Innovative Water Management for Vector Control: The Case of Rice Cultivation in Burkina Faso’s Vallée du Kou

Innovative Water Management for Vector Control: The Case of Rice Cultivation in Burkina Faso’s Vallée du Kou | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Innovative Water Management for Vector Control: The Case of Rice Cultivation in Burkina Faso’s Vallée du Kou Kouamé Wilfred Ulrich KOUADIO, Dieudonné Diloma SOMA, Miriam Félicité Amara, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7049523/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Malaria Journal → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Water-saving techniques have the advantage of reducing the production of mosquito larvae, which could in turn reduce the density of adult mosquitoes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a new water-saving technique on reducing the number of Anopheles breeding sites in an area with a high density of the main malaria vector. Methods The study was conducted in experimental rice plots measuring 5.5 x 3.0 m (16.5 m 2 ) from February 2024 to May 2024. Three treatment arms were implemented: i ) traditional system: Deep Ploughing + Continuous Flooding (DP + CF), ii ) innovative system (Minimal Tillage + Intermittent Flooding (MT + IF). Adult control was achieved by monitoring and destroying mosquito swarms. The performance of these techniques had never been compared individually or in combination. By setting up these experiments in the field, we were able to understand how to integrate these methods to obtain good rice production, save water and reduce mosquito densities. Results The results of this study show that minimum tillage combined with intermittent flooding (transplanting = 1.39, tillering = 2.81 and maturation = 0.41) resulted in a significant reduction in mean mosquito larvae densities during the rice maturation phase compared with DP + CF (transplanting = 9.13, tillering = 11.08 and maturation = 4.46) ( Fisher's Exact Test: p-value < 0.05). The average density of adults collected from houses in the intervention village fell from 3.89 mosquitoes per house in the pre-intervention phase to 1.16 mosquitoes per house in the post-intervention phase, compared with 6.62 and 6.63 in the control village. A substantial reduction of more than 85% in the mosquito population at the intervention site, Vallée du Kou 2 (VK2), compared to the control site (VK3) ( Fisher's Exact Test: p-value = 0.0031268 ). A reduction in insemination status and a shift towards younger males unable to mate was observed. Conclusions The implementation of a new approach to water saving techniques showed a substantial reduction in the mosquito population at the intervention site, which could have an effective impact on malaria transmission in the region. Vector control Anopheles Malaria Irrigation Agriculture Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Background Malaria is a genuine global public health problem, still affecting more than 200 million people and causing more than 500,000 deaths worldwide annually [ 1 , 2 ]. Since 2015, the latest reports show that progress has tended to stagnate in countries in moderate to high transmission areas. In 2020, COVID-related interruptions have impacted the malaria burden in the region from 2019 to 2020 [ 3 ]. An effective in controlling malaria vectors is reached by vector control, based mainly on the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and, to a lesser extent, indoor residual spraying (IRS) [ 4 ]. It aims to reduce human-vector contact, but especially the density of the vector population that bite people in their homes and when they are resting in their homes. Malaria incidences in several African sites are significantly reduced by the contribution of these control methods [ 5 ]. However, several studies have reported that Anopheles biting people outdoors and/or at night and early in the morning, when people were not protected by these conventional tools [ 6 – 9 ]. To find external hosts by adapting, Anopheles can avoid traditional tools (LLINs/IRS) and not absorb lethal doses of insecticides molecules. The increasing importance of Anopheles external bitting demonstrates a major limitation of current vector control, which relies primarily on conventional tools, as they are indoor interventions [ 9 , 10 ]. Although most cases of malaria occur in rural areas where agricultural activities are intense, the majority of development actions in these areas often focus on irrigation projects [ 11 ] and improved agricultural practices, with very few intervention studies that target agro-ecosystems as a factor in the spread of malaria vectors [ 11 , 12 ]. In Africa to meet food security needs, rice production has rapidly intensified. Then, rice fields and their irrigation systems have been identified as one of the factors favouring the breeding of Anopheles around farms in sub-Saharan Africa, a major cause of infant mortality [ 13 , 14 , 12 ]. This cropping system is very water-intensive with the consequences for malaria control. During irrigation, mosquito longevity is increased [ 15 ], but mosquito densities generally decrease following the plants developping, due to reduction of access to water for oviposition [ 15 ]. However, a better water management strategy adopted during rice cultivation, could help to reduce Anopheles population impacting malaria cases in human population around rice fields [ 15 – 17 , 12 ]. Considering water management measures to control vector-borne diseases in rice agro-ecosystems the key questions that need to be answered are: (1) What are the local vectors? (2) Where do they breed? (3) Are the breeding opportunities created in the irrigated area likely to contribute significantly to overall vector abundance and disease transmission levels? Vector ecology and disease transmission are dynamic and complex processes and it is sometimes difficult to draw general conclusions [ 18 ]. Previous research on swarm description/mapping and current developments in our understanding of mosquito swarming suggest that active detection and destruction of swarms in dwellings near rice fields can reduce the high breeding rate of malaria vectors. Thus, an effective control method to counter insecticides resistance developed in mosquitoes could be implemented by targeting swarms of the main malaria vectors [ 19 – 21 , 9 ]. Mass destruction of swarming males and some mate-seeking females implemented correctly could result in at least a 50% reduction in vectors populations size compared to control populations [ 9 ]. Water-saving techniques that have the advantage of reducing the production of mosquito larvae in rice fields by destroying swarming males could help to control the density of malaria vectors. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of different techniques (intermittent irrigation and destruction of Anopheles swarms) in reducing Anopheles breeding sites and hatching sites by more than 50% in an area with a high density of the main malaria vector (Bama). The performance of these techniques has never been compared individually or in combination. In this study, we set up field experiments to understand if and how we can integrate these methods to achieve good rice production, water savings and reduced mosquito densities. Using the data from this intervention study, we identify the best strategies that are promoted and translated into joint agriculture and health policies for better control of Anopheles proliferation in expanding rice production sites. Methods Sampling sites The Vallée du Kou (11°24‘N and 4°24’W) located at around thirty kilometers in north of Bobo-Dioulasso. The average annual temperature is 27.7°C and rainfall is 900.8 mm per year [ 22 ]. It is a rice-growing area that has been developed since 1970, comprising seven rice-growing districts (VK1 to VK7), with an estimated population of 22,244 inhabitants [ 22 ], on an area of 1,260 hectares of productive land (Fig. 1 ). Due to irrigation and the availability of water, rice paddies are constantly forming highly productive breeding sites for Culicidae . During the rainy season, depressions and water reservoirs may establish other temporary habitats suitable for Anopheles . Sympatry between An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii is present, with a predominance for An. coluzzii throughout the year [ 23 , 24 ]. The typical bite rate of An. coluzzii is around 200 bites/person/night (b. h − 1 . n − 1 ) [ 9 , 23 ]. Several studies carried out in the area have confirmed the resistance of vectors to pyrethroids and DDT, with frequencies of the kdr-L1014F mutation varying from 0.87 to 0.91 in An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii respectively [ 25 , 26 ]. Kou valley site was selected due to the presence of the resistant vectors to pyrethroids. The research focused on examining methodologies for managing water resources during rice cultivation, with the aim of reducing the larval population and causing mass mortality of mate-seeking male and female mosquitoes, using aerosol insecticide applications to modulate mosquito density at this site. The villages selected for this study are VK2 (intervention village) and VK3 (control village), which is the nearest village with ecological parameters comparable to those of the intervention village. Intermittent irrigation of plots Experimental design of water-saving techniques An experimental field was set up for this study to investigate the effect of new agricultural technologies (Minimum Tillage and Intermittent Flooding) on reducing Anopheles breeding sites in rice fields. The trials involved setting up experimental rice plots measuring 5.5 x 3.0 m (16.5 m 2 ) with treatments, following a randomized complete block design, with three replications for each experiment. Rice tubs were set up in these plots, along with other criteria, in order to evaluate Continuous Flooding (CF) (traditional system) or Intermittent Flooding (IF) (innovative system), Deep Ploughing (DP) (traditional system) or Minimum Tillage (MT) (innovative system). Minimum Tillage means that the working depth is less than 15 cm [ 15 , 12 , 28 ]. In the control plots (conventional practice), water was maintained at the same irrigation level as most farmers on the site. For Intermittent Irrigation, the water was drained ten (10) days after transplanting, then reinjected and forcibly drained at weekly intervals (water released into the plots for 7 days and left for 2 days before being irrigated again) during the rice growth cycle. The experiment was as follows: Control bin (A1 to A3) : Plots with conventional system (Deep Ploughing + Continuous Flooding) (DP + CF). Tests bin (Tests bin) B1, B2, B3 : Plots with one of the new technologies introduced (Deep Ploughing + Intermittent Flooding) (DP + IF). (Tests bin) C1, C2, C3 : Plots with one of the new technologies introduced (Minimum Tillage + Continuous Flooding) (MT + CF). (Tests bin) D1, D2, D3 : Plots with the two new technologies introduced (Minimum Tillage + Intermittent Flooding) (MT + IF). To ensure that this process was properly followed, the racks in the rice plots were opened and closed by the farmers under the supervision of a field technician (entomologist). Evaluation of the performance of different technologies on the larval development of Anopheles in rice cultivation Larval productivity was regularly monitored in the selected rice plots. Throughout the rice growing season (transplanting, tillering and maturation), mosquito sampling was carried out once a week for approximately 120 days. A total of 12 larval sampling points and 20 larval counting dives were used in each 5.5 x 3.0 m (16.5 m2) plot. As a result, mosquito larvae were collected from the test and control traps between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. using the dipping method (Silver, 2007) with a 350 ml dipper. Larvae were identified using the Gillies and Meillon, (1968) identification key and those of the genus Anopheles spp isolated in beakers. Destruction of Anopheles swarms Description and mapping of Anopheles swarms A field trip was carried out prior to the work, where a thorough search for swarms was carried out in the both villages, VK2 and VK3. This enabled a map of all An. gambiae s.l. swarms to be drawn up and the number of swarms present in each work site to be estimated and compared. The description/mapping of Anopheles mating sites at both sites was carried out by trained observers. At sunset, observation begins by moving towards the brightest part, located between 0.5 and 4 meters above the ground [ 19 ]. Once located, the swarms were collected using an anti-insect net (swarm net) and the mosquitoes were aspirated and then preserved in peri boxes for identification. The location of the swarm (the marker), the time of collection and the landmark (the coordinates of the capture point) were recorded. The observations made it possible to record 100 and 75 swarm’s sites in the villages of VK2 and VK3 respectively. The locations of the swarms were mapped using a global positioning system (GPRS) with latitude and longitude measurements accurate to within 3 meters. The specimens collected were morphologically identified to confirm that they were indeed swarms composed of An. gambiae spp. species [ 29 ]. Mosquito markers or landmarks According to the protocol, all swarming points were identified and characterized and at which visual swarm markers were observed [ 19 ]. At both sites (VK2 and VK3), all swarming points and markers were observed daily for seven consecutive days simultaneously in April 2024, the driest month of the dry season. These markers include physical features such as wells, toilet tops, patches of bare soil, wood piles (faggots) and other markers that serve as a signal to attract male mosquitoes to gather prior to a mating event, as already mentioned in several previous studies [ 19 – 21 ]. In this study, the village VK3 is used as a control in order to compare the different markers and to identify the most frequent swarming points as well as the mosquito densities observed in the different swarms. For this purpose, each marker was described in terms of its location and the nature of the object acting as a swarm marker was recorded [ 19 ]. Collection of basic entomological data In both villages, a first set of entomological data was collected by spraying pyrethrum inside the houses. These collections were used to assess mosquito density, the insemination rate of females and the age structure of males during the study over a period of 3 days prior to the intervention on the swarms. Collection took place the day after the last swarm collection, to avoid any interaction with the pyrethrum spray for swarm compositions. To this end, 10 houses were selected daily in each village for this part of the study. The houses were selected randomly so that the distribution covered the entire study site. Within these houses, capture by spraying was carried out by eliminating mosquitoes that were resting in the rooms using a spray can be containing a mixture of carbamate (Propoxur) and a pyrethroid (Alletrin, Tetrametrin and Permetrin). The mosquitoes collected were sorted morphologically into different taxa using an identification key, and only species belonging to An. gambiae s.l were counted. All females per site were sampled and their spermathecal was dissected to examine mating status. In addition, in 10 randomly selected inhabited concessions, vacuum aspirations with Prokopack or backpack vacuum cleaners were used to collect Anopheles males in both sites, in order to verify the age structure in the population. The males were sampled and their genitalia examined. It should be noted that sexual maturation is completed 24 hours or more after emergence, which implies a 180° rotation of the genitalia [ 30 ]. Intervention on swarms to reduce Anopheles mating sites In the intervention village (VK2), qualified swarm observers targeted all swarms with insecticide bombs. A map of the village with all the concessions mentioned on it was at their disposal, along with the distribution of all Anopheles mosquito swarming points. Mass spraying killed swarms of males and females in search of mates every day at sunset, for 5 consecutive days. To improve their effectiveness, each individual was assigned to 2–3 neighboring complexes and asked to target swarms with the bomb spray in these complexes. All swarm sites in the village were thoroughly inspected by the volunteers, and whenever a swarm was spotted, it was systematically sprayed to kill all the mosquitoes. Due to the presence of volunteers and the size of the village, the sprayers were systematically directed at all swarming mosquitoes in the village from the start of the intervention. In total, 10 days of swarm intervention were carried out in the village, including 5 days of successive spraying of all swarms and interventions at two-day intervals for verification. Following this, a second set of entomological data, similar to those collected during the pre-intervention period, were again collected in both villages to estimate mosquito density, female insemination rate and male age structure after the intervention. In this study, the time taken for the swarm population to recover from decimation was not measured. Statistical analysis The impact of different cultivation methods on mosquito larval populations was assessed by a comparative analysis of larval densities, for all species combined and specifically for An. gambiae s.l. ,between control and experimental tanks. The larvae were collected using a 350 ml ladle at regular intervals, and the average densities with their 95% confidence intervals were calculated for each stage of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation). Fisher's exact tests (5% significance level) were used to assess density variations during the different stages and to calculate the rate of reduction in larval production between the control and experimental tanks. Agricultural production was also measured by comparing rice yields according to cultivation techniques, calculating average yields and their confidence intervals. In addition, male and female Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes captured in swarms were quantified in villages VK2 and VK3, according to different reference points. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) at a 5% threshold were used to identify significant differences between villages and sexes. Mosquito density was compared before and after intervention in each village using Fisher's exact tests in Rstudio (R v.4.4.3), and reduction percentages were calculated. Graphical representations illustrated density variations, female insemination rates, and male age structure. Results Performance of technologies to reduce the density of mosquito larvae Larvae density and reduction Average larvae densities per dipper (350 ml) during the three stages of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation) differ from one rice field to another for the same cultivation practice. These averages were compared between traditional systems (Deep Ploughing + Continuous Flooding) and innovative systems (Minimal Tillage + Intermittent Flooding), without forgetting to take into account other combinations of techniques (Deep Ploughing + Intermittent Flooding and Minimal Tillage + Continuous Flooding). The cumulative DP + CF averages for all mosquito larvae for the three bins (bin 1, bin 2 and bin 3) are 9.13, 11.08 and 4.46 respectively for transplanting, tillering and maturation. MT + IF averages were 1.39 for transplanting, 2.81 for tillering and 0.47 for ripening (Fig. 4 ). Anopheles mosquito larvae averaged 6.48, 1.62 and 3.70 for DP + CF, and 1.09, 1.03 and 0.47 for MT + IF, according to the three stages of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation) (Fig. 2 ). Comparisons between the different cropping systems show that the innovative systems reduce overall larval densities. Minimal tillage combined with intermittent irrigation (MT + IF) reduced mosquito larvae densities for all species. The reduction rates observed by comparison between DP + CF and MT + IF were 5.98 (Means 9.13 [6.430; 13.035]; and 1. 39 [0.061; 2.727], p -value = 1.0000), 2.93 (Means 11.08 [5.539; 16.635]; and 2.81 [0.523; 5.110], p -value = 0.4677999) and 8.32 (Means 4.46 [1.595; 7.337]; and 0.47 [-0.039; 0.997], p -value = 0. 01373) during transplanting, tillering and maturation respectively (Table 1 ). However, these reductions were statistically significant during the rice maturation stage ( p- value = 0.01373). The other combinations also showed significant reductions during this same stage for MT + IF ( p -value = 0.050898) and for MT + IF ( p -value = 0.0107686). Table 1 Reduction rate of all mosquito larvae in relation to crop development stages and methods used Rice growth stage Growing techniques DP + CF DP + IF DP + CF MT + CF DP + CF MT + IF Transplanting Larval density 9.73 1.8 9.73 1.83 9.73 1.39 CI 95% [6.430 ; 13.035] [0.905 ; 2.694] [6.430 ; 13.035] [0.383 ; 1.983] [6.430 ; 13.035] [0.061 ; 2.727] Reduction rates p- value 4.4 0.4705882 7.22 0.4705882 5.98 1 Tillering Larval density 11.08 6.7 11.08 8.72 11.08 2.81 CI 95% [5.539 ; 16.635] [1.648 ; 11.767] [5.539 ; 16.635] [3.355 ; 13.886] [5.539 ; 16.635] [0.523 ; 5.110] Reduction rates p -value 0.65 1 0.27 1 2.93 0.4677999 Maturation Larval density 4.46 0.93 4.46 0.7 4.46 0.47 CI 95% [1.595 ; 7.337] [0.288 ; 1.578] [1.595 ; 7.337] [0.150 ; 1.249] [1.595 ; 7.337] [-0.039 ; 0.997] Reduction rates p- value 3.78 0.050898 5.38 0.0107686 8.32 0.01373 Taking only anopheline larval densities into account, MT + IF gave reduction rates of 4.92 (Means 6.48 [4.102; 8.875]; and 1.09 [-0.057; 2.245], p -value = 0.1067873) for transplanting, 0.56 (Means 1.62 [0.424; 2.817]; and 1.03 [0.177; 1.888], p -value = 0.0535931) for tillering and 6.86 (Means 3.7 [0.739; 6.668]; and 0.47 [-0.042; 0.984], p -value = 0.01373) for maturation (Table 2 ). Significance between the different rates was recorded during the Tallage and maturation stage respectively (p-value = 0.0535931; p-value = 0.01373). Comparison of DP + CF with other combinations (DP + IF, MT + CF) for Anopheles larvae showed statistically significant reductions only during the maturation phase (DP + IF, p -value = 0.028383; MT + CF, p -value = 0.0307704). Table 2 Reduction rate of Anopheles mosquito larvae in relation to crop development stages and methods used Rice growth stage Growing techniques DP + CF DP + IF DP + CF MT + CF DP + CF MT + IF Transplanting Larval density 6.48 1.38 6.48 0.85 6.48 1.09 CI 95% [4.102 ; 8.875] [0.573 ; 2.203] [4.102 ; 8.875] [0.157 ; 1.542] [4.102 ; 8.875] [-0.057 ; 2.245] Reduction rates p- value 3.67 0.4705882 6.63 0.22235294 4.92 0.1067873 Tillering Larval density 1.62 1.24 1.62 1.7 1.62 1.03 CI 95% [0.424 ; 2.817] [0.397 ; 2.094] [0.424 ; 2.817] [0.335 ; 3.073] [0.424 ; 2.817] [0.177 ; 1.888] Reduction rates p- value 0.3 0.460185 -0.04 0.1108205 0.56 0.0535931 Maturation Larval density 3.7 0.8 3.7 0.68 3.7 0.47 CI 95% [0.739 ; 6.668] [0.245 ; 1.363] [0.739 ; 6.668] [0.136 ; 1.229 [0.739 ; 6.668] [-0.042 ; 0.984] Reduction rates p- value 3.6 0.028383 4.42 0.0307704 6.86 0.01373 CI95%: 95% confidence interval Yield in kg/area Average yields in the various trials did not vary, whatever the technique used. The averages were 5.93 for DP + CF and 6.73 for MT + IF. The averages for the others were 6.87 and 7.27 respectively for DP + IF and MT + CF (Table 3 ). Table 3 Production yield in kilograms per crate area (16.5 m2). Rice bin Yield (kg/16.5 m2) DP + CF DP + IF MT + CF MT + IF Rice bin 1 5,4 6 7 6,6 Rice bin 2 7,2 7,8 7,4 7 Rice bin 3 5,2 6,8 7,41 6,6 Average quantity ± standard deviation 5,93 ± 2,74 6,87 ± 2,24 7,27 ± 0,58 6,73 ± 0,57 Description/mapping of Anopheles swarms All sampled swarming points were geo-referenced, making it possible to establish a swarm map and the distribution of all swarms during identification in the two villages (VK2 and VK3) (Fig. 3 ). Swarm markers and landmarks During swarm identification surveys, a total of 175 swarms were observed in the two villages, including 100 swarms in village VK2 (Table 4 ) and 75 swarms in control village VK3 (Table 5 ). These swarms were collected to identify An. gambiae s.l complex in the villages. Table 4 Species composition and main markers used by the swarms in the intervention village ( VK2 ). Intervention village Swarms markers Swarming points (ID) Number of swarms identified according to benchmarks Number of species An. gambiae s.l Males Females VK2 Well surround Sw28, Sw39, Sw43, Sw50, Sw51, Sw55, Sw64, Sw66, Sw81, Sw85, Sw95, Sw100 12 248 52 Brick Sw59, Sw88, Sw89, Sw90, Sw91 5 44 9 Gutter Sw38, Sw4, Sw58 3 8 0 Waste water Sw86, Sw87 2 11 0 Fu à son Sw63, Sw65 2 9 5 Steers parc Sw14 1 36 6 Wild stones Sw42 1 5 0 Plants Sw70 1 14 4 Water port Sw2, Sw3, Sw44, Sw54 4 15 6 Toilets Sw7, Sw13, Sw15, Sw17, Sw20, Sw22, Sw23, Sw26, Sw31, Sw32, Sw33, Sw34, Sw35, Sw36, Sw48, Sw49, Sw52, Sw53, Sw56, Sw57, Sw60, Sw62, Sw68, Sw73, Sw74, Sw75, Sw76, Sw77, Sw97, Sw98, Sw99 31 291 83 Bare ground Sw1, Sw5, Sw6, Sw8, Sw9, Sw10, Sw11, Sw12, Sw16, Sw18, Sw19, Sw21, Sw24, Sw25, Sw29, Sw30, 37, Sw40, Sw41, Sw46, Sw61, Sw67, Sw69, Sw92 24 249 140 Rice bran Sw80 1 18 0 Wood pile Sw47, Sw71, Sw78, Sw79, Sw83, Sw93, Sw96 7 164 58 Garbage heap Sw27, Sw45, Sw72, Sw82, Sw84, Sw94 6 166 50 Total 100 1305 434 VK2 : Kou Valley 2; ID : Swarm identifiers; Sws : Swarms; An.gambiae s.l : Anopheles gambiae senso lato Table 5 Species composition and main markers used by the swarms in the control village ( VK3 ). Control village Swarm markers Swarming points (ID) Number of swarms identified according to benchmarks Number of species An. gambiae s.l Males Females VK3 Well surround Sw2, Sw5, Sw7, Sw23, Sw27, Sw33, Sw36, Sw37, Sw47, Sw49, Sw52, Sw53, Sw61, Sw64, Sw66, Sw69, Sw75 17 227 32 Bricks Sw40, Sw41, Sw42, Sw43 4 76 18 Gutter Sw50 1 3 0 Waste water Sw38, Sw39, Sw71 3 56 18 Septic tank Sw55, Sw68 2 15 0 Steers parc Sw1 1 5 0 Wild stones Sw10, Sw59 2 63 28 Plants Sw12, Sw60 2 9 0 Toilets Sw4, Sw15, Sw16, Sw17, Sw18, Sw19, Sw28, Sw29, Sw51, Sw56 10 470 121 Bare ground Sw8, Sw44, Sw48, Sw58, Sw63, Sw73, Sw74 7 85 22 Rice bran Sw22, Sw32 2 13 4 Wood piles Sw3, Sw11, Sw13, Sw20, Sw21, Sw25, Sw30, Sw35, Sw45, Sw54, Sw57, Sw62, Sw67, Sw70, Sw72 16 647 137 Garbage heap Sw6, Sw9, Sw14, Sw24, Sw26, Sw34, Sw46, Sw65 8 186 42 Total 75 1855 422 VK3 : Kou Valley 3; ID : Swarm identifiers; Sws : Swarms; An.gambiae s.l : Anopheles gambiae senso lato The composition of mosquitoes in the swarms according to the different markers varied between 3 and 291 ( F _value = 0.804808; Df = 13; Pr (> F) = 0.6533504) male mosquitoes, 0 and 140 ( F _value = 0.690669; Df = 13; Pr (> F) = 0.7669762) female mosquitoes at VK2 and ranged from 3 to 647 (F_value = 0.3718687; Df = 12; Pr (> F) = 0.968539) male, 0 and 137 ( F _value = 0.7058063; Df = 12; Pr (> F) = 0.73966) female mosquitoes at VK3 respectively. Of the swarms sampled, morphological identification revealed 1739 mosquitoes, including 1305 males and 434 females, and 2277 mosquitoes, including 1855 males and 422 females, in villages VK2 and VK3 respectively. Cues (visual markers) used predominantly by mosquitoes included physical objects and areas such as well edges, toilet tops, patches of bare ground, wood piles (faggots) and garbage. Other common markers (bricks, gutters, wastewater, septic tanks, cattle pens, rice bran, plants and water carriers), were equally important and served as a signal to attract the grouping of Anopheles mosquito species. There was no significance between the swarms of the An. gambiae s.l complex (males; F _value = 0.5633354; Df = 11; Pr (> F) = 0.8557915 and females; F _value = 0.08766445; Df = 11; Pr (> F) = 0.5647085) formed during the surveys, irrespective of the markers (markers) and the villages (VK2 and VK3) where the collections were made. The markers in both villages grouped roughly the same numbers of mosquitoes. Basic entomological data collection In both villages, An. gambiae s.l swarms were located using GPRS coordinates. At VK2, all identified swarms were treated to kill males and mate-seeking females visiting the swarms. Impact of intervention on mosquito densities per house In the intervention village VK2, data indicate that the density of mosquitoes per house was high during the pre-intervention phase compared to the post-intervention phase (Fig. 4 A). The reduction observed between the two phases was statistically significant ( p-value = 0.0031268 ). The direct impact of the intervention led to a reduction in average mosquito density, from 3.89 mosquitoes per house in the pre-intervention phase to 1.16 mosquitoes per house in the post-intervention phase, a percentage reduction of 89.72%. Conversely, in the control village of VK3, mosquito densities recorded between the two phases showed no statistically significant difference ( p-value = 0.0996019 ). Impact of intervention on insemination rate in female mosquitoes In village VK2, insemination rates were particularly high during the pre-intervention phase, as evidenced by the fact that all dissected females were inseminated (100%), in contrast to the post-intervention phase where the rate was significantly lower (46%) (Fig. 4 B). Variations in insemination status during the post-intervention phase were statistically significant ( p-value < 0.001 ). In the control village VK3, all females subjected to dissection in both phases were inseminated (100%). Impact of intervention on genital tract inversion in male mosquitoes The population ratios of immature male mosquitoes (non-rotated genitalia) identified in village VK2 increased substantially before and after the intervention, averaging 30% in the pre-intervention phase and 96% in the post-intervention phase (Fig. 4 C). Conversely, in village VK3, the ratio of immature male mosquitoes decline significantly before and after the intervention, from 60% in the pre-intervention phase to 16% in the post-intervention phase. Variations in the percentage of genital tract rotation during the different intervention phases were statistically significant ( p-value < 0.001 ) in both villages (VK2 and VK3). Discussion The classic approaches to malaria vector control are insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), pyrethroid-based insecticides and larvicides. These vector control strategies have played a key role in significantly reducing malaria incidence in several African contexts [ 5 ]. Despite the widespread use of these effective vector control methods, WHO has recently documented the continued persistence and resurgence of malaria cases in some African regions [ 31 ]. The concept of “residual malaria”, which aims to elucidate the influence of alternative factors on persistent malaria transmission, has also been highlighted and subjected to further scrutiny in order to improve the management of this disease with a view to its eventual eradication under appropriate conditions. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of different techniques (intermittent irrigation and destruction of Anopheles swarms) in reducing Anopheles breeding habitats and larval production sites by more than 50% in an area characterized by a high prevalence of the main malaria vector (Bama). Indeed, rice production in managed lowlands is undergoing rapid intensification in Africa to ensure food security [ 32 ]. Across Africa, ministries of agriculture are undertaking substantial expansion of irrigated rice fields, driven by strong demand from growing populations and food security concerns. Rice paddies are preferred breeding sites for the mosquitoes that transmit malaria ( An. gambiae s.l.) [ 32 , 33 ] and the effects of rice intensification have and will continue to have specific implications for malaria elimination [ 34 – 36 ]. This study was carried out in the rice-growing region of Bama, in the Kou valley, characterized by exceptionally high mosquito densities attributed to the presence of vast larval habitats. We have shown that the simultaneous application of technologies empirically validated for their effectiveness in reducing Anopheles populations in rice fields resulted in a considerable reduction of around 50% in mosquito breeding sites. These technologies include Intermittent Irrigation/Wetting and Alternate Drying of plots coupled with tillage and Destruction of Anopheles swarms (mating site). The observed decreases in mean population densities during both activities were significant in both the larval stage and adults participating in mating activities. The results of this study demonstrate that comparisons made between different cropping systems reveal that innovative methodologies lead to an overall reduction in larval populations. The implementation of minimum tillage combined with intermittent flooding (MT + IF) resulted in a reduction in mosquito larvae density for all species combined. Nevertheless, the statistical significance of these reductions was particularly evident during the rice maturation phase for all mosquito larvae For Anopheles mosquito larvae, significant differences between the different rates were observed during the tillering and maturation phases, respectively. These results are broadly consistent with, but differ somewhat from, those reported by Djègbè et al [ 12 , 28 ], who observed statistical significance at all stages of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation) during their studies. The differences in intensity of larvae reduction are due to variations in anopheline density: larvae breeding sites are generally numerous and productive, without forgetting to take into account the type of shallows and irrigation methods used (water supply in irrigated plots). Comparable results have been documented in Ethiopia, where the density of Anopheles mosquitoes in rice fields under continuous irrigation was 3.6 times greater than that observed in plots using intermittent irrigation [ 37 ]. At the end of the experimental trials, the quantities of rice harvested showed no difference between the racks subjected to continuous irrigation and those receiving intermittent irrigation. These results confirm those of [ 28 ]. In addition, research carried out in the rice fields of Fanaye (Senegal) has indicated that alternating between watering and drying practices can facilitate a 20–50% reduction in irrigation water volume without compromising rice production yield [ 38 ]. The implementation of minimum tillage combined with intermittent flooding represents a viable strategy for managing malaria vector populations in rice cropping systems. This approach needs to be modular in design and adapted to the specific agricultural conditions encountered by local farmers. To fully assess the reduction in malaria incidence correlated with intermittent flooding, a larger-scale comparative analysis involving rice fields using both permanent and intermittent flooding methods in a region characterized by a high density of malaria vectors would be imperative [ 28 ]. Nevertheless, it is imperative to recognize that in addition to facilitating the proliferation of malaria vectors, agricultural practices (such as rice cultivation) also contribute significantly to the spread of insecticide resistance, representing a major challenge for malaria mitigation efforts. Numerous studies have revealed that exposure to sublethal concentrations of pesticide mixtures and pollutants, typically found in wastewater and agricultural lowlands, during the larval development phase can improve the resilience of these organisms to insecticides used in public health interventions [ 39 – 43 ]. Therefore, a plausible mechanistic correlation may exist between the specific composition of xenobiotic substances in mosquito breeding habitats and the emergence of insecticide resistance. This potential association has important implications for resistance management strategies and the overall effectiveness of vector control initiatives. Research into mosquito swarming and breeding behavior in Burkina Faso began in 2003, mainly on An. gambiae s.s., with the aim of elucidating the behavioral distinctions between An. coluzzii and An. gambiae , which contribute to the reproductive barriers that exist between these two taxa [ 44 – 47 ]. Research in Mali has also highlighted the spatial segregation of swarming sites between the M and S forms of An. gambiae s.s. (or An. coluzzii and An. gambiae , respectively) [ 19 , 48 ]. Nevertheless, the aim of this research is not to examine the mating and swarming behaviour of wild populations of Anopheles mosquitoes; rather, we have referred to previous studies concerning the characterization and mapping of Anopheles swarms (swarm identification) and conducted a comprehensive survey of mosquito breeding habitats. As a result, it has become possible to compile a comprehensive map of all An. gambiae s.l. mosquito swarms in the study sites, and to quantify the number of swarms present at each research site for comparative analysis. These swarm indicators include visual features such as wells, toilet lids, exposed soil patches, wood piles (faggots) and other markers that encourage male mosquitoes to congregate prior to mating, as has already been documented in numerous studies [ 19 – 21 ]. Subsequently, a significant eradication of all identified and mapped swarms was carried out, as indicated in the objectives of this survey. Reducing mosquito populations through targeted swarm interventions theoretically represents a unique opportunity to significantly mitigate the transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens, particularly in areas where residual malaria transmission continues to occur despite extensive coverage of existing intervention strategies. In our study, the application of interventions targeting the main malaria vectors resulted in a substantial reduction of over 85% in the mosquito population at the intervention village (VK2) compared with the control village (VK3). In addition, there was a marked drop in the incidence of female insemination, associated with a significant shift in the age distribution of the male population, in favour of a younger male population unable to mate. These results are consistent with those reported by Sawadogo et al [ 9 ] who obtained similar results. However, it is equally crucial to recognise that the results presented by Sawadogo et al [ 9 ] fall short of our own, as their survey was conducted during the rainy season, a period when anopheline population density reached a significant pic. In contrast, our research, conducted during the warm, dry season, yielded a higher reduction rate, attributed to the decrease in mosquito population density. They clearly suggest that strategic swarm targeting to reduce mosquito populations theoretically represents an extraordinary opportunity to significantly reduce the transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens, particularly in regions where residual malaria transmission continues despite significant coverage by existing intervention methodologies. Nevertheless, although the present study has demonstrated the efficacy of this approach against An. gambiae s.l., it is imperative that its efficacy be validated for other vector species. It should be noted that this methodology can be implemented for all major malaria vectors in Africa, as they exhibit swarming behavior [ 49 , 50 , 19 , 48 , 51 , 9 ]. In addition, it is important to recognise that male mosquitoes regularly use the same swarming sites for long periods of time, with these locations being used for swarming activities for several years [ 19 ]. In addition, the close aggregation of targeted individuals within swarms facilitates the use of low-dose sprays to control vectors. Further research is needed to assess the cost-effectiveness of this intervention, while establishing a more precise characterization of the optimal spray pattern and frequency. For example, the population recovery period after a substantial swarm-induced reduction was not assessed in the present study. It would also be interesting to conduct this study in a variety of environments and with different vector species. Conclusion The main objective of this research is to halve the mosquito population density in Anopheles breeding habitats (which include mating sites or swarms) and larval breeding sites in this rice-growing region, which is characterized by high densities of the main malaria vectors. As a result of these initiatives, a series of interventions were implemented to improve the effectiveness of malaria vector control in the designated area. This reduction has been achieved within the framework of intensive rice production systems, with the aim of eliminating areas and points of malaria transmission, involving collaboration between the agricultural and health sectors to improve malaria vector control, combined with the mass elimination of swarming males and a few partner-seeking females. The results of this research will be disseminated nationally through appropriate cost-effective channels, such as meetings with key stakeholders from the ministries of health, agriculture, and environment. At the national level, meetings and workshops will be organized with policy makers involved in malaria control to share the research findings and raise awareness of the need for collaborative activities among the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Environment for better management of malaria vectors. At the community level, these results are expected to provide additional information on the supplementary impact of complementary control strategies on reducing the prevalence and incidence of malaria. The affected communities will be informed about the research findings and the potential implications of these results. Furthermore, the research findings will be shared with other scientists and the vector control community through regular meetings and oral or written presentations at conferences and workshops. Abreviations LLINs Long-lasting insecticidal nets IRS Indoor residual spraying VK Vallée du Kou DP Deep Ploughing CF Continuous Flooding MT Minimum Tillage IF Intermittent Flooding Declarations Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the IRSS-DRO and Centre MURAZ technical team for their assistance. We would also like to thank the workers of health district of Dandé, local authorities and volunteers for their participation in the study. We sincerely thank the communities of the two villages (VK2 and VK3) for their support and collaboration during the study. Declaration of Competing Interest All the authors have read and accepted this version of the manuscript. The authors also declare there are no conflicts of interest. Funding This work is supported by funding from World Health Organization (WHO grant ID P21-00170) and Centre d’Excellence Africain en Innovations Biotechnologiques pour l’Elimination des Maladies à Transmission Vectorielle of BURKINA FASO (Grant No. 2020-000178/MESRSI/SG/UNB/P). Availability of data and materials Data are fully available from the corresponding author upon request. Authors’ contributions MN and DDS designed the study. MN, MFA, DDS, and KWUK contributed to the implementation of the study. DDS, MFA, KLN, and KWUK performed the laboratory and field work. EK produced the maps. DDS and KWUK analyzed the data. MN, DDS, and KWUK interpreted the results and drafted the manuscript, which was critically reviewed by the co-authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Ethics approval Entomological surveys did not involve human or animal volunteers. However, we acquired informed consents in writing (or with a fingerprint if illiterate) from head of households to use their houses for mosquitoes collection. Consent for publication Not applicable Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References WHO. World malaria report 2022. World Health Organization; 2022. WHO. World malaria report 2023. World Health Organization; 2023. WHO. Rapport 2021 sur le paludisme dans le monde—RESUME-Target Malaria. 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21:38:01","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7049523/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7049523/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-025-05641-x","type":"published","date":"2025-11-12T15:58:39+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86658135,"identity":"5d9441cb-3eb6-4a8a-afdd-3d905f6eaa9e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 10:24:18","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2137125,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"KOUADIOPlotsInnovativeWaterManagementforVectorControl1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7049523/v1/e11a2bac884c288d32cbb580.png"},{"id":86658143,"identity":"530a87c7-4117-4b4e-a75d-16fb55f8d721","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 10:24:19","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82076,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"KOUADIOPlotsInnovativeWaterManagementforVectorControl2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7049523/v1/d99d0d546f6c236524c13ed2.png"},{"id":86658149,"identity":"e0ee7e12-3941-4fb7-82bb-eef8b970dff5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 10:24:20","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3451672,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"KOUADIOPlotsInnovativeWaterManagementforVectorControl3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7049523/v1/cdc1c98a9325a42ce738ee0c.png"},{"id":86658142,"identity":"31d4b3db-1a14-44f7-803b-58cd92a3c201","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 10:24:19","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":94902,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"KOUADIOPlotsInnovativeWaterManagementforVectorControl4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7049523/v1/599ae037472a93d6e183dc82.png"},{"id":96105832,"identity":"a77fc51c-b698-4145-8543-fa669f67c57e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 16:11:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":8440386,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7049523/v1/6271066e-0fa3-4a34-8855-e012279e93ed.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Innovative Water Management for Vector Control: The Case of Rice Cultivation in Burkina Faso’s Vallée du Kou","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eMalaria is a genuine global public health problem, still affecting more than 200\u0026nbsp;million people and causing more than 500,000 deaths worldwide annually [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Since 2015, the latest reports show that progress has tended to stagnate in countries in moderate to high transmission areas. In 2020, COVID-related interruptions have impacted the malaria burden in the region from 2019 to 2020 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn effective in controlling malaria vectors is reached by vector control, based mainly on the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and, to a lesser extent, indoor residual spraying (IRS) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. It aims to reduce human-vector contact, but especially the density of the vector population that bite people in their homes and when they are resting in their homes. Malaria incidences in several African sites are significantly reduced by the contribution of these control methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. However, several studies have reported that \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e biting people outdoors and/or at night and early in the morning, when people were not protected by these conventional tools [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. To find external hosts by adapting, \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e can avoid traditional tools (LLINs/IRS) and not absorb lethal doses of insecticides molecules. The increasing importance of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e external bitting demonstrates a major limitation of current vector control, which relies primarily on conventional tools, as they are indoor interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough most cases of malaria occur in rural areas where agricultural activities are intense, the majority of development actions in these areas often focus on irrigation projects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] and improved agricultural practices, with very few intervention studies that target agro-ecosystems as a factor in the spread of malaria vectors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Africa to meet food security needs, rice production has rapidly intensified. Then, rice fields and their irrigation systems have been identified as one of the factors favouring the breeding of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e around farms in sub-Saharan Africa, a major cause of infant mortality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This cropping system is very water-intensive with the consequences for malaria control. During irrigation, mosquito longevity is increased [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], but mosquito densities generally decrease following the plants developping, due to reduction of access to water for oviposition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. However, a better water management strategy adopted during rice cultivation, could help to reduce \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e population impacting malaria cases in human population around rice fields [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsidering water management measures to control vector-borne diseases in rice agro-ecosystems the key questions that need to be answered are: (1) What are the local vectors? (2) Where do they breed? (3) Are the breeding opportunities created in the irrigated area likely to contribute significantly to overall vector abundance and disease transmission levels? Vector ecology and disease transmission are dynamic and complex processes and it is sometimes difficult to draw general conclusions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research on swarm description/mapping and current developments in our understanding of mosquito swarming suggest that active detection and destruction of swarms in dwellings near rice fields can reduce the high breeding rate of malaria vectors. Thus, an effective control method to counter insecticides resistance developed in mosquitoes could be implemented by targeting swarms of the main malaria vectors [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Mass destruction of swarming males and some mate-seeking females implemented correctly could result in at least a 50% reduction in vectors populations size compared to control populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater-saving techniques that have the advantage of reducing the production of mosquito larvae in rice fields by destroying swarming males could help to control the density of malaria vectors. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of different techniques (intermittent irrigation and destruction of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e swarms) in reducing \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e breeding sites and hatching sites by more than 50% in an area with a high density of the main malaria vector (Bama). The performance of these techniques has never been compared individually or in combination. In this study, we set up field experiments to understand if and how we can integrate these methods to achieve good rice production, water savings and reduced mosquito densities. Using the data from this intervention study, we identify the best strategies that are promoted and translated into joint agriculture and health policies for better control of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e proliferation in expanding rice production sites.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSampling sites\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Vallée du Kou (11°24‘N and 4°24’W) located at around thirty kilometers in north of Bobo-Dioulasso. The average annual temperature is 27.7°C and rainfall is 900.8 mm per year [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. It is a rice-growing area that has been developed since 1970, comprising seven rice-growing districts (VK1 to VK7), with an estimated population of 22,244 inhabitants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], on an area of 1,260 hectares of productive land (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Due to irrigation and the availability of water, rice paddies are constantly forming highly productive breeding sites for \u003cem\u003eCulicidae\u003c/em\u003e. During the rainy season, depressions and water reservoirs may establish other temporary habitats suitable for \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e. Sympatry between \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e is present, with a predominance for \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e throughout the year [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The typical bite rate of \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e is around 200 bites/person/night (b. h\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. n\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Several studies carried out in the area have confirmed the resistance of vectors to pyrethroids and DDT, with frequencies of the \u003cem\u003ekdr-L1014F\u003c/em\u003e mutation varying from 0.87 to 0.91 in \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Kou valley site was selected due to the presence of the resistant vectors to pyrethroids. The research focused on examining methodologies for managing water resources during rice cultivation, with the aim of reducing the larval population and causing mass mortality of mate-seeking male and female mosquitoes, using aerosol insecticide applications to modulate mosquito density at this site. The villages selected for this study are VK2 (intervention village) and VK3 (control village), which is the nearest village with ecological parameters comparable to those of the intervention village.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntermittent irrigation of plots\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental design of water-saving techniques\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn experimental field was set up for this study to investigate the effect of new agricultural technologies (Minimum Tillage and Intermittent Flooding) on reducing \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e breeding sites in rice fields. The trials involved setting up experimental rice plots measuring 5.5 x 3.0 m (16.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) with treatments, following a randomized complete block design, with three replications for each experiment. Rice tubs were set up in these plots, along with other criteria, in order to evaluate Continuous Flooding (CF) (traditional system) or Intermittent Flooding (IF) (innovative system), Deep Ploughing (DP) (traditional system) or Minimum Tillage (MT) (innovative system). Minimum Tillage means that the working depth is less than 15 cm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the control plots (conventional practice), water was maintained at the same irrigation level as most farmers on the site. For Intermittent Irrigation, the water was drained ten (10) days after transplanting, then reinjected and forcibly drained at weekly intervals (water released into the plots for 7 days and left for 2 days before being irrigated again) during the rice growth cycle. The experiment was as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl bin (A1 to A3)\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ePlots with conventional system\u003c/span\u003e (Deep Ploughing + Continuous Flooding) (DP + CF).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTests bin\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Tests bin) \u003cb\u003eB1, B2, B3\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ePlots with one of the new technologies introduced\u003c/span\u003e (Deep Ploughing + Intermittent Flooding) (DP + IF).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Tests bin) \u003cb\u003eC1, C2, C3\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ePlots with one of the new technologies introduced\u003c/span\u003e (Minimum Tillage + Continuous Flooding) (MT + CF).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Tests bin) \u003cb\u003eD1, D2, D3\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ePlots with the two new technologies introduced\u003c/span\u003e (Minimum Tillage + Intermittent Flooding) (MT + IF).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo ensure that this process was properly followed, the racks in the rice plots were opened and closed by the farmers under the supervision of a field technician (entomologist).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation of the performance of different technologies on the larval development of Anopheles in rice cultivation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval productivity was regularly monitored in the selected rice plots. Throughout the rice growing season (transplanting, tillering and maturation), mosquito sampling was carried out once a week for approximately 120 days. A total of 12 larval sampling points and 20 larval counting dives were used in each 5.5 x 3.0 m (16.5 m2) plot. As a result, mosquito larvae were collected from the test and control traps between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. using the dipping method (Silver, 2007) with a 350 ml dipper. Larvae were identified using the Gillies and Meillon, (1968) identification key and those of the genus \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e spp isolated in beakers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDestruction of Anopheles swarms\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDescription and mapping of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnopheles\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eswarms\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA field trip was carried out prior to the work, where a thorough search for swarms was carried out in the both villages, VK2 and VK3. This enabled a map of all \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. swarms to be drawn up and the number of swarms present in each work site to be estimated and compared. The description/mapping of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mating sites at both sites was carried out by trained observers. At sunset, observation begins by moving towards the brightest part, located between 0.5 and 4 meters above the ground [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Once located, the swarms were collected using an anti-insect net (swarm net) and the mosquitoes were aspirated and then preserved in peri boxes for identification. The location of the swarm (the marker), the time of collection and the landmark (the coordinates of the capture point) were recorded. The observations made it possible to record 100 and 75 swarm’s sites in the villages of VK2 and VK3 respectively. The locations of the swarms were mapped using a global positioning system (GPRS) with latitude and longitude measurements accurate to within 3 meters. The specimens collected were morphologically identified to confirm that they were indeed swarms composed of \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e spp. species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMosquito markers or landmarks\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the protocol, all swarming points were identified and characterized and at which visual swarm markers were observed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. At both sites (VK2 and VK3), all swarming points and markers were observed daily for seven consecutive days simultaneously in April 2024, the driest month of the dry season. These markers include physical features such as wells, toilet tops, patches of bare soil, wood piles (faggots) and other markers that serve as a signal to attract male mosquitoes to gather prior to a mating event, as already mentioned in several previous studies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the village VK3 is used as a control in order to compare the different markers and to identify the most frequent swarming points as well as the mosquito densities observed in the different swarms. For this purpose, each marker was described in terms of its location and the nature of the object acting as a swarm marker was recorded [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCollection of basic entomological data\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn both villages, a first set of entomological data was collected by spraying pyrethrum inside the houses. These collections were used to assess mosquito density, the insemination rate of females and the age structure of males during the study over a period of 3 days prior to the intervention on the swarms. Collection took place the day after the last swarm collection, to avoid any interaction with the pyrethrum spray for swarm compositions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo this end, 10 houses were selected daily in each village for this part of the study. The houses were selected randomly so that the distribution covered the entire study site. Within these houses, capture by spraying was carried out by eliminating mosquitoes that were resting in the rooms using a spray can be containing a mixture of carbamate (Propoxur) and a pyrethroid (Alletrin, Tetrametrin and Permetrin). The mosquitoes collected were sorted morphologically into different taxa using an identification key, and only species belonging to \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l were counted. All females per site were sampled and their spermathecal was dissected to examine mating status.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, in 10 randomly selected inhabited concessions, vacuum aspirations with Prokopack or backpack vacuum cleaners were used to collect \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e males in both sites, in order to verify the age structure in the population. The males were sampled and their genitalia examined. It should be noted that sexual maturation is completed 24 hours or more after emergence, which implies a 180° rotation of the genitalia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntervention on swarms to reduce\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnopheles\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003emating sites\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the intervention village (VK2), qualified swarm observers targeted all swarms with insecticide bombs. A map of the village with all the concessions mentioned on it was at their disposal, along with the distribution of all Anopheles mosquito swarming points. Mass spraying killed swarms of males and females in search of mates every day at sunset, for 5 consecutive days. To improve their effectiveness, each individual was assigned to 2–3 neighboring complexes and asked to target swarms with the bomb spray in these complexes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll swarm sites in the village were thoroughly inspected by the volunteers, and whenever a swarm was spotted, it was systematically sprayed to kill all the mosquitoes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to the presence of volunteers and the size of the village, the sprayers were systematically directed at all swarming mosquitoes in the village from the start of the intervention. In total, 10 days of swarm intervention were carried out in the village, including 5 days of successive spraying of all swarms and interventions at two-day intervals for verification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing this, a second set of entomological data, similar to those collected during the pre-intervention period, were again collected in both villages to estimate mosquito density, female insemination rate and male age structure after the intervention. In this study, the time taken for the swarm population to recover from decimation was not measured.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe impact of different cultivation methods on mosquito larval populations was assessed by a comparative analysis of larval densities, for all species combined and specifically for \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. ,between control and experimental tanks. The larvae were collected using a 350 ml ladle at regular intervals, and the average densities with their 95% confidence intervals were calculated for each stage of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation). Fisher's exact tests (5% significance level) were used to assess density variations during the different stages and to calculate the rate of reduction in larval production between the control and experimental tanks. Agricultural production was also measured by comparing rice yields according to cultivation techniques, calculating average yields and their confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, male and female \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. mosquitoes captured in swarms were quantified in villages VK2 and VK3, according to different reference points. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) at a 5% threshold were used to identify significant differences between villages and sexes. Mosquito density was compared before and after intervention in each village using Fisher's exact tests in Rstudio (R v.4.4.3), and reduction percentages were calculated. Graphical representations illustrated density variations, female insemination rates, and male age structure.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerformance of technologies to reduce the density of mosquito larvae\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLarvae density and reduction\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage larvae densities per dipper (350 ml) during the three stages of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation) differ from one rice field to another for the same cultivation practice. These averages were compared between traditional systems (Deep Ploughing\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Continuous Flooding) and innovative systems (Minimal Tillage\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Intermittent Flooding), without forgetting to take into account other combinations of techniques (Deep Ploughing\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Intermittent Flooding and Minimal Tillage\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Continuous Flooding). The cumulative DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF averages for all mosquito larvae for the three bins (bin 1, bin 2 and bin 3) are 9.13, 11.08 and 4.46 respectively for transplanting, tillering and maturation. MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF averages were 1.39 for transplanting, 2.81 for tillering and 0.47 for ripening (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Anopheles mosquito larvae averaged 6.48, 1.62 and 3.70 for DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF, and 1.09, 1.03 and 0.47 for MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF, according to the three stages of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparisons between the different cropping systems show that the innovative systems reduce overall larval densities. Minimal tillage combined with intermittent irrigation (MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF) reduced mosquito larvae densities for all species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe reduction rates observed by comparison between DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF and MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF were 5.98 (Means 9.13 [6.430; 13.035]; and 1. 39 [0.061; 2.727], \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.0000), 2.93 (Means 11.08 [5.539; 16.635]; and 2.81 [0.523; 5.110], \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4677999) and 8.32 (Means 4.46 [1.595; 7.337]; and 0.47 [-0.039; 0.997], \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0. 01373) during transplanting, tillering and maturation respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). However, these reductions were statistically significant during the rice maturation stage (\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01373). The other combinations also showed significant reductions during this same stage for MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.050898) and for MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0107686).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rate of all mosquito larvae in relation to crop development stages and methods used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice growth stage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrowing techniques\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTransplanting\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[6.430 ; 13.035]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.905 ; 2.694]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[6.430 ; 13.035]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.383 ; 1.983]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[6.430 ; 13.035]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.061 ; 2.727]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rates\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4705882\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4705882\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTillering\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[5.539 ; 16.635]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[1.648 ; 11.767]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[5.539 ; 16.635]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[3.355 ; 13.886]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[5.539 ; 16.635]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.523 ; 5.110]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rates\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4677999\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaturation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[1.595 ; 7.337]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.288 ; 1.578]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[1.595 ; 7.337]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.150 ; 1.249]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[1.595 ; 7.337]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-0.039 ; 0.997]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rates\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.050898\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0107686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01373\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaking only anopheline larval densities into account, MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF gave reduction rates of 4.92 (Means 6.48 [4.102; 8.875]; and 1.09 [-0.057; 2.245], \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1067873) for transplanting, 0.56 (Means 1.62 [0.424; 2.817]; and 1.03 [0.177; 1.888], \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0535931) for tillering and 6.86 (Means 3.7 [0.739; 6.668]; and 0.47 [-0.042; 0.984], \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01373) for maturation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Significance between the different rates was recorded during the Tallage and maturation stage respectively (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0535931; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01373). Comparison of DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF with other combinations (DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF, MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF) for \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e larvae showed statistically significant reductions only during the maturation phase (DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028383; MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0307704).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rate of Anopheles mosquito larvae in relation to crop development stages and methods used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice growth stage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrowing techniques\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTransplanting\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[4.102 ; 8.875]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.573 ; 2.203]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[4.102 ; 8.875]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.157 ; 1.542]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[4.102 ; 8.875]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-0.057 ; 2.245]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rates\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4705882\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22235294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1067873\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTillering\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.424 ; 2.817]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.397 ; 2.094]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.424 ; 2.817]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.335 ; 3.073]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.424 ; 2.817]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.177 ; 1.888]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rates\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.460185\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1108205\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0535931\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaturation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarval density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCI 95%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.739 ; 6.668]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.245 ; 1.363]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.739 ; 6.668]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.136 ; 1.229\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[0.739 ; 6.668]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-0.042 ; 0.984]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduction rates\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028383\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0307704\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01373\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCI95%:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;95% confidence interval\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eYield in kg/area\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage yields in the various trials did not vary, whatever the technique used. The averages were 5.93 for DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF and 6.73 for MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF. The averages for the others were 6.87 and 7.27 respectively for DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF and MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduction yield in kilograms per crate area (16.5 m2).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice bin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYield (kg/16.5 m2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRice bin 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRice bin 2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRice bin 3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage quantity\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5,93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2,74\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6,87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2,24\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7,27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,58\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6,73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,57\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDescription/mapping of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnopheles\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eswarms\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll sampled swarming points were geo-referenced, making it possible to establish a swarm map and the distribution of all swarms during identification in the two villages (VK2 and VK3) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSwarm markers and landmarks\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring swarm identification surveys, a total of 175 swarms were observed in the two villages, including 100 swarms in village VK2 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) and 75 swarms in control village VK3 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). These swarms were collected to identify \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l complex in the villages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies composition and main markers used by the swarms in the intervention village (\u003cb\u003eVK2\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntervention village\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSwarms markers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSwarming points (ID)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of swarms identified according to benchmarks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of species \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"13\" rowspan=\"14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVK2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWell surround\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw28, Sw39, Sw43, Sw50, Sw51, Sw55, Sw64, Sw66, Sw81, Sw85, Sw95, Sw100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e248\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrick\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw59, Sw88, Sw89, Sw90, Sw91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGutter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw38, Sw4, Sw58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWaste water\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw86, Sw87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFu \u0026agrave; son\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw63, Sw65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteers parc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWild stones\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater port\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw2, Sw3, Sw44, Sw54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eToilets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw7, Sw13, Sw15, Sw17, Sw20, Sw22, Sw23, Sw26, Sw31, Sw32, Sw33, Sw34, Sw35, Sw36, Sw48, Sw49, Sw52, Sw53, Sw56, Sw57, Sw60, Sw62, Sw68, Sw73, Sw74, Sw75, Sw76, Sw77, Sw97, Sw98, Sw99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e291\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBare ground\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw1, Sw5, Sw6, Sw8, Sw9, Sw10, Sw11, Sw12, Sw16, Sw18, Sw19, Sw21, Sw24, Sw25, Sw29, Sw30, 37, Sw40, Sw41, Sw46, Sw61, Sw67, Sw69, Sw92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e249\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice bran\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWood pile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw47, Sw71, Sw78, Sw79, Sw83, Sw93, Sw96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGarbage heap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw27, Sw45, Sw72, Sw82, Sw84, Sw94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1305\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e434\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eVK2\u003c/b\u003e: Kou Valley 2; \u003cb\u003eID\u003c/b\u003e: Swarm identifiers; \u003cb\u003eSws\u003c/b\u003e: Swarms; \u003cb\u003eAn.gambiae\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003es.l\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e senso lato\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies composition and main markers used by the swarms in the control village (\u003cb\u003eVK3\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl village\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSwarm markers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSwarming points (ID)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of swarms identified according to benchmarks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of species \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"12\" rowspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVK3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWell surround\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw2, Sw5, Sw7, Sw23, Sw27, Sw33, Sw36, Sw37, Sw47, Sw49, Sw52, Sw53, Sw61, Sw64, Sw66, Sw69, Sw75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBricks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw40, Sw41, Sw42, Sw43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGutter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWaste water\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw38, Sw39, Sw71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeptic tank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw55, Sw68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteers parc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWild stones\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw10, Sw59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw12, Sw60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eToilets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw4, Sw15, Sw16, Sw17, Sw18, Sw19, Sw28, Sw29, Sw51, Sw56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e470\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBare ground\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw8, Sw44, Sw48, Sw58, Sw63, Sw73, Sw74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice bran\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw22, Sw32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWood piles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw3, Sw11, Sw13, Sw20, Sw21, Sw25, Sw30, Sw35, Sw45, Sw54, Sw57, Sw62, Sw67, Sw70, Sw72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e647\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e137\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGarbage heap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSw6, Sw9, Sw14, Sw24, Sw26, Sw34, Sw46, Sw65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e75\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1855\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e422\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eVK3\u003c/b\u003e: Kou Valley 3; \u003cb\u003eID\u003c/b\u003e: Swarm identifiers; \u003cb\u003eSws\u003c/b\u003e: Swarms; \u003cb\u003eAn.gambiae\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003es.l\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e senso lato\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe composition of mosquitoes in the swarms according to the different markers varied between 3 and 291 (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e_value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.804808; Df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13; \u003cem\u003ePr\u003c/em\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.6533504) male mosquitoes, 0 and 140 (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e_value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.690669; Df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13; \u003cem\u003ePr\u003c/em\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.7669762) female mosquitoes at VK2 and ranged from 3 to 647 (F_value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3718687; Df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12; \u003cem\u003ePr\u003c/em\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.968539) male, 0 and 137 (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e_value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.7058063; Df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12; \u003cem\u003ePr\u003c/em\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.73966) female mosquitoes at VK3 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOf the swarms sampled, morphological identification revealed 1739 mosquitoes, including 1305 males and 434 females, and 2277 mosquitoes, including 1855 males and 422 females, in villages VK2 and VK3 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCues (visual markers) used predominantly by mosquitoes included physical objects and areas such as well edges, toilet tops, patches of bare ground, wood piles (faggots) and garbage. Other common markers (bricks, gutters, wastewater, septic tanks, cattle pens, rice bran, plants and water carriers), were equally important and served as a signal to attract the grouping of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mosquito species. There was no significance between the swarms of the \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l complex (males; \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e_value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5633354; \u003cem\u003eDf\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11; Pr\u003c/em\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.8557915 and females; \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e_value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08766445; \u003cem\u003eDf\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11; Pr\u003c/em\u003e(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5647085) formed during the surveys, irrespective of the markers (markers) and the villages (VK2 and VK3) where the collections were made. The markers in both villages grouped roughly the same numbers of mosquitoes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBasic entomological data collection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn both villages, \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l swarms were located using GPRS coordinates. At VK2, all identified swarms were treated to kill males and mate-seeking females visiting the swarms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eImpact of intervention on mosquito densities per house\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the intervention village VK2, data indicate that the density of mosquitoes per house was high during the pre-intervention phase compared to the post-intervention phase (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA). The reduction observed between the two phases was statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0031268\u003c/em\u003e). The direct impact of the intervention led to a reduction in average mosquito density, from 3.89 mosquitoes per house in the pre-intervention phase to 1.16 mosquitoes per house in the post-intervention phase, a percentage reduction of 89.72%. Conversely, in the control village of VK3, mosquito densities recorded between the two phases showed no statistically significant difference (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0996019\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eImpact of intervention on insemination rate in female mosquitoes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn village VK2, insemination rates were particularly high during the pre-intervention phase, as evidenced by the fact that all dissected females were inseminated (100%), in contrast to the post-intervention phase where the rate was significantly lower (46%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB). Variations in insemination status during the post-intervention phase were statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e). In the control village VK3, all females subjected to dissection in both phases were inseminated (100%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eImpact of intervention on genital tract inversion in male mosquitoes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe population ratios of immature male mosquitoes (non-rotated genitalia) identified in village VK2 increased substantially before and after the intervention, averaging 30% in the pre-intervention phase and 96% in the post-intervention phase (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC). Conversely, in village VK3, the ratio of immature male mosquitoes decline significantly before and after the intervention, from 60% in the pre-intervention phase to 16% in the post-intervention phase. Variations in the percentage of genital tract rotation during the different intervention phases were statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e) in both villages (VK2 and VK3).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe classic approaches to malaria vector control are insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), pyrethroid-based insecticides and larvicides. These vector control strategies have played a key role in significantly reducing malaria incidence in several African contexts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite the widespread use of these effective vector control methods, WHO has recently documented the continued persistence and resurgence of malaria cases in some African regions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The concept of \u0026ldquo;residual malaria\u0026rdquo;, which aims to elucidate the influence of alternative factors on persistent malaria transmission, has also been highlighted and subjected to further scrutiny in order to improve the management of this disease with a view to its eventual eradication under appropriate conditions. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of different techniques (intermittent irrigation and destruction of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e swarms) in reducing \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e breeding habitats and larval production sites by more than 50% in an area characterized by a high prevalence of the main malaria vector (Bama).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndeed, rice production in managed lowlands is undergoing rapid intensification in Africa to ensure food security [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Across Africa, ministries of agriculture are undertaking substantial expansion of irrigated rice fields, driven by strong demand from growing populations and food security concerns. Rice paddies are preferred breeding sites for the mosquitoes that transmit malaria (\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l.) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] and the effects of rice intensification have and will continue to have specific implications for malaria elimination [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. This study was carried out in the rice-growing region of Bama, in the Kou valley, characterized by exceptionally high mosquito densities attributed to the presence of vast larval habitats. We have shown that the simultaneous application of technologies empirically validated for their effectiveness in reducing \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e populations in rice fields resulted in a considerable reduction of around 50% in mosquito breeding sites. These technologies include Intermittent Irrigation/Wetting and Alternate Drying of plots coupled with tillage and Destruction of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e swarms (mating site). The observed decreases in mean population densities during both activities were significant in both the larval stage and adults participating in mating activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study demonstrate that comparisons made between different cropping systems reveal that innovative methodologies lead to an overall reduction in larval populations. The implementation of minimum tillage combined with intermittent flooding (MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF) resulted in a reduction in mosquito larvae density for all species combined. Nevertheless, the statistical significance of these reductions was particularly evident during the rice maturation phase for all mosquito larvae\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mosquito larvae, significant differences between the different rates were observed during the tillering and maturation phases, respectively. These results are broadly consistent with, but differ somewhat from, those reported by Dj\u0026egrave;gb\u0026egrave; \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], who observed statistical significance at all stages of rice development (transplanting, tillering and maturation) during their studies. The differences in intensity of larvae reduction are due to variations in anopheline density: larvae breeding sites are generally numerous and productive, without forgetting to take into account the type of shallows and irrigation methods used (water supply in irrigated plots). Comparable results have been documented in Ethiopia, where the density of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes in rice fields under continuous irrigation was 3.6 times greater than that observed in plots using intermittent irrigation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. At the end of the experimental trials, the quantities of rice harvested showed no difference between the racks subjected to continuous irrigation and those receiving intermittent irrigation. These results confirm those of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, research carried out in the rice fields of Fanaye (Senegal) has indicated that alternating between watering and drying practices can facilitate a 20\u0026ndash;50% reduction in irrigation water volume without compromising rice production yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. The implementation of minimum tillage combined with intermittent flooding represents a viable strategy for managing malaria vector populations in rice cropping systems. This approach needs to be modular in design and adapted to the specific agricultural conditions encountered by local farmers. To fully assess the reduction in malaria incidence correlated with intermittent flooding, a larger-scale comparative analysis involving rice fields using both permanent and intermittent flooding methods in a region characterized by a high density of malaria vectors would be imperative [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, it is imperative to recognize that in addition to facilitating the proliferation of malaria vectors, agricultural practices (such as rice cultivation) also contribute significantly to the spread of insecticide resistance, representing a major challenge for malaria mitigation efforts. Numerous studies have revealed that exposure to sublethal concentrations of pesticide mixtures and pollutants, typically found in wastewater and agricultural lowlands, during the larval development phase can improve the resilience of these organisms to insecticides used in public health interventions [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR40 CR41 CR42\" citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, a plausible mechanistic correlation may exist between the specific composition of xenobiotic substances in mosquito breeding habitats and the emergence of insecticide resistance. This potential association has important implications for resistance management strategies and the overall effectiveness of vector control initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch into mosquito swarming and breeding behavior in Burkina Faso began in 2003, mainly on \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s., with the aim of elucidating the behavioral distinctions between \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e, which contribute to the reproductive barriers that exist between these two taxa [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45 CR46\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Research in Mali has also highlighted the spatial segregation of swarming sites between the M and S forms of \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. (or \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e, respectively) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, the aim of this research is not to examine the mating and swarming behaviour of wild populations of Anopheles mosquitoes; rather, we have referred to previous studies concerning the characterization and mapping of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e swarms (swarm identification) and conducted a comprehensive survey of mosquito breeding habitats. As a result, it has become possible to compile a comprehensive map of all \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. mosquito swarms in the study sites, and to quantify the number of swarms present at each research site for comparative analysis. These swarm indicators include visual features such as wells, toilet lids, exposed soil patches, wood piles (faggots) and other markers that encourage male mosquitoes to congregate prior to mating, as has already been documented in numerous studies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Subsequently, a significant eradication of all identified and mapped swarms was carried out, as indicated in the objectives of this survey.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReducing mosquito populations through targeted swarm interventions theoretically represents a unique opportunity to significantly mitigate the transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens, particularly in areas where residual malaria transmission continues to occur despite extensive coverage of existing intervention strategies. In our study, the application of interventions targeting the main malaria vectors resulted in a substantial reduction of over 85% in the mosquito population at the intervention village (VK2) compared with the control village (VK3). In addition, there was a marked drop in the incidence of female insemination, associated with a significant shift in the age distribution of the male population, in favour of a younger male population unable to mate. These results are consistent with those reported by Sawadogo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] who obtained similar results. However, it is equally crucial to recognise that the results presented by Sawadogo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] fall short of our own, as their survey was conducted during the rainy season, a period when anopheline population density reached a significant pic. In contrast, our research, conducted during the warm, dry season, yielded a higher reduction rate, attributed to the decrease in mosquito population density. They clearly suggest that strategic swarm targeting to reduce mosquito populations theoretically represents an extraordinary opportunity to significantly reduce the transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens, particularly in regions where residual malaria transmission continues despite significant coverage by existing intervention methodologies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, although the present study has demonstrated the efficacy of this approach against \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l., it is imperative that its efficacy be validated for other vector species. It should be noted that this methodology can be implemented for all major malaria vectors in Africa, as they exhibit swarming behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, it is important to recognise that male mosquitoes regularly use the same swarming sites for long periods of time, with these locations being used for swarming activities for several years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the close aggregation of targeted individuals within swarms facilitates the use of low-dose sprays to control vectors. Further research is needed to assess the cost-effectiveness of this intervention, while establishing a more precise characterization of the optimal spray pattern and frequency. For example, the population recovery period after a substantial swarm-induced reduction was not assessed in the present study. It would also be interesting to conduct this study in a variety of environments and with different vector species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe main objective of this research is to halve the mosquito population density in \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e breeding habitats (which include mating sites or swarms) and larval breeding sites in this rice-growing region, which is characterized by high densities of the main malaria vectors. As a result of these initiatives, a series of interventions were implemented to improve the effectiveness of malaria vector control in the designated area. This reduction has been achieved within the framework of intensive rice production systems, with the aim of eliminating areas and points of malaria transmission, involving collaboration between the agricultural and health sectors to improve malaria vector control, combined with the mass elimination of swarming males and a few partner-seeking females. The results of this research will be disseminated nationally through appropriate cost-effective channels, such as meetings with key stakeholders from the ministries of health, agriculture, and environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the national level, meetings and workshops will be organized with policy makers involved in malaria control to share the research findings and raise awareness of the need for collaborative activities among the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Environment for better management of malaria vectors. At the community level, these results are expected to provide additional information on the supplementary impact of complementary control strategies on reducing the prevalence and incidence of malaria. The affected communities will be informed about the research findings and the potential implications of these results. Furthermore, the research findings will be shared with other scientists and the vector control community through regular meetings and oral or written presentations at conferences and workshops.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLLINs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLong-lasting insecticidal nets\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIRS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor residual spraying\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVK\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVallée du Kou\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeep Ploughing\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCF\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous Flooding\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinimum Tillage\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIF\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntermittent Flooding\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to the IRSS-DRO and Centre MURAZ technical team for their assistance. We would also like to thank the workers of health district of Dand\u0026eacute;, local authorities and volunteers for their participation in the study. We sincerely thank the communities of the two villages (VK2 and VK3) for their support and collaboration during the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors have read and accepted this version of the manuscript. The authors also declare there are no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work is supported by funding from World Health Organization (WHO grant ID P21-00170) and Centre d\u0026rsquo;Excellence Africain en Innovations Biotechnologiques pour l\u0026rsquo;Elimination des Maladies \u0026agrave; Transmission Vectorielle of BURKINA FASO (Grant No. 2020-000178/MESRSI/SG/UNB/P).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData are fully available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMN and DDS designed the study. MN, MFA, DDS, and KWUK contributed to the implementation of the study. DDS, MFA, KLN, and KWUK performed the laboratory and field work. EK produced the maps. DDS and KWUK analyzed the data. MN, DDS, and KWUK interpreted the results and drafted the manuscript, which was critically reviewed by the co-authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEntomological surveys did not involve human or animal volunteers. However, we acquired informed consents in writing (or with a fingerprint if illiterate) from head of households to use their houses for mosquitoes collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO. World malaria report 2022. World Health Organization; 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO. World malaria report 2023. World Health Organization; 2023.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWHO. Rapport 2021 sur le paludisme dans le monde\u0026mdash;RESUME-Target Malaria. 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Differences in timing of mating swarms in sympatric populations of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. (formerly An. gambiae M and S molecular forms) in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Parasit Vectors. 2013;6:275.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDiabat\u0026eacute; A, Yaro AS, Dao A, Diallo M, Huestis DL, Lehmann T. Spatial distribution and male mating success of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e swarms. BMC Evol Biol. 2011;11:184.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCharlwood JD, Pinto J, Sousa CA, Ferreira C, Ros\u0026aacute;rio VED. Male size does not affect mating success (of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e in S\u0026atilde;o Tom\u0026eacute;). Med Vet Entomol. 2002;16:109\u0026ndash;11.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCharlwood J, Thompson R, Madsen H. Observations on the swarming and mating behaviour of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles funestus\u003c/em\u003e from southern Mozambique. Malar J. 2003;2:2.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAssogba BS, Djogb\u0026eacute;nou L, Saizonou J, Diabat\u0026eacute; A, Dabir\u0026eacute; RK, Moiroux N, et al. Characterization of swarming and mating behaviour between \u003cem\u003eAnopheles coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAnopheles melas\u003c/em\u003e in a sympatry area of Benin. Acta Trop. 2014;132:S53\u0026ndash;63.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"malaria-journal","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"malj","sideBox":"Learn more about [Malaria Journal](http://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"12936","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12936/3","title":"Malaria Journal","twitterHandle":"@malariajournal","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Vector control, Anopheles, Malaria, Irrigation, Agriculture","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7049523/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7049523/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater-saving techniques have the advantage of reducing the production of mosquito larvae, which could in turn reduce the density of adult mosquitoes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a new water-saving technique on reducing the number of \u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e breeding sites in an area with a high density of the main malaria vector.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in experimental rice plots measuring 5.5 x 3.0 m (16.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) from February 2024 to May 2024. Three treatment arms were implemented: \u003cb\u003ei\u003c/b\u003e) traditional system: Deep Ploughing\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Continuous Flooding (DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF), \u003cb\u003eii\u003c/b\u003e) innovative system (Minimal Tillage\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Intermittent Flooding (MT\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;IF). Adult control was achieved by monitoring and destroying mosquito swarms. The performance of these techniques had never been compared individually or in combination. By setting up these experiments in the field, we were able to understand how to integrate these methods to obtain good rice production, save water and reduce mosquito densities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study show that minimum tillage combined with intermittent flooding (transplanting\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.39, tillering\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.81 and maturation\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41) resulted in a significant reduction in mean mosquito larvae densities during the rice maturation phase compared with DP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CF (transplanting\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.13, tillering\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.08 and maturation\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.46) (\u003cem\u003eFisher's Exact Test: p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/em\u003e The average density of adults collected from houses in the intervention village fell from 3.89 mosquitoes per house in the pre-intervention phase to 1.16 mosquitoes per house in the post-intervention phase, compared with 6.62 and 6.63 in the control village. A substantial reduction of more than 85% in the mosquito population at the intervention site, Vall\u0026eacute;e du Kou 2 (VK2), compared to the control site (VK3) (\u003cem\u003eFisher's Exact Test: p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0031268\u003c/em\u003e). A reduction in insemination status and a shift towards younger males unable to mate was observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe implementation of a new approach to water saving techniques showed a substantial reduction in the mosquito population at the intervention site, which could have an effective impact on malaria transmission in the region.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Innovative Water Management for Vector Control: The Case of Rice Cultivation in Burkina Faso’s Vallée du Kou","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-14 10:24:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7049523/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-08-11T14:47:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-06T11:48:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-21T07:35:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"270638788465631470865396118647718551769","date":"2025-07-10T15:50:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"190749349596006002310414985175083917351","date":"2025-07-10T09:35:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"332026505979023795575640467064354863120","date":"2025-07-09T07:19:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"247667248138489999567711744767907627398","date":"2025-07-09T07:16:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"67657894783700158034404214289964464270","date":"2025-07-08T15:48:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-08T15:41:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-07T17:37:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-07T17:35:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Malaria Journal","date":"2025-07-04T21:22:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"malaria-journal","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"malj","sideBox":"Learn more about [Malaria Journal](http://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"12936","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12936/3","title":"Malaria Journal","twitterHandle":"@malariajournal","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dbb4ac71-c156-4829-bcb2-7b6d34f6d675","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 14th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-17T16:09:38+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7049523","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-025-05641-x","journal":{"identity":"malaria-journal","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Malaria Journal"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-12 15:58:39","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 12th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-14 10:24:02","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12936-025-05641-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-025-05641-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7049523","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7049523","identity":"rs-7049523","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}