literature, which identifies incomplete fusion and melt pool instabilities as key contributors to elevated porosity. A clear relationship is observed between VED and porosity. The samples with VED values between 50 and 167 J/mm\u0026sup3; corresponded to optimal porosity levels, with an average porosity area less than 0.25%. These findings indicate that within this intermediate VED range, the material density is maximized because of sufficient but not excessive energy input. At extremely low VED, LOF and poor melt pool overlap dominate, while excessive VED may risk defects such as keyholing and increased energy consumption without necessarily improving porosity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, a synergistic balance between \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e is essential for minimizing porosity while ensuring energy efficiency. The process parameters outside of declared VED range, particularly low \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e with high \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e, result in incomplete melting and elevated defect levels. Conversely, while higher \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e combinations can achieve dense parts, they must be carefully controlled to avoid undesirable thermal effects and reduce energy inefficiency. However, the variations observed during the printing process can be attributed primarily to key process parameters such as \u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e, and especially \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e, which influence the VED value.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn order to index porosity, no clear or consistent pattern has been observed that can be established as a definitive result. Nevertheless, the relationship between pore quantity and pore size appears to be a critical factor. A greater number of small pores may lead to a more uniform distribution, whereas fewer but larger pores can create weak points in the material. This balance between pore size and distribution is particularly important, as it can significantly influence the occurrence of defects and, consequently, the overall quality, durability, and performance of the final AMed parts in their intended applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, IN625 samples were produced via PBF-LB technology under various process parameters, comprising 20 samples in each of three runs with different build plate rotations (Run 1: 0\u0026deg;, Run 2: 90\u0026deg;, and Run 3: 180\u0026deg;), and were thoroughly investigated. The results indicate a strong correlation between the VED (which differed only in \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e) and the quality of the final product, particularly in terms of porosity, surface morphology, and microhardness. It was observed that both excessively high and low VED values can adversely affect the consolidation of powder layers. High VEDs led to defects such as keyhole porosity and balling, whereas low VEDs resulted in LOF due to insufficient energy input. Optimal combinations of \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e were essential for minimizing defects and achieving a dense and uniform microstructure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the basis of the detailed analysis presented in this article, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e has been created as a comprehensive guide summarizing the key relationships between process parameters, VED, and the resulting characteristics of IN625 fabricated by PBF-LB.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProcess Parameter Optimization Guide for IN625 Using PBF-LB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVED (J/mm\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e (W)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e (mm/s)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDefects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePorosity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\varvec{R}}_{\\varvec{a}}\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHV\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u0026ndash;2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLOF (samples 3, 4 and 8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHight (~\u0026thinsp;1.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(13 \u0026micro;m\u0026lt;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e271\u0026ndash;290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncomplete melting, high porosity - poor mechanical properties\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u0026ndash;2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDence regions (samples 2, 6, 7, 11 and 12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.024\u0026ndash;0.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate (10\u0026ndash;12 \u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e299\u0026ndash;309\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(best hardness range)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable mechanical properties due to optimal balance between fusion and defect mitigation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u0026ndash;250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u0026ndash;2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKeyholing onset (samples 1,10, 14, 15 and 19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow (slight increase)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate to high (~\u0026thinsp;13 \u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e291\u0026ndash;312\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransition zone - Careful tuning needed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u0026ndash;300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000\u0026ndash;1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKeyholing/balling (samples 5, 14 and 18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate to high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable (~\u0026thinsp;7\u0026ndash;9 \u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrops slightly compared to idea range\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(due to o overheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBest surface quality but risk of internal defects from overheating\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;VED\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u0026ndash;300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500\u0026ndash;1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSevere Balling, keyholing (samples 4, 9, 13 and 17)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow (~\u0026thinsp;6 \u0026micro;m) (very smooth surface)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;278\u0026ndash;297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvermelting - surface good - but internal quality and hardness may degrade\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, for the successful fabrication of IN625 parts using PBF-LB, which is highly dependent on the precise optimization of process parameters, the following factors should be considered:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn ideal VED range of 66\u0026ndash;100 J/mm\u0026sup3; offers the best overall balance in terms of surface quality, porosity, and microhardness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtreme VED values should be avoided; values below 50 J/mm\u0026sup3; often lead to LOF defects and poor surface finish, while those above 167 J/mm\u0026sup3; increase the risk of keyholing and excessive thermal input.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA balanced relationship between \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e is crucial; lower \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e demands slower \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e to ensure proper melting, whereas higher \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e requires faster scanning to avoid overheating.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the slight decrease in hardness observed at very high VEDs may be attributed to phase coarsening or residual thermal effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotably, the surface finish tends to improve with moderate to high VED levels, particularly when combined with low to medium scan speeds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a result, no consistent pattern was identified with respect to build plate orientation, and its overall influence can be considered negligible since the printing process is governed primarily by key parameters such as \u003cem\u003eh\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e, and especially \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e, which determine the VED value.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings underscore the importance of precise parameter control in achieving high-quality PBF-LB-manufactured IN625 components.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was carried out within the MICS (Made in Italy - Circular and Sustainable) Extended Partnership and received funding from the European Union NextGenerationEU (PIANO NAZIONALE DI RIPRESA E RESILIENZA (PNRR) – MISSIONE 4 COMPONENTE 2, INVESTIMENTO 1.3 – D.D. 1551.11-10-2022, PE00000004). This manuscript reflects only the authors’ views and opinions; neither the European Union nor the European Commission can be considered responsible for them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLu, B. and D. 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Specifically, Inconel 625 (IN625), a nickel-based superalloy, is widely used in high-performance applications because of its excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. However, the quality of PBF-LB-manufactured parts is highly sensitive to process parameters, especially the volumetric energy density (VED). This study investigated the influence of various process parameters, specifically the laser power (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e) and scan speed (\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e), on the quality of IN625 samples produced via PBF-LB. A total of 60 samples were fabricated across three build plate rotation angles (0\u0026deg;, 90\u0026deg;, and 180\u0026deg;) and evaluated for porosity, surface morphology, and microhardness, revealing a clear correlation between VED and key quality metrics. Optimal material properties were achieved within a VED range of 66\u0026ndash;100 J/mm\u0026sup3;, whereas deviations from this range led to defects such as a lack of fusion (LOF), keyholing, and balling. Additionally, maintaining a balanced relationship between \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e while keeping the other parameters constant was found to be essential for proper melting and defect mitigation. The results further indicate that, under the tested conditions, the rotation of the build plate and the position of the specimen have no significant influence on part of the quality or properties. Overall, the findings highlight the critical role of process parameter control in producing dense, defect-minimized IN625 parts via PBF-LB.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Best practices for achieving high-quality parts in IN625 via PBF-LB","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-30 12:05:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7760288/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"661dece6-73a6-4fe4-84f2-8fc7428c4e83","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-21T14:04:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-30 12:05:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7760288","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7760288","identity":"rs-7760288","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}