Diversity, occurrence and status of sharks in the Gulf of Hammamet (Central Mediterranean Sea)

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It provides insights into shark diversity, abundance, seasonal occurrence and the impact of fisheries on their population based on inspection of fishery landings through 2020–2023. A total of 23 shark species belonging to 11 families were recorded, with over 74% classified as threatened according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Analyses found that shark occurrence varied across fishing gears, with trawlers being the most impactful in terms of species. Pelagic and bottom longlines also contributed significantly to bycatch. Gillnets and trammel nets, while less impactful, still caught several vulnerable species. Seasonal variation in shark occurrence was noted, with higher landing observed in winter and autumn. The analysis revealed a strong association between shark families and fishing gear types, emphasizing selective bycatch patterns. The findings underscore the need for targeted conservation measures to reduce bycatch and protect the most vulnerable shark species in the Gulf of Hammamet. Bycatch Biodiversity Shark Conservation Fishery interactions Gulf of Hammamet Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Elasmobranchs including sharks, rays, and skates, are one of the ancient vertebrate lineages that have endured through four mass extinction events. They comprise a diverse group with over 1260 documented species (Ebert et al. 2021). Sharks and rays, being the primary components, are endowed with a remarkable adaptability to various marine environments, from coastal areas to the open ocean (Hyde et al. 2022 ). Moreover, they intricately connect marine ecosystems and contribute significantly to the maintenance of commercial fish stocks essential for fishing communities' livelihoods (Wetherbee et al. 2004 ; Heupel et al. 2014 ). However, these animals are facing increasing pressure. Thus, reliable data on their biodiversity and conservation status are requisite for the advancement of conservation mesures (Simpfendorfer et al. 2011 ). The Mediterranean Sea is considered as a biodiversity hotspot for sharks (Bradai et al. 2012 , 2018 ; Enajjar et al. 2022 ; Serena et al. 2020 ) with 48 species, belonging to 18 families and 27 genera (Serena et al. 2022). It is, meanwhile, the area with the highest proportion of threatened species in the world due to unregulated fishing (Dulvy et al. 2016 ). Among these species, at least 35 sharks are recorded along Tunisian coasts (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). Unfortunately, 56% of shark species in the Mediterranean Sea are on the edge of extinction (Dulvy et al. 2016 ). Actually, they have been shown to have declined by more than 97% in number and “caught weight” over the past 200 years (Ferretti et al. 2008 ). Overfishing, illegal fishing and increasing sales of shark meat and fins are primarily responsible for the dramatic regressions both in terms of abundance and diversity of elasmobranchs species (Bradai et al. 2018 ; Carpentieri et al. 2021 ). Pollution, habitat degradation and climate change also have critical effects on their geographic distributions, life history variables and behaviours (Osgood et al. 2021 ). Sharks in Tunisia are subjected to an increasing pressure, mainly fisheries (Bradai et al. 2018 ; Enajjar et al. 2022 ). Sharks and rays are caught either as a target species during a specific campaign (Saidi et al. 2020 , Enajjar et al. 2015 , 2024 ) or, as bycatch of fisheries targeting other more valuable resources (Bradai et al. 2006 ; Saidi et al. 2016; Saidi et al. 2019; Enajjar et al. 2022 , 2024 ). The available information indicates that an urgent management and conservation actions are needed in the area (Saidi et al. 2019, 2023 ; Enajjar et al. 2022 , 2024 ). During the last twenty years, several studies have addressed biology, ecology and fisheries of sharks and ray along Tunisian coasts (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). Studies have focused mainly on the Gulf of Gabes (GSA 14) and the northern coasts of Tunisia (GSA 12), while the Gulf of Hammamet (GSA 13) appears as an understudied region for these animals (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). This area has however experienced a significant increase in elasmobranch landings between 2008 and 2020, contributing by more than 40% of the national elasmobranch production in 2020 (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). These statistics highlight the elasmobranch’s importance in the area and also the fishing pressure on the stocks of these vulnerable species. The lack of data hampers management and conservation efforts, emphasizing the urgent need to prioritize research and develop sustainable strategies for preserving elasmobranch’s populations in the Gulf of Hammamet. To develop a shark conservation strategy, it is essential to know which species inhabit the region and the impact of each fishing gears on such species (Margules and Pressey 2000 ). The present work suggests a monitoring program intended to fill gaps in knowledge related to sharks in the area (diversity, landings composition, fishery interactions, temporal and spatial distribution…) to provide the first data of shark diversity, occurrence and fisheries in the Gulf of Hammamet and contribute to conservation initiatives in the area. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area This study was conducted in Kelibia harbour located in the northeastern coasts of Tunisia on the peninsula of Cap Bon (036°084.055' N / 011° 11.054' E) (Fig. 1 ). This port occupies a strategic position since it is located at 70 km from Pantelleria (Italy), 140 km from Sicily and 260 km from Sardinia and Malta (Ben Messaoud 2008). The fleet reattached to this port operates in the Gulf of Hammamet covering the Geographical Sub-Area 13 (GSA 13) according to the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM 2009). The port of Kelibia shelters 205 boats including 136 small-scale vessels, 22 trawlers and 47 purse seines (DGPA 2022). The region is characterized by a narrow continental shelf and a seabed providing a transition area between the northern and the southern coasts of Tunisia (Azouz et al. 1975; Zaara et al. 1995). It is also, suspected to be influenced by the Atlantic current in the western Mediterranean (Poulain and Zambianchi 2007; Bel Hassen et al. 2009 ). 2.2. Data collection A monitoring campaign was carried out throughout June 2020 to October 2023. Data were collected randomly at landing for a rate of 4 visits per week. Upon each landing, fishing gear, number of sets, number of fishing days and species composition were recorded. Sharks’ captures were identified, enumerated, sexed and measured to the nearest mm. Species identifications were done to the lowest possible taxon according to Whitehead et al. 1986 ; Fischer et al. 1987 ; Serena 2005 ; UNEP/WFP ASP/RAC. 2018; Otero et al. 2019 . 2.3. Data analyses 2.2.1. Relative abundance The relative species abundance index (RA) is a component of biodiversity and RA is a measure of the abundance of a species relatively to others in an area. It is the percent composition of an organism of a particular kind relative to the total number of organisms in the area (Hubbell 2001 ). Relative abundance (RA) of shark species or families was expressed in percentage, using the following expression: RA= \(\:\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{d}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{d}\text{u}\text{a}\text{l}\text{s}\:\left(\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}\:\text{o}\text{r}\:\text{f}\text{a}\text{m}\text{i}\text{l}\text{y}\right)}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{d}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{d}\text{u}\text{a}\text{l}\text{s}}\:\text{*}100\) 2.2.2. Diversity indices In order to understand the impact of different fishing gears operating in the Gulf of Hammamet on sharks, diverse indices were considered. Species richness (S) Is simply a count of species, and it does not consider the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions. In this case study (S) is the number of shark species bycaught by a fishing gear. Shannon–Weiner index Makes it possible to quantify the heterogeneity of the biodiversity. It considers both the number of species and the distribution of individuals among species. This index was applied on different gears in order to quantify their impact on shark populations. It was calculated using the formula of Shannon and Weaver ( 1963 ) where ni is the number of individuals in species i and N is the total number of individuals in the community. $$\:H{\prime\:}=-\sum\:\left[\left(\frac{m}{N}\right)\times\:{ln}\left(\frac{ni}{N}\right)\right]$$ The Jaccard index An analysis of species richness using Jaccard’s similarity index “J” to determine the percentage of species shared between fishing gears. This index is used in statistics to compare the similarity and diversity between samples. J was estimated using the formula of Pielou ( 1969 ). $$\:J=\frac{H{\prime\:}}{{H}^{{\prime\:}}max}$$ where H' is the number derived from the Shannon diversity index and H' max is the maximum possible value of H' (if every species was equally likely). 2.4. Statistical analyses R and Python were used for statistical analyses (Chi-square and Mann-Whitney U tests), calculation of diversity and dissimilarity indices, and graphical visualization of results. Data were visualized via MS-Excel® and ARC map was used for mapping the study area. 3. Results 3.1. Shark diversity From June 2020 to October 2023, a total of 774 fishery landings in the port of kelibia were investigated. These landings included 205 trawlers, 232 pelagic longlines, 130 bottom longlines, 100 Purse seine, 74 Gillnets and 33 trammel nets. Examination of these landings allowed the observation of 18801 shark individuals originating from the Gulf of Hammamet. Investigations revealed the presence of 23 species of sharks belonging to 11 families (Table 2 ). According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list, more than 74% of shark species observed in The Gulf of Hammamet were threatened (Critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable). Four species were data deficient, not evaluated, or not applicable (Table 2 ). 54% of families observed were entirely composed of threatened species, notably the families of Alopidae, Centrophoridae, Dalatidae, Lamnidae, Oxynotidae and Squatinidae. Carcharhinidae and Triakidae were most diverse families, each with four species. However, the Scyliorhinidae family was represented by three species, while each of the families Dalatidae, Squatinidae, Oxynotidae and Centrophoridae, was represented by one species each (Table 2 ). The overall relative families’ abundance (F.R.A) showed that Scyliorhinidae was the most abundant family accounting for 54.88% followed by the Triakidae (22.98%) and Squalidae families (13.21%). However, Oxynotidae (0.01%) and Squatinidae (0.01%) were rarely observed among sharks’ families (Table 2 ). Regarding species abundance (S.R.A), the small-spotted catshark “ Scyliorhinus canicula ” (Linnaeus, 1758) emerged as the predominant species accounting for more than half of the sharks observed (53.15%). Subsequently, the common smooth-hound shark “ Mustelus mustelus ” (Linnaeus, 1758) an endangered species with a globally declining population, exhibited a remarkable presence in the Gulf of Hammamet with an abundance of 15.07%. Conversely, other vulnerable shark species such as, the Bigeye Thresher Shark “ Alopias superciliosus ” (Lowe, 1841), the starry smooth-hound shark “ Mustelus asterias” (Cloquet, 1819), the Silky Shark “ Carcharhinus falciformus ” (Müller & Henle, 1839), the sawback angel shark “ Squatina aculeata ” (Cuvier, 1829) and the angular rough shark “ Oxynotus centrina ” (Linnaeus, 1758), were encountered with only a few individuals. These rare sharks collectively constituted less than 0.1% of the total shark catch, highlighting their precarious status within the area (Table 2 ). Twelve of the 23 shark species, including Scyliorhinus canicula , Mustelus mustelus , Squalus megalops (Macleay, 1881), and Heptranchias perlo (Bonnaterre, 1788), were present throughout the year with some variation. Other species, such as Carcharhinus brevipinna (Müller & Henle, 1839), Galeus melastomus (Rafinesque, 1810), Mustelus asterias , Oxynotus centrina , and Squatina aculeata , were landed during two specific seasons of the year. Meanwhile, the Bigeye Thresher shark and the silky shark were landed exclusively during the summer season (Fig. 2 ). The chi-square test revealed that shark abundance varies significantly across seasons (p-value < 0.05). The post-hoc Mann-Whitney U tests indicated that the most significant variation occurs between summer and winter (p-value = 0.038). 3.2. Evaluating bycatch impacts by fishing gears 3.2.1. Catch composition Investigation showed that six different fishing gears operating in the Gulf of Hammamet landed shark species as bycatch. The analysis of diversity indices for sharks across fishing gears off the Gulf of Hammamet highlighted significant variations in their impact on such species (Table 1 ). Trawlers emerged as the most impactful gear in term of species captured (S = 19) with a Shannon-Wiener Index of H = 1.33. Among bycaught species, 8 are classified as Vulnerable (VU) and 2 as Critically Endangered (CR) according to the IUCN Red list. Bottom and pelagic longlines also contribute notably to shark bycatch, with 17 and 10 species, respectively. Pelagic longlines captured 4 Vulnerable and 2 Critically Endangered species, while bottom longlines reported the highest number of Vulnerable species (5). Both gears demonstrate a relatively high Shannon-Wiener Index, reflecting their efficiency in capturing a wide variety of shark species (Table 1 ). Gillnets primarily captured species classified as Least Concern (LC) but also contributed to the bycatch of 4 Vulnerable and 4 Data Deficient (DD) species (Table 1 ). In contrast, trammel nets and purse seines have the lowest species richness, capturing 5 and 4 species, respectively. Trammel nets included 1 Critically Endangered species, whereas purse seines primarily captured species with a lower conservation concern (LC and NT). The Shannon-Wiener Index values for trammel nets (H = 1.09) and purse seines (H = 0.67) suggest that their catches were dominated by one or a few shark species (Table 1 ). Table 1 Diversity indices of Sharks across different fishing gears operating in the Gulf of Hammamet Fishing Gears Families’ Number Sharks Species Number Species Richness (S) Shannon Weiner Index (H) Trawlers 10 19 19 1.33 Bottom Longline 8 17 17 2.09 Gillnets 8 14 14 1.58 Pelagic Longline 6 10 10 1.87 Trammel Nets 4 5 5 1.09 Purse seine 2 2 2 0.67 3.2.2. Occurrence The Gulf of Hammamet exhibits a significant diversity in shark families, each interacting differently with various fishing gears (Fig. 3 ). At least 11 shark families were recorded, with Scyliorhinidae, Triakidae, and Squalidae being the most prevalent. Notably, landings varied considerably depending on the fishing gear used (Fig. 3 ). The Alopidae family, represented by the common thresher shark Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788) and the bigeye thresher shark Alopias superciliosus , showed a specific interaction with purse seines, trawlers, and pelagic longlines (Fig. 3 ). The bigeye thresher shark was exclusively landed by trawlers. In contrast, individuals of A. vulpinus were recorded in purse seine catches and in pelagic longline catches (Table 2 ) (Fig. 3 ). The Carcharhinidae family was primarily landed by bottom (69.02%) and pelagic (29.75%) longlines, while trawlers and gillnets contributed to a minor catch (Fig. 3 ). Specifically, 90.98% of the sandbar shark Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo, 1827) and 66.67% of the spinner shark were landed by bottom longlines (Table 2 ). Conversely, the blue shark Prionace glauca (Linnaeus, 1758) was predominantly caught by pelagic longlines (92.21%), indicating a preference for open-water habitats (Table 2 ). The Centrophoridae family represented by the little gulper shark Centrophorus uyato (Rafinesque, 1810), was primarily landed by bottom longlines (82.95%). Trawlers and gillnets contributed to 15.01% and 2.04% of the total catch of this species, respectively (Fig. 3 ). The Dalatidae family, represented by the kitefin shark Dalatias licha (Bonnaterre, 1788), was mostly captured by trawlers (97.22%), with minimal occurrences in bottom longlines (2.78%) (Fig. 3 ). The Hexanchidae family, represented by the bluntnose sixgill shark Hexanchus griseus (Bonnaterre, 1788) and the sharpnose sevengill shark H. perlo , was primarily landed by trawlers (46.45%) and bottom longlines (43.52%) (Fig. 3 ). More specifically, 58.87% of H. griseus was landed by bottom longlines, whereas 62.73% of H. perlo was caught by trawlers (Table 2 ). Table 2 Checklist of shark species, including IUCN Status, recorded from Kelibia Harbour between 2020_2023 Family Sharks Species IUCN Status Number S.R.A F.R.A Trawlers Bottom longline Gillnets Pelagic longline Trammel nets Purse seine Alopidae Alopias superciliosus * DD 1 0.01 0.03 1 0 0 0 0 0 Alopias vulpinus ** VU 4 0.02 1 0 0 1 0 2 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus brevipinna NT 15 0.08 1.73 0 10 0 5 0 0 Carcharhinus falciformus LC 1 0.01 1 0 0 0 0 0 Carcharhinus plumbeus ** EN 233 1.24 0 212 0 21 0 0 Prionace glauca ** CR 77 0.41 2 3 1 71 0 0 Centrophoridae Centrophorus cf uyato ** VU 786 4.18 4.18 118 652 16 0 0 0 Dalatiidae Dalatias licha VU 36 0.19 0.19 35 1 0 0 0 0 Hexanchidae Heptranchias perlo ** DD 161 0.86 2.18 101 32 28 0 0 0 Hexanchus griseus ** LC 248 1.32 89 146 3 10 0 0 Lamnidae Carcharodon carcharias * CR 11 0.06 0.6 1 9 1 0 0 0 Isurus oxyrinchus * CR 102 0.54 0 3 12 83 1 3 Oxynotidae Oxynotus centrina * VU 2 0.01 0.01 2 0 0 0 0 0 Scyliorhinidae Galeus melastomus LC 100 0.53 54.88 95 5 0 0 0 0 Scyliorhinus canicula LC 9993 53.15 8996 138 819 0 40 0 Scyliorhinus stellaris NT 225 1.20 197 5 22 0 1 0 Squalidae Squalus blainvellei DD 951 5.06 13.21 678 103 158 0 12 0 Squalus megalops DD 1532 8.15 1106 111 295 20 0 0 Squatinidae Squatina aculeata * CR 2 0.01 0.01 0 0 2 0 0 0 Triakidae Galeorhinus galeus * VU 257 1.37 22.98 108 87 11 51 0 0 Mustelus asterias ** VU 2 0.01 2 0 0 0 0 0 Mustelus mustelus ** VU 2833 15.07 1993 131 686 5 18 0 Mustelus punctulatus ** VU 1229 6.54 878 182 140 29 0 0 Total 18801 100 100 14404 1830 2194 296 72 5 * Species listed in the annex II of the SPA/BD Protocol to the Barcelona Convention. ** Species listed in the annex III of the SPA/BD Protocol to the Barcelona Convention. The Lamnidae family, including the shortfin mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus (Rafinesque, 1810) and the white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758), showed a strong association with pelagic longlines (73.45%), whereas gillnets and bottom longlines accounted for 11.50% and 10.62% of landings, respectively (Fig. 3 ). More specifically, pelagic longlines accounted for 81.34% of I. oxyrinchus landings, while gillnets represented 11.88%. Purse seines and bottom longlines each contributed 2.94% of the total mako shark catch. In contrast, the white shark C. carcharias was primarily landed by bottom longlines (81.81%), whereas gillnets and trawlers contributed equally, each accounting for 9% of the total landings of this species (Table 2 ). The Oxynotidae family, represented by the angular rough shark O. centrina , was exclusively landed by trawlers (Fig. 3 ). The Scyliorhinidae family, primarily represented by the small-spotted catshark S. canicula , was principally captured by trawlers (90.02%), followed by gillnets (8.15%) and bottom longlines (1.43%). More specifically, 95% of Galeus melastomus , 90% of S. canicula , and 87.5% of the nurse-hound Scyliorhinus stellaris (Linnaeus, 1758) were landed by trawlers, making them the predominant species among the fourteen-shark species recorded with this fishing gear (Table 2 ). The sawback angelshark S. aculeata belonging to the Squatinidae family, was exclusively landed by gillnets (Fig. 3 ). The Squalidae family, represented by the shortnose spurdog S. megalops and the longnose spurdog Squalus blainvillei (Risso, 1826), exhibited notable landings by trawlers (71.85%), gillnets (18.24%), and bottom longlines (8.62%). Specifically, 72.19% of S. megalops and 71.29% of S. blainvillei were landed by trawlers, while 19.25% and 16.61%, respectively, were caught by gillnets (Table 2 ). In contrast, bottom longlines contributed to only 7.24% of S. megalops and 10.83% of S. blainvillei landings. Similarly, the Triakidae family, including M. mustelus and the Blackspotted smooth-hound shark Mustelus punctulatus (Risso, 1827), was also predominantly landed by trawlers (68.99%), followed by gillnets (19.37%) and bottom longlines (9.26%) (Fig. 3 ). While trammel nets (0.42%) and pelagic longlines (1.97%) contributed minimally to smooth-hound landing. Notably, the starry smooth-hound M. asterias was exclusively landed by trawlers (100%) (Table 2 ). Additionally, 71.4% of M. punctulatus , 70.35% of M. mustelus , and 42% of the school shark Galeorhinus galeus (Linnaeus, 1758) were also landed by this gear (Table 2 ). The Chi-Square test of independence revealed a highly significant relationship between shark families and fishing gear types (p < 1.60e -160 ), indicating that the shark families’ landing is influenced by the type of fishing gear employed. The post-hoc analysis highlighted several significant patterns. Carcharhinidae showed a notably stronger association with Pelagic longlines (standardized residual = 9.20), indicating an overrepresentation of this family with this gear type. Conversely, Alopidae exhibited a significantly weaker association with Trawlers (standardized residual = -2.59), suggesting an underrepresentation of this family with this gear type. In contrast, the standardized residuals for Oxynotidae across all fishing gears were close to zero, indicating no significant deviation from the expected distribution. These findings, derived from the post-hoc analysis, elucidate the specific gear-family pairings that contribute to the significant dependence observed in the Chi-Square test, providing insights into the differential impacts of various fishing practices on shark populations. The seasonal landings of shark species across fishing gears indicate that the highest number of species was observed during the summer season (Fig. 4 ). Notably, these species were landed mainly by trawlers, bottom longlines, and gillnets. The number of species observed during winter and autumn was similar. However, species landed in autumn were primarily captured by trawlers, bottom longlines, and pelagic longlines, whereas those landed during winter were mainly caught by trawlers and gillnets (Fig. 4 ). Furthermore, the lowest number of species was observed during spring compared to the other seasons, where trawlers, gillnets, and bottom longline remaining the main gears involved (Fig. 4 ). 3.2.3. Catch Similarity The similarities between the catches of sharks in the different fishing gears, expressed through the Jaccard index, are illustrated in Fig. 5 . Trawlers showed a moderate similarity with bottom longlines and gillnets, which suggests a certain overlap in the species caught. The slight similarity of trawlers with purse seiners indicates that these two techniques exploit different habitats ecological niches. Pelagic longline had a higher similarity with bottom longline than with other gears, which reflects a certain continuity in the species targeted or the habitats exploited. However, trammel nets, shared limited similarities with other gears, which could reflect a specialization or a targeting of different species (Fig. 5 ). 4. Discussion This research investigates the biodiversity and status of sharks in the GSA 13 subarea within central Mediterranean Sea. It provides crucial insights into shark populations and sheds light on their diversity and relative abundance, within this ecologically important region. Furthermore, the study elucidates the impact of fishing gears operating in the area on shark species. Investigations showed that shark within the GSA 13 subarea, demonstrate a significant biodiversity, encompassing a total of twenty-three species belonging to eleven families. The ecological importance of the Gulf of Hammamet is underscored by the fact that these species account for 47.92% of the total shark species recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena et al. 2020 ) and 62.16% of those identified in Tunisian waters (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). Several sub-geographical areas off the Mediterranean, exhibit a higher shark species diversity compared to the study area. For instance, the investigations within Italian waters (eg. GSA09, GSA11_1, GSA10 and GSA16) confirmed the occurrence of 40 shark species (Serena et al. 2021). While observations in Greece (eg. GSA20) in Cypris (GSA23) report 34 species (Giovos et al. 2022 ). Besides, the Adriatic Sea (GSA17 and GSA18) hosts 33 species (Soldo and Lipej 2022 ) and 28 species were recorded in the Gulf of Gabes (GSA14) within Tunisian waters (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). In contrast, other regions demonstrate similar or lower diversity: 23 species have been documented along the Syrian coasts (GSA27) Saad and Alkusairy (2023), 17 shark species occur in GSA25 (Alkusairy and Saad, 2018 ; O’Keefe et al. 2023 ), 16 species are identified in Turkish waters (GSA24; Kabasakal and Bilecenoğlu 2020 ), 15 species are recorded along the Algerian coasts (GSA04; Inal et al. 2022 ), and only 13 species have been noted along the Libyan coasts (GSA21) (Shakman et al. 2023 ). These inter-regional differences in species richness may be attributed to various environmental factors, species-specific ecological behaviours, and the selectivity of the fishing gears employed in each area. Indeed, the fishing effort, the diverse mix of fishing gears used in the Gulf of Hammamet, including both pelagic and bottom gears, which have been employed over the years, has significantly contributed to the observation of remarkable shark diversity in this region. Several species previously documented in the area such as Odontaspis ferox (Ben Amor et al. 2020 ), Cetorhinus maximus, Sphyrna zygaena, Carcharias taurus, Etmopterus spinax, Squatina oculata , and Squatina squatina (Enajjar et al. 2019 , 2022 ) were not recorded during our investigation. T-appearance of these species while the fishing effort in the area may be attributed to several factors, including the rarity (or potential local extinction) of some species, the fact that the fishing ground used by fishing gears differed from habitats of these species. Furthermore, species-specific biological behaviours, the intensity of fishing activities, and the unique characteristics of each fishing zone likely contribute to these observed differences. The Scyliorhinidae, Triakidae and Squalidae families were the most abundant among sharks’ families landed in the Gulf of Hammamet. These results are comparable with those observed in the Gulf of Gabes, where Triakidae and Carcharhinidae are commonly landed throughout the year as bycatch by trammel nets, gillnets, bottom trawls, and longline (Enajjar et al. 2015 ). The most abundant species were the small-spotted catshark “ Scyliorhinus canicula ”, the common smooth-hound “ Mustelus mustelus ”, S qualus megalops and Mustelus punctulatus very common species in Tunisian coasts and caught frequently along the year (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). However, rare species such as the Bigeye Thresher Shark “ Alopias superciliosus” , recently added to the Tunisian shark species list (Bouzidi et al. 2023 ), the Sawback Angel Shark “ Squatina aculeata ”, previously reported in the Gulf of Gabes (Bradai et al. 2002 ), and the silky shark “ Carcharhinus falciformis ” (Bradai et al. 2002 , 2004 ). The presence of theses rare species emphasizes the Gulf of Hammamet's ecological significance and the precarious status of some shark populations. Several shark species were present throughout the year with some variation and others were landed during two or one specific seasons. This observation aligns with studies which have shown migrations of elasmobranch species towards northern areas, including restricted areas such as the Tunis Southern Lagoon (Mejri et al. 2004 ). These migrations and breeding behaviours are largely influenced by hydrobiological variations, particularly temperature, as marine waters throughout the Mediterranean Sea are becoming warmer (Francour et al. 1994 ; Ben Rais Lasram and Mouillot 2009 ). Due to the indiscriminate nature of most gear types, sharks are frequently caught incidentally (Oliver et al. 2015 ). In fact, elasmobranchs are not targeted directly, they are commonly captured as by-catch (Bradai et al. 2018 ). Where Small-scale fisheries represent an important part, often a major part, of the fishing activity of many countries (Shester and Micheli 2011 ). Along the Tunisian coasts, elasmobranchs are primarily landed by small-scale vessels using gillnets, trammel nets, and longlines, followed by bottom trawls (Enajjar et al. 2022 ). The impact of different fishing gears on elasmobranch biodiversity in the Gulf of Hammamet exhibits significant variations. Most elasmobranch species caught by small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean are demersal species (Carpentieri et al. 2021 ). Findings indicated that coastal and demersal fishing gears like trawlers, bottom longlines, Gillnets and trammel nets land exclusively demersal species such as, the catsharks Scyliorhinus canicula , Mustelus spp ., the sandbar shark Carcharhinus plumbeus and the bluntnose sixgill shark Hexanchus griseus . These results align with findings from other studies, where shark species are frequently affected by demersal fishing gears (Hamdaoui 2010 ; Echwikhi et al. 2013 ; Enajjar et al. 2022 ; Falsone et al. 2024 ; Keznine et al. 2024 ). The substantial impact of demersal fishing gears underscores the urgent need for conservation measures; notably hook modifications, spatial and temporal restrictions to mitigate their effects on vulnerable shark populations. Pelagic fishing gears such as purse seines and pelagic longlines, primarily targeting tuna and swordfish, also result in incidental shark captures and contribute to the bycatch of highly migratory species (Dulvy et al. 2021 ). The Shannon-Wiener Index values across all fishing gears remained below 3, with an average of 1, suggesting habitat degradation and ecological stress. The lowest values, observed for purse seines and trammel nets, indicated reduced species diversity and potential overexploitation. Studies in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea, show a diversity indices ranging from 2.31 in the southern regions to lower values in the northern sectors (Lteif 2015 ). Similarly, in the South Atlantic (Ghana), dominant species exhibited low biodiversity, with an average H value of 0.9 (Amponsah et al. 2023 ). The consistently low H values in our study suggest that the structure of shark populations is under pressure, likely due to increased fishing effort and associated habitat degradation. These results reinforce the need for stringent fisheries management policies to prevent further biodiversity loss and ensure the long-term sustainability of shark populations in the Gulf of Hammamet and beyond. The significant association between gear types and shark families, as evidenced by the Chi-Square test, highlights distinct gear-family interactions, with a strong correlation between Carcharhinidae and pelagic longlines and the underrepresentation of Alopidae in trawl catches. These findings emphasize the necessity of an integrated fishery management approach that accounts for the synergistic impact of multiple fishing methods. Seasonal patterns in the relative abundance of elasmobranchs are generally related to reproduction, migration and foraging (May 2009; Naylor et al. 2012 ). The seasonal distribution of shark landings in the study area, provides valuable insights into the relationship between shark movement patterns and fishing gear efficiency across different seasons. The summer emerged as the season with highest number of species observed while the number of species observed during winter and autumn was similar. The highest number of species during summer could be due to the fact that most species approach the coasts for reproduction which make them susceptible to most fishing gears. Furthermore, the seasonal patterns may be influenced by the fishing ground exploited. For example, deep-water species are exploited by fishermen during autumn and winter as sharks do not need to move into shallower waters for forage (Rodríguez-Cabello and Sánchez 2017). The observed seasonal variation in gear efficiency aligns with the findings of King and Surry ( 2017 ), who’s noted that sharks adjust their depth preferences based on local foraging opportunities, with shallower waters being more prominent in warmer months. The results support the idea of size segregation and habitat specialization in sharks, as different species may occupy specific depth zones, minimizing direct competition for food resources or habitats (King and Surry 2017 ). The seasonal distribution of shark catches and the associated fishing gear demonstrate a clear relationship between shark behaviour, prey availability, and fishing methods. The similarities between the catches of sharks in the different fishing gears highlights complex interactions between fishing practices and marine ecosystems. Gears with a high similarity (bottom longlines and pelagic longlines) could exert cumulative pressure on the same populations of species, increasing the risks of overfishing. Low overlap gear (purse seiners and trawlers) indicates an ecological segregation in their fishing ground or target species, which could reduce their direct competition for resources. The diversity in catches observed for certain gears; could reflect their adaptability in different habitats, but it could also increase the risk of interaction with vulnerable or protected species. Fixed gillnets and trammel nets tend to catch many sharks (Coelho et al. 2005 ; Scacco et al. 2012 ). According to the IUCN Red List, over 74% of the shark species identified in this study are threatened, falling into categories of Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable. Among the 11 shark families identified, 54% are with all species threatened such as, Alopidae, Centrophoridae, Dalatidae, Lamnidae, Oxynotidae and Squatinidae families (Dulvy et al. 2016 ). Bycatch mitigation measures, including time-area closures, gear modifications, and species-specific regulations, should be prioritized to reduce the bycatch of Vulnerable and Critically Endangered species. 5. Conclusion Over 74% of the shark species landed by fishing gears in the Gulf of Hammamet are classified as threatened, falling into the Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable categories. Notably, in 54% of the families identified, every species is considered threatened; these include the families Alopidae, Centrophoridae, Dalatidae, Lamnidae, Oxynotidae, and Squatinidae. This study highlights the critical importance of the Gulf of Hammamet as a habitat for diverse shark species and elucidates the complex interactions between these species and the various fishing gears operating in the region. By providing a comprehensive shot of local shark biodiversity, the research updates previous knowledge and fills significant gaps regarding their presence in the Mediterranean basin, particularly along Tunisian coasts. Moreover, the study examines how fishing practices impact these vulnerable species, in order to develop a standardized monitoring protocol of conservation. Key management strategies include establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in critical zones, strengthening fishing regulations, implementing area closures as biological refuges, and promoting sustainable fishing practices. In addition, long-term monitoring, further research, community engagement, and adaptation to climate change are essential. Also, adaptive management approaches must be integrated to address emerging threats and mitigate anthropogenic impacts, with findings incorporated into marine spatial planning for future coastal and offshore developments, including the implementation of spatial and temporal restrictions to protect sharks during their critical life stages. Declarations Competing Interests and Funding No funding has been received to conduct this study. Conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Ethics approval No animal testing was performed during this study. Sampling and field studies All necessary permits for sampling and observational field studies have been obtained by the authors from the competent authorities and are mentioned in the acknowledgements, if applicable. The study is compliant with CBD and Nagoya protocols. Author contribution All authors contributed to the study realization. Bechir SAIDI , Samira ENAJJAR and Mohamed Nejemeddine BRADAI set up the research protocol, and followed its realization. Ichrak BOUZIDI conducted the fieldwork, carried out data collection and analyses, and wrote the first version of the paper and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements We thank the fishermen from Kelibia harbour (Tunisia) on finding and providing information about the specimens exanimated. The kind and hard assistance during the surveys of the staff of the Ports and Fishing Facilities Agency (APIP) And the Fishing Guards of the regional delegation for agricultural development in Nabeul, (Maritime Fishing Departments in Kelibia) is highly appreciated. The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions that greatly improved the final version of this paper. 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I–III: 1473 pp Zaara C (1995) Etude de la stabilité du littoral du Golfe de Hammamet, impact de la dynamique sédimentaire sur la morphologie côtière. Dissertation, university of tunis elmanar Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 20 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Marine Biodiversity → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revisions Needed 02 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 02 Apr, 2025 Editor invited by journal 28 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 26 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 24 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies: Institut National des Sciences et Technologies de la Mer","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samira","middleName":"","lastName":"ENAJJAR","suffix":""},{"id":437296376,"identity":"5ff12c4b-d589-4f1b-a026-1f44e133631e","order_by":2,"name":"Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies: Institut National des Sciences et Technologies de la Mer","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohamed","middleName":"Nejmeddine","lastName":"Bradai","suffix":""},{"id":437296377,"identity":"aa424015-850d-4db2-a72c-c242effef845","order_by":3,"name":"Bechir SAIDI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universite de Kairouan","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bechir","middleName":"","lastName":"SAIDI","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-25 04:47:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6300047/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6300047/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-025-01584-3","type":"published","date":"2025-10-20T16:17:15+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":81174308,"identity":"93d0a625-efee-4e03-ac11-a33f09e9ef4d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 06:03:03","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134231,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of the study area with main ports\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6300047/v1/25f41a2c4e46fb756a8f4b60.png"},{"id":81175496,"identity":"389ace17-443f-4b93-9ec3-9c89e106bc0d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 06:11:03","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":266173,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeasonal occurrence of Sharks Species landed in Kelibia harbour between 2020 and 2023\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6300047/v1/826eaccabf3b521d9deb6ea4.png"},{"id":81174312,"identity":"c70dd286-40da-405f-b0c1-3007d1a18b13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 06:03:03","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":64168,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHeatmap illustrates the distribution of shark families across various fishing gears\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6300047/v1/f32ddb181d41b5844e032893.png"},{"id":81174313,"identity":"984e399a-0db6-4367-8728-2429bd04ae56","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 06:03:03","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38080,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeasonal distribution of sharks’ species across various fishing gears\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6300047/v1/5d359d463e115456edd4aecc.png"},{"id":81175498,"identity":"6c1b7e99-de49-4df2-9bb8-f795bce7f8b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 06:11:03","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47168,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCollision matrix of Jaccard similarity index of Sharks between fishing gears\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6300047/v1/b5e72a527e054ce815c93601.png"},{"id":94490555,"identity":"8fb87349-3063-48a7-93c3-e6a8974f8965","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 17:12:00","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1538919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6300047/v1/f7b0f6d6-c7aa-4509-bcd3-be20680f3291.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Diversity, occurrence and status of sharks in the Gulf of Hammamet (Central Mediterranean Sea)","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eElasmobranchs including sharks, rays, and skates, are one of the ancient vertebrate lineages that have endured through four mass extinction events. They comprise a diverse group with over 1260 documented species (Ebert et al. 2021). Sharks and rays, being the primary components, are endowed with a remarkable adaptability to various marine environments, from coastal areas to the open ocean (Hyde et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, they intricately connect marine ecosystems and contribute significantly to the maintenance of commercial fish stocks essential for fishing communities' livelihoods (Wetherbee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Heupel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, these animals are facing increasing pressure. Thus, reliable data on their biodiversity and conservation status are requisite for the advancement of conservation mesures (Simpfendorfer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Mediterranean Sea is considered as a biodiversity hotspot for sharks (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Serena et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) with 48 species, belonging to 18 families and 27 genera (Serena et al. 2022). It is, meanwhile, the area with the highest proportion of threatened species in the world due to unregulated fishing (Dulvy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Among these species, at least 35 sharks are recorded along Tunisian coasts (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, 56% of shark species in the Mediterranean Sea are on the edge of extinction (Dulvy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Actually, they have been shown to have declined by more than 97% in number and \u0026ldquo;caught weight\u0026rdquo; over the past 200 years (Ferretti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Overfishing, illegal fishing and increasing sales of shark meat and fins are primarily responsible for the dramatic regressions both in terms of abundance and diversity of elasmobranchs species (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Carpentieri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Pollution, habitat degradation and climate change also have critical effects on their geographic distributions, life history variables and behaviours (Osgood et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Sharks in Tunisia are subjected to an increasing pressure, mainly fisheries (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Sharks and rays are caught either as a target species during a specific campaign (Saidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) or, as bycatch of fisheries targeting other more valuable resources (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Saidi et al. 2016; Saidi et al. 2019; Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The available information indicates that an urgent management and conservation actions are needed in the area (Saidi et al. 2019, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the last twenty years, several studies have addressed biology, ecology and fisheries of sharks and ray along Tunisian coasts (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have focused mainly on the Gulf of Gabes (GSA 14) and the northern coasts of Tunisia (GSA 12), while the Gulf of Hammamet (GSA 13) appears as an understudied region for these animals (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This area has however experienced a significant increase in elasmobranch landings between 2008 and 2020, contributing by more than 40% of the national elasmobranch production in 2020 (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These statistics highlight the elasmobranch\u0026rsquo;s importance in the area and also the fishing pressure on the stocks of these vulnerable species. The lack of data hampers management and conservation efforts, emphasizing the urgent need to prioritize research and develop sustainable strategies for preserving elasmobranch\u0026rsquo;s populations in the Gulf of Hammamet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo develop a shark conservation strategy, it is essential to know which species inhabit the region and the impact of each fishing gears on such species (Margules and Pressey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present work suggests a monitoring program intended to fill gaps in knowledge related to sharks in the area (diversity, landings composition, fishery interactions, temporal and spatial distribution\u0026hellip;) to provide the first data of shark diversity, occurrence and fisheries in the Gulf of Hammamet and contribute to conservation initiatives in the area.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Kelibia harbour located in the northeastern coasts of Tunisia on the peninsula of Cap Bon (036\u0026deg;084.055' N / 011\u0026deg; 11.054' E) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This port occupies a strategic position since it is located at 70 km from Pantelleria (Italy), 140 km from Sicily and 260 km from Sardinia and Malta (Ben Messaoud 2008). The fleet reattached to this port operates in the Gulf of Hammamet covering the Geographical Sub-Area 13 (GSA 13) according to the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM 2009). The port of Kelibia shelters 205 boats including 136 small-scale vessels, 22 trawlers and 47 purse seines (DGPA 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe region is characterized by a narrow continental shelf and a seabed providing a transition area between the northern and the southern coasts of Tunisia (Azouz et al. 1975; Zaara et al. 1995). It is also, suspected to be influenced by the Atlantic current in the western Mediterranean (Poulain and Zambianchi 2007; Bel Hassen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA monitoring campaign was carried out throughout June 2020 to October 2023. Data were collected randomly at landing for a rate of 4 visits per week.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpon each landing, fishing gear, number of sets, number of fishing days and species composition were recorded. Sharks\u0026rsquo; captures were identified, enumerated, sexed and measured to the nearest mm. Species identifications were done to the lowest possible taxon according to Whitehead et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Fischer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Serena \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; UNEP/WFP ASP/RAC. 2018; Otero et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Relative abundance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relative species abundance index (RA) is a component of biodiversity and RA is a measure of the abundance of a species relatively to others in an area. It is the percent composition of an organism of a particular kind relative to the total number of organisms in the area (Hubbell \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative abundance (RA) of shark species or families was expressed in percentage, using the following expression:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRA= \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{s}\\:\\left(\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:\\text{o}\\text{r}\\:\\text{f}\\text{a}\\text{m}\\text{i}\\text{l}\\text{y}\\right)}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{s}}\\:\\text{*}100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Diversity indices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to understand the impact of different fishing gears operating in the Gulf of Hammamet on sharks, diverse indices were considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies richness (S)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIs simply a count of species, and it does not consider the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions. In this case study (S) is the number of shark species bycaught by a fishing gear.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon\u0026ndash;Weiner index\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakes it possible to quantify the heterogeneity of the biodiversity. It considers both the number of species and the distribution of individuals among species. This index was applied on different gears in order to quantify their impact on shark populations. It was calculated using the formula of Shannon and Weaver (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1963\u003c/span\u003e) where ni is the number of individuals in species i and N is the total number of individuals in the community.\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:H{\\prime\\:}=-\\sum\\:\\left[\\left(\\frac{m}{N}\\right)\\times\\:{ln}\\left(\\frac{ni}{N}\\right)\\right]$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Jaccard index\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn analysis of species richness using Jaccard\u0026rsquo;s similarity index \u0026ldquo;J\u0026rdquo; to determine the percentage of species shared between fishing gears. This index is used in statistics to compare the similarity and diversity between samples. J was estimated using the formula of Pielou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1969\u003c/span\u003e).\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:J=\\frac{H{\\prime\\:}}{{H}^{{\\prime\\:}}max}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere H' is the number derived from the Shannon diversity index and H' max is the maximum possible value of H' (if every species was equally likely).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eR and Python were used for statistical analyses (Chi-square and Mann-Whitney U tests), calculation of diversity and dissimilarity indices, and graphical visualization of results. Data were visualized via MS-Excel\u0026reg; and ARC map was used for mapping the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Shark diversity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom June 2020 to October 2023, a total of 774 fishery landings in the port of kelibia were investigated. These landings included 205 trawlers, 232 pelagic longlines, 130 bottom longlines, 100 Purse seine, 74 Gillnets and 33 trammel nets. Examination of these landings allowed the observation of 18801 shark individuals originating from the Gulf of Hammamet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigations revealed the presence of 23 species of sharks belonging to 11 families (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list, more than 74% of shark species observed in The Gulf of Hammamet were threatened (Critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable). Four species were data deficient, not evaluated, or not applicable (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). 54% of families observed were entirely composed of threatened species, notably the families of Alopidae, Centrophoridae, Dalatidae, Lamnidae, Oxynotidae and Squatinidae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarcharhinidae and Triakidae were most diverse families, each with four species. However, the Scyliorhinidae family was represented by three species, while each of the families Dalatidae, Squatinidae, Oxynotidae and Centrophoridae, was represented by one species each (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall relative families\u0026rsquo; abundance (F.R.A) showed that Scyliorhinidae was the most abundant family accounting for 54.88% followed by the Triakidae (22.98%) and Squalidae families (13.21%). However, Oxynotidae (0.01%) and Squatinidae (0.01%) were rarely observed among sharks\u0026rsquo; families (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding species abundance (S.R.A), the small-spotted catshark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eScyliorhinus canicula\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (Linnaeus, 1758) emerged as the predominant species accounting for more than half of the sharks observed (53.15%). Subsequently, the common smooth-hound shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eMustelus mustelus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (Linnaeus, 1758) an endangered species with a globally declining population, exhibited a remarkable presence in the Gulf of Hammamet with an abundance of 15.07%. Conversely, other vulnerable shark species such as, the Bigeye Thresher Shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAlopias superciliosus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (Lowe, 1841), the starry smooth-hound shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eMustelus asterias\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Cloquet, 1819), the Silky Shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eCarcharhinus falciformus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (M\u0026uuml;ller \u0026amp; Henle, 1839), the sawback angel shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eSquatina aculeata\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (Cuvier, 1829) and the angular rough shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eOxynotus centrina\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (Linnaeus, 1758), were encountered with only a few individuals. These rare sharks collectively constituted less than 0.1% of the total shark catch, highlighting their precarious status within the area (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwelve of the 23 shark species, including \u003cem\u003eScyliorhinus canicula\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMustelus mustelus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSqualus megalops\u003c/em\u003e (Macleay, 1881), and \u003cem\u003eHeptranchias perlo\u003c/em\u003e (Bonnaterre, 1788), were present throughout the year with some variation. Other species, such as \u003cem\u003eCarcharhinus brevipinna\u003c/em\u003e (M\u0026uuml;ller \u0026amp; Henle, 1839), \u003cem\u003eGaleus melastomus\u003c/em\u003e (Rafinesque, 1810), \u003cem\u003eMustelus asterias\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOxynotus centrina\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSquatina aculeata\u003c/em\u003e, were landed during two specific seasons of the year. Meanwhile, the Bigeye Thresher shark and the silky shark were landed exclusively during the summer season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chi-square test revealed that shark abundance varies significantly across seasons (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The post-hoc Mann-Whitney U tests indicated that the most significant variation occurs between summer and winter (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Evaluating bycatch impacts by fishing gears\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Catch composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigation showed that six different fishing gears operating in the Gulf of Hammamet landed shark species as bycatch. The analysis of diversity indices for sharks across fishing gears off the Gulf of Hammamet highlighted significant variations in their impact on such species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrawlers emerged as the most impactful gear in term of species captured (S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19) with a Shannon-Wiener Index of H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.33. Among bycaught species, 8 are classified as Vulnerable (VU) and 2 as Critically Endangered (CR) according to the IUCN Red list. Bottom and pelagic longlines also contribute notably to shark bycatch, with 17 and 10 species, respectively. Pelagic longlines captured 4 Vulnerable and 2 Critically Endangered species, while bottom longlines reported the highest number of Vulnerable species (5). Both gears demonstrate a relatively high Shannon-Wiener Index, reflecting their efficiency in capturing a wide variety of shark species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Gillnets primarily captured species classified as Least Concern (LC) but also contributed to the bycatch of 4 Vulnerable and 4 Data Deficient (DD) species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, trammel nets and purse seines have the lowest species richness, capturing 5 and 4 species, respectively. Trammel nets included 1 Critically Endangered species, whereas purse seines primarily captured species with a lower conservation concern (LC and NT). The Shannon-Wiener Index values for trammel nets (H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.09) and purse seines (H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.67) suggest that their catches were dominated by one or a few shark species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversity indices of Sharks across different fishing gears operating in the Gulf of Hammamet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFishing Gears\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamilies\u0026rsquo; Number\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSharks Species Number\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies Richness (S)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon Weiner Index (H)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrawlers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBottom Longline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGillnets\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePelagic Longline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrammel Nets\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurse seine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Occurrence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Gulf of Hammamet exhibits a significant diversity in shark families, each interacting differently with various fishing gears (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). At least 11 shark families were recorded, with Scyliorhinidae, Triakidae, and Squalidae being the most prevalent. Notably, landings varied considerably depending on the fishing gear used (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Alopidae family, represented by the common thresher shark \u003cem\u003eAlopias vulpinus\u003c/em\u003e (Bonnaterre, 1788) and the bigeye thresher shark \u003cem\u003eAlopias superciliosus\u003c/em\u003e, showed a specific interaction with purse seines, trawlers, and pelagic longlines (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The bigeye thresher shark was exclusively landed by trawlers. In contrast, individuals of \u003cem\u003eA. vulpinus\u003c/em\u003e were recorded in purse seine catches and in pelagic longline catches (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The Carcharhinidae family was primarily landed by bottom (69.02%) and pelagic (29.75%) longlines, while trawlers and gillnets contributed to a minor catch (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, 90.98% of the sandbar shark \u003cem\u003eCarcharhinus plumbeus\u003c/em\u003e (Nardo, 1827) and 66.67% of the spinner shark were landed by bottom longlines (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, the blue shark \u003cem\u003ePrionace glauca\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758) was predominantly caught by pelagic longlines (92.21%), indicating a preference for open-water habitats (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Centrophoridae family represented by the little gulper shark \u003cem\u003eCentrophorus uyato\u003c/em\u003e (Rafinesque, 1810), was primarily landed by bottom longlines (82.95%). Trawlers and gillnets contributed to 15.01% and 2.04% of the total catch of this species, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The Dalatidae family, represented by the kitefin shark \u003cem\u003eDalatias licha\u003c/em\u003e (Bonnaterre, 1788), was mostly captured by trawlers (97.22%), with minimal occurrences in bottom longlines (2.78%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Hexanchidae family, represented by the bluntnose sixgill shark \u003cem\u003eHexanchus griseus\u003c/em\u003e (Bonnaterre, 1788) and the sharpnose sevengill shark \u003cem\u003eH. perlo\u003c/em\u003e, was primarily landed by trawlers (46.45%) and bottom longlines (43.52%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). More specifically, 58.87% of \u003cem\u003eH. griseus\u003c/em\u003e was landed by bottom longlines, whereas 62.73% of \u003cem\u003eH. perlo\u003c/em\u003e was caught by trawlers (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;line-height:150%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eTable 2 Checklist of shark species, including IUCN Status, recorded from Kelibia Harbour between 2020_2023\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border-collapse: collapse;border: none;width: 992px;\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86.8pt;border: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eFamily\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 120pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eSharks Species\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.9pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left: none;background:#DEEAF6;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:25.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eIUCN Status\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.5pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eNumber\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 54.1pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eS.R.A\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:34.85pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left: none;background:#DEEAF6;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:25.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eF.R.A\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eTrawlers\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65.3pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eBottom longline\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 43.45pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;background: rgb(222, 234, 246);padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New 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5.4pt;height: 13.1pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 13.1pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eCarcharhinidae\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 120pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 12.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eCarcharhinus brevipinna\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.9pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eNT\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 12.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.1pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:5.65pt;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:5.65pt;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0.08\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.4pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.4pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:57.9pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 120pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 13.1pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eCarcharhinus falciformus\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.9pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.1pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:5.65pt;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:5.65pt;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0.01\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 13.1pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 13.1pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:43.45pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.1pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.4pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.1pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.4pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.1pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003eCarcharhinus plumbeus\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e**\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.9pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.1pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New 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style=\"width:48.9pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.8pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 12.8pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e100\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 12.8pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e14404\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 12.8pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e1830\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:43.45pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.8pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e2194\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.4pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.8pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e296\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:54.4pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.8pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:57.9pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.8pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family: \"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Species listed in the annex II of the SPA/BD Protocol to the Barcelona Convention.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height:115%;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e**\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;line-height:115%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:#0D0D0D;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Species listed in the annex III of the SPA/BD Protocol to the Barcelona Convention.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lamnidae family, including the shortfin mako shark \u003cem\u003eIsurus oxyrinchus\u003c/em\u003e (Rafinesque, 1810) and the white shark \u003cem\u003eCarcharodon carcharias\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758), showed a strong association with pelagic longlines (73.45%), whereas gillnets and bottom longlines accounted for 11.50% and 10.62% of landings, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). More specifically, pelagic longlines accounted for 81.34% of \u003cem\u003eI. oxyrinchus\u003c/em\u003e landings, while gillnets represented 11.88%. Purse seines and bottom longlines each contributed 2.94% of the total mako shark catch. In contrast, the white shark \u003cem\u003eC. carcharias\u003c/em\u003e was primarily landed by bottom longlines (81.81%), whereas gillnets and trawlers contributed equally, each accounting for 9% of the total landings of this species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The Oxynotidae family, represented by the angular rough shark \u003cem\u003eO. centrina\u003c/em\u003e, was exclusively landed by trawlers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The Scyliorhinidae family, primarily represented by the small-spotted catshark \u003cem\u003eS. canicula\u003c/em\u003e, was principally captured by trawlers (90.02%), followed by gillnets (8.15%) and bottom longlines (1.43%). More specifically, 95% of \u003cem\u003eGaleus melastomus\u003c/em\u003e, 90% of \u003cem\u003eS. canicula\u003c/em\u003e, and 87.5% of the nurse-hound \u003cem\u003eScyliorhinus stellaris\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758) were landed by trawlers, making them the predominant species among the fourteen-shark species recorded with this fishing gear (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The sawback angelshark \u003cem\u003eS. aculeata\u003c/em\u003e belonging to the Squatinidae family, was exclusively landed by gillnets (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The Squalidae family, represented by the shortnose spurdog \u003cem\u003eS. megalops\u003c/em\u003e and the longnose spurdog \u003cem\u003eSqualus blainvillei\u003c/em\u003e (Risso, 1826), exhibited notable landings by trawlers (71.85%), gillnets (18.24%), and bottom longlines (8.62%). Specifically, 72.19% of \u003cem\u003eS. megalops\u003c/em\u003e and 71.29% of \u003cem\u003eS. blainvillei\u003c/em\u003e were landed by trawlers, while 19.25% and 16.61%, respectively, were caught by gillnets (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, bottom longlines contributed to only 7.24% of \u003cem\u003eS. megalops\u003c/em\u003e and 10.83% of \u003cem\u003eS. blainvillei\u003c/em\u003e landings. Similarly, the Triakidae family, including \u003cem\u003eM. mustelus\u003c/em\u003e and the Blackspotted smooth-hound shark \u003cem\u003eMustelus punctulatus\u003c/em\u003e (Risso, 1827), was also predominantly landed by trawlers (68.99%), followed by gillnets (19.37%) and bottom longlines (9.26%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). While trammel nets (0.42%) and pelagic longlines (1.97%) contributed minimally to smooth-hound landing. Notably, the starry smooth-hound \u003cem\u003eM. asterias\u003c/em\u003e was exclusively landed by trawlers (100%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, 71.4% of \u003cem\u003eM. punctulatus\u003c/em\u003e, 70.35% of \u003cem\u003eM. mustelus\u003c/em\u003e, and 42% of the school shark \u003cem\u003eGaleorhinus galeus\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758) were also landed by this gear (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Chi-Square test of independence revealed a highly significant relationship between shark families and fishing gear types (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.60e\u003csup\u003e-160\u003c/sup\u003e), indicating that the shark families\u0026rsquo; landing is influenced by the type of fishing gear employed. The post-hoc analysis highlighted several significant patterns. Carcharhinidae showed a notably stronger association with Pelagic longlines (standardized residual\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.20), indicating an overrepresentation of this family with this gear type. Conversely, Alopidae exhibited a significantly weaker association with Trawlers (standardized residual = -2.59), suggesting an underrepresentation of this family with this gear type. In contrast, the standardized residuals for Oxynotidae across all fishing gears were close to zero, indicating no significant deviation from the expected distribution. These findings, derived from the post-hoc analysis, elucidate the specific gear-family pairings that contribute to the significant dependence observed in the Chi-Square test, providing insights into the differential impacts of various fishing practices on shark populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seasonal landings of shark species across fishing gears indicate that the highest number of species was observed during the summer season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, these species were landed mainly by trawlers, bottom longlines, and gillnets. The number of species observed during winter and autumn was similar. However, species landed in autumn were primarily captured by trawlers, bottom longlines, and pelagic longlines, whereas those landed during winter were mainly caught by trawlers and gillnets (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the lowest number of species was observed during spring compared to the other seasons, where trawlers, gillnets, and bottom longline remaining the main gears involved (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. Catch Similarity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe similarities between the catches of sharks in the different fishing gears, expressed through the Jaccard index, are illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrawlers showed a moderate similarity with bottom longlines and gillnets, which suggests a certain overlap in the species caught. The slight similarity of trawlers with purse seiners indicates that these two techniques exploit different habitats ecological niches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePelagic longline had a higher similarity with bottom longline than with other gears, which reflects a certain continuity in the species targeted or the habitats exploited. However, trammel nets, shared limited similarities with other gears, which could reflect a specialization or a targeting of different species (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research investigates the biodiversity and status of sharks in the GSA 13 subarea within central Mediterranean Sea. It provides crucial insights into shark populations and sheds light on their diversity and relative abundance, within this ecologically important region. Furthermore, the study elucidates the impact of fishing gears operating in the area on shark species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigations showed that shark within the GSA 13 subarea, demonstrate a significant biodiversity, encompassing a total of twenty-three species belonging to eleven families. The ecological importance of the Gulf of Hammamet is underscored by the fact that these species account for 47.92% of the total shark species recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and 62.16% of those identified in Tunisian waters (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral sub-geographical areas off the Mediterranean, exhibit a higher shark species diversity compared to the study area. For instance, the investigations within Italian waters (eg. GSA09, GSA11_1, GSA10 and GSA16) confirmed the occurrence of 40 shark species (Serena et al. 2021). While observations in Greece (eg. GSA20) in Cypris (GSA23) report 34 species (Giovos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides, the Adriatic Sea (GSA17 and GSA18) hosts 33 species (Soldo and Lipej \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and 28 species were recorded in the Gulf of Gabes (GSA14) within Tunisian waters (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, other regions demonstrate similar or lower diversity: 23 species have been documented along the Syrian coasts (GSA27) Saad and Alkusairy (2023), 17 shark species occur in GSA25 (Alkusairy and Saad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; O\u0026rsquo;Keefe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), 16 species are identified in Turkish waters (GSA24; Kabasakal and Bilecenoğlu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), 15 species are recorded along the Algerian coasts (GSA04; Inal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and only 13 species have been noted along the Libyan coasts (GSA21) (Shakman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These inter-regional differences in species richness may be attributed to various environmental factors, species-specific ecological behaviours, and the selectivity of the fishing gears employed in each area. Indeed, the fishing effort, the diverse mix of fishing gears used in the Gulf of Hammamet, including both pelagic and bottom gears, which have been employed over the years, has significantly contributed to the observation of remarkable shark diversity in this region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral species previously documented in the area such as \u003cem\u003eOdontaspis ferox\u003c/em\u003e (Ben Amor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eCetorhinus maximus, Sphyrna zygaena, Carcharias taurus, Etmopterus spinax, Squatina oculata\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSquatina squatina\u003c/em\u003e (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) were not recorded during our investigation. T-appearance of these species while the fishing effort in the area may be attributed to several factors, including the rarity (or potential local extinction) of some species, the fact that the fishing ground used by fishing gears differed from habitats of these species. Furthermore, species-specific biological behaviours, the intensity of fishing activities, and the unique characteristics of each fishing zone likely contribute to these observed differences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Scyliorhinidae, Triakidae and Squalidae families were the most abundant among sharks\u0026rsquo; families landed in the Gulf of Hammamet. These results are comparable with those observed in the Gulf of Gabes, where Triakidae and Carcharhinidae are commonly landed throughout the year as bycatch by trammel nets, gillnets, bottom trawls, and longline (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most abundant species were the small-spotted catshark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eScyliorhinus canicula\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, the common smooth-hound \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eMustelus mustelus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, S\u003cem\u003equalus megalops\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMustelus punctulatus\u003c/em\u003e very common species in Tunisian coasts and caught frequently along the year (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, rare species such as the Bigeye Thresher Shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAlopias superciliosus\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, recently added to the Tunisian shark species list (Bouzidi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), the Sawback Angel Shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eSquatina aculeata\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;, previously reported in the Gulf of Gabes (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and the silky shark \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eCarcharhinus falciformis\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of theses rare species emphasizes the Gulf of Hammamet's ecological significance and the precarious status of some shark populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral shark species were present throughout the year with some variation and others were landed during two or one specific seasons. This observation aligns with studies which have shown migrations of elasmobranch species towards northern areas, including restricted areas such as the Tunis Southern Lagoon (Mejri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). These migrations and breeding behaviours are largely influenced by hydrobiological variations, particularly temperature, as marine waters throughout the Mediterranean Sea are becoming warmer (Francour et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Ben Rais Lasram and Mouillot \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the indiscriminate nature of most gear types, sharks are frequently caught incidentally (Oliver et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, elasmobranchs are not targeted directly, they are commonly captured as by-catch (Bradai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Where Small-scale fisheries represent an important part, often a major part, of the fishing activity of many countries (Shester and Micheli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlong the Tunisian coasts, elasmobranchs are primarily landed by small-scale vessels using gillnets, trammel nets, and longlines, followed by bottom trawls (Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The impact of different fishing gears on elasmobranch biodiversity in the Gulf of Hammamet exhibits significant variations. Most elasmobranch species caught by small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean are demersal species (Carpentieri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Findings indicated that coastal and demersal fishing gears like trawlers, bottom longlines, Gillnets and trammel nets land exclusively demersal species such as, the catsharks \u003cem\u003eScyliorhinus canicula\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMustelus spp\u003c/em\u003e., the sandbar shark \u003cem\u003eCarcharhinus plumbeus\u003c/em\u003e and the bluntnose sixgill shark \u003cem\u003eHexanchus griseus\u003c/em\u003e. These results align with findings from other studies, where shark species are frequently affected by demersal fishing gears (Hamdaoui \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Echwikhi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Enajjar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Falsone et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Keznine et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe substantial impact of demersal fishing gears underscores the urgent need for conservation measures; notably hook modifications, spatial and temporal restrictions to mitigate their effects on vulnerable shark populations. Pelagic fishing gears such as purse seines and pelagic longlines, primarily targeting tuna and swordfish, also result in incidental shark captures and contribute to the bycatch of highly migratory species (Dulvy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Shannon-Wiener Index values across all fishing gears remained below 3, with an average of 1, suggesting habitat degradation and ecological stress. The lowest values, observed for purse seines and trammel nets, indicated reduced species diversity and potential overexploitation. Studies in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea, show a diversity indices ranging from 2.31 in the southern regions to lower values in the northern sectors (Lteif \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, in the South Atlantic (Ghana), dominant species exhibited low biodiversity, with an average H value of 0.9 (Amponsah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The consistently low H values in our study suggest that the structure of shark populations is under pressure, likely due to increased fishing effort and associated habitat degradation. These results reinforce the need for stringent fisheries management policies to prevent further biodiversity loss and ensure the long-term sustainability of shark populations in the Gulf of Hammamet and beyond.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant association between gear types and shark families, as evidenced by the Chi-Square test, highlights distinct gear-family interactions, with a strong correlation between Carcharhinidae and pelagic longlines and the underrepresentation of Alopidae in trawl catches. These findings emphasize the necessity of an integrated fishery management approach that accounts for the synergistic impact of multiple fishing methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeasonal patterns in the relative abundance of elasmobranchs are generally related to reproduction, migration and foraging (May 2009; Naylor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The seasonal distribution of shark landings in the study area, provides valuable insights into the relationship between shark movement patterns and fishing gear efficiency across different seasons. The summer emerged as the season with highest number of species observed while the number of species observed during winter and autumn was similar. The highest number of species during summer could be due to the fact that most species approach the coasts for reproduction which make them susceptible to most fishing gears. Furthermore, the seasonal patterns may be influenced by the fishing ground exploited. For example, deep-water species are exploited by fishermen during autumn and winter as sharks do not need to move into shallower waters for forage (Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Cabello and S\u0026aacute;nchez 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed seasonal variation in gear efficiency aligns with the findings of King and Surry (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), who\u0026rsquo;s noted that sharks adjust their depth preferences based on local foraging opportunities, with shallower waters being more prominent in warmer months. The results support the idea of size segregation and habitat specialization in sharks, as different species may occupy specific depth zones, minimizing direct competition for food resources or habitats (King and Surry \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seasonal distribution of shark catches and the associated fishing gear demonstrate a clear relationship between shark behaviour, prey availability, and fishing methods. The similarities between the catches of sharks in the different fishing gears highlights complex interactions between fishing practices and marine ecosystems. Gears with a high similarity (bottom longlines and pelagic longlines) could exert cumulative pressure on the same populations of species, increasing the risks of overfishing. Low overlap gear (purse seiners and trawlers) indicates an ecological segregation in their fishing ground or target species, which could reduce their direct competition for resources. The diversity in catches observed for certain gears; could reflect their adaptability in different habitats, but it could also increase the risk of interaction with vulnerable or protected species. Fixed gillnets and trammel nets tend to catch many sharks (Coelho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Scacco et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the IUCN Red List, over 74% of the shark species identified in this study are threatened, falling into categories of Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable. Among the 11 shark families identified, 54% are with all species threatened such as, Alopidae, Centrophoridae, Dalatidae, Lamnidae, Oxynotidae and Squatinidae families (Dulvy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Bycatch mitigation measures, including time-area closures, gear modifications, and species-specific regulations, should be prioritized to reduce the bycatch of Vulnerable and Critically Endangered species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOver 74% of the shark species landed by fishing gears in the Gulf of Hammamet are classified as threatened, falling into the Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable categories. Notably, in 54% of the families identified, every species is considered threatened; these include the families Alopidae, Centrophoridae, Dalatidae, Lamnidae, Oxynotidae, and Squatinidae. This study highlights the critical importance of the Gulf of Hammamet as a habitat for diverse shark species and elucidates the complex interactions between these species and the various fishing gears operating in the region. By providing a comprehensive shot of local shark biodiversity, the research updates previous knowledge and fills significant gaps regarding their presence in the Mediterranean basin, particularly along Tunisian coasts. Moreover, the study examines how fishing practices impact these vulnerable species, in order to develop a standardized monitoring protocol of conservation. Key management strategies include establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in critical zones, strengthening fishing regulations, implementing area closures as biological refuges, and promoting sustainable fishing practices. In addition, long-term monitoring, further research, community engagement, and adaptation to climate change are essential. Also, adaptive management approaches must be integrated to address emerging threats and mitigate anthropogenic impacts, with findings incorporated into marine spatial planning for future coastal and offshore developments, including the implementation of spatial and temporal restrictions to protect sharks during their critical life stages.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests and Funding\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cp\u003e No funding has been received to conduct this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo animal testing was performed during this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSampling and field studies\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll necessary permits for sampling and observational field studies have been obtained by the authors from the competent authorities and are mentioned in the acknowledgements, if applicable. The study is compliant with CBD and Nagoya protocols.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study realization. \u003cb\u003eBechir SAIDI\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003eSamira ENAJJAR\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003eMohamed Nejemeddine BRADAI\u003c/b\u003e set up the research protocol, and followed its realization. \u003cb\u003eIchrak BOUZIDI\u003c/b\u003e conducted the fieldwork, carried out data collection and analyses, and wrote the first version of the paper and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe thank the fishermen from Kelibia harbour (Tunisia) on finding and providing information about the specimens exanimated. The kind and hard assistance during the surveys of the staff of the Ports and Fishing Facilities Agency (APIP) And the Fishing Guards of the regional delegation for agricultural development in Nabeul, (Maritime Fishing Departments in Kelibia) is highly appreciated. The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions that greatly improved the final version of this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlkusairy H, Saad A (2018) Species composition, diversity and length frequency of by-catch sharks from the Syrian coast. 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Dissertation, university of tunis elmanar\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"marine-biodiversity","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"marb","sideBox":"Learn more about [Marine Biodiversity](http://link.springer.com/journal/12526)","snPcode":"12526","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/marb/default2.aspx","title":"Marine Biodiversity","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Bycatch, Biodiversity, Shark Conservation, Fishery interactions, Gulf of Hammamet","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6300047/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6300047/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the biodiversity and status of sharks in the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) Geographical subareas 13, the Gulf of Hammamet (Tunisia). It provides insights into shark diversity, abundance, seasonal occurrence and the impact of fisheries on their population based on inspection of fishery landings through 2020\u0026ndash;2023. A total of 23 shark species belonging to 11 families were recorded, with over 74% classified as threatened according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Analyses found that shark occurrence varied across fishing gears, with trawlers being the most impactful in terms of species. Pelagic and bottom longlines also contributed significantly to bycatch. Gillnets and trammel nets, while less impactful, still caught several vulnerable species. Seasonal variation in shark occurrence was noted, with higher landing observed in winter and autumn. The analysis revealed a strong association between shark families and fishing gear types, emphasizing selective bycatch patterns. The findings underscore the need for targeted conservation measures to reduce bycatch and protect the most vulnerable shark species in the Gulf of Hammamet.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Diversity, occurrence and status of sharks in the Gulf of Hammamet (Central Mediterranean Sea)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-23 06:02:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6300047/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revisions Needed","date":"2025-06-03T03:36:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-04-02T08:45:38+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-02T08:34:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Marine Biodiversity","date":"2025-03-28T13:31:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-27T02:09:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Marine Biodiversity","date":"2025-03-25T00:46:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"marine-biodiversity","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"marb","sideBox":"Learn more about [Marine Biodiversity](http://link.springer.com/journal/12526)","snPcode":"12526","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/marb/default2.aspx","title":"Marine Biodiversity","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a78b7137-654e-47c9-8ec2-41a66c1a5823","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-27T16:39:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6300047","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-025-01584-3","journal":{"identity":"marine-biodiversity","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Marine Biodiversity"},"publishedOn":"2025-10-20 16:17:15","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 20th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-23 06:02:59","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12526-025-01584-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-025-01584-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6300047","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6300047","identity":"rs-6300047","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}